L  I  E)  R.A  FLY 
OF  THE 
U  N  I  VER.S  ITY 
or  ILLINOIS 


031 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/aldensmanifoldcy10alde 


ALDEN'S 


Manifold  Cyclopedia 


OF 


KNOWLEDGE  AND  LANGUAGE. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


VOL.  10. 
COSMOGRAPHY— DEBRY. 


NEW  YORK  : 
JOHN    B.    ALDEN,  PUBLISHER. 
1888. 


Copyright,  1888, 

BY 

THE  ALDEN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY*. 


•ARGYLE  PRESS, 

f>RINTING  AND  BOOKB^NtMNG, 
24  A  26  WOOSTER  8T.,  N.  Y. 


051 
/.  /o 


SCHEME  OF  SOUND  SYMBOLS 

FOE  THE  PE(mUNCIATION  OF  WOIJDS. 


iSbte.— (-)  is  the  mark  dividing  words  respelt  phonetically  Into  syl- 
lables; (').  the  accent  indicating  on  which  syllable  or  syllables  the 
accent  or  stress  of  the  voice  is  to  be  placed. 


m5Ss  em^'Kepresenting  the  Sounds  as  SouJd^w^ok  an^Mark., 
RCp'Sfing.  "'^  for'Cnunclatln^'''' 

a... mate,  fate,  fail,  aye  mdt,fdt,fdl,  d. 

d. .  .mat,  fat  mat,  fat. 

d. .  .far,  calm,  father  .far,  kdm,fd'ther, 

d,  ,. care,  fair  car, far. 

.      .fall,  laud,  law   fawl,  lawd,  law. 

€, .  .mete,  meat,  feet,  free  met,  met,  fit,  f re. 

6. .  .met,  bed  met,  bed. 

e.  .  .her,  stir,  heard,  cur   .her,  ster,  herd,  ker, 

I . .  .pine,  ply,  height  pin,  pli,  hit. 

i. .  .pin,  nymph,  ability  pm,  nimf,  d-bU'i-tl, 

0. .  .note,  toll,  soul  not,  tdl,  sol. 

6.  .  .not,  plot  .not,  plot. 

*   6. .  .move,  smooth  mov,  smoth. 

0.  .  .Groethe  (similar  to  e  in  her). .  .go'teh. 

ow.  .noun,  bough,  cow  nx)wn,  how,  how, 

oy  .  .boy,  boil  boy,  boy  I. 

u. .  .pure,  dew,  few  pur,  du,fu. 

u. .  .bud,  come,  tough  biid,  hum,  tuf. 

t^. .  .full,  push,  good  ful,  push,  gud. 

u. .  .French  plume,  Scotch  guid.  .plum,  gild. 

c^..  .chair,  match   chdr,mdch. 

cA...  German    buch,  Heidelberg, 

Scotch  loch  (guttural)  boch,  hi' del-berch,  loch, 

g  game,  go,  gun . . ,  gdm,  go,  gun. 

j  judge,  gem,  gin   .juj,  jem,  jm. 

k.  . .  king,  cat,  cot,  cut  king,  kdt,  kot,  kut. 

s — sit,  scene,  cell,  city,  cypress,  .sit,  sen,  sel,  sit'%,  si' pres. 

5A.,.shun,  ambition  shun,  dm-bish'un. 

^A... thing,  breath  thing,  breth. 

^...though,  breathe  tho,  breth. 

z  zeal,  maze,  muse  zel,  mdz,  muz. 

azure,  vision  dzh'er,  mzh'un. 


ABBEEVIATIONS  FSED  IN  THIS  WOEK. 


ft.,  or  adj. . .  .adjective. 


A.  B  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

abbr  abbreviation,  abbre- 
viated. 

abl  ablative. 

Abp  Archbishop. 

abt  about. 

Acad  Academy. 

acc  accusative. 

act  active. 

A.  D  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord. 

ad.  or  adv.  .adverb. 

aft  after. 

Adjt  Adjutant. 

Adm  Admiral. 

Ag  Silver  (Argentum). 

agri  agriculture. 

Al  Aluminium. 

Ala  Alabama. 

alg  algebra. 

A.  M  before  noon. 

A.  M  Master  of  Arts. 

Am  Amos. 

Amer  America,  American. 

anat  anatomy,  anatomi- 
cal. 

anc  ancient,  anciently. 

An.  M  in  the  year  of  "^the 

vi^orld. 

anon  anonymous. 

antiq  antiquity,  antiqui- 
ties. 

aor  aorist,  aoristic. 

Apr  April. 

Ar  Arabic. 

arch   architecture. 

archaeol...  archaeology. 

arith  arithmetic. 

Ark  Arkansas. 

art  article. 

artil  artillery. 

AS.  or  A.  Sax .  Anglo-Saxon. 

As   Arsenic. 

Assoc  Association, 

asst  assistant. 

astrol  astrology. 

astron  astronomy. 

attor  attorney. 

at.  wt  atomic  vreight. 

Au  Gold  (Aurum). 

A.  U.  C  in  the  year  from  the 

building  of  Rome. 

Aug  August. 

aug  augmentative. 

Aust  Austrian. 

A.  V  authorized  version 

(of  Bible),  1611. 
avoird  avoirdupois. 

B  Boron. 


B   Britannic. 

b.  .   born. 

Ba  Barium. 

Bart  Baronet. 

Bav  Bavarian  dialect. 

bl.,  bbl  barrel,  barrels. 

B.  C  before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L  Bachelor    of  Civil 

Law. 

B.  D  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

bef  before. 

Belg  Belgic. 

Bi  Bismuth. 

biog  biography  ,biograph» 

ical. 

biol  biology. 

B.  L  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

Bohem.  Bohemian. 

bot  botany,  botanical. 

Bp.  Bishop. 

Br  Bromine. 

Braz  Brazilian. 

Brig   Brigadier. 

Brit  British,  Britannica. 

bro  brother. 

Bulg  Bulgarian. 

bush  bushel,  bushels. 

C  Carbon. 

c  century. 

c  city. 

Ca  ...Calcium. 

Cal  California. 

Camb  Cambridge. 

Can  Canada. 

Cant  Canterbury. 

cap  capital. 

Capt  Captain, 

Card  Cardinal. 

carp  carpentry. 

Catal  Catalonian. 

Cath  Catholic. 

caus  causative. 

cav..   cavalry. 

Cd  Cadmium. 

Ce  Cerium. 

Celt  Celtic. 

Chal  Chaldee. 

chem.  chemistry, chemical 

chh  church. 

Chin  Chinese. 

Chron  Chronicles. 

chron  chronology. 

CI  Chlorine. 

Class  Classical  (  =  Greek 

and  Latin). 

Co  Cobalt. 

Co  Company. 

CO  county. 

cog  cognate,  cognate 

with, 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Col  Colonel. 

Col  Colossians. 

Coll  College. 

colloq  colloquial. 

Colo  Colorado. 

Com  Commodore. 

com  commerce. 

comp.,  compare. 

compar  comparative. 

conch  conchology. 

cong  congress. 

Congl.  Congregational. 

conj  conjunction. 

Conn  Connecticut. 

contr  contraction,  con- 
tracted. 

Cop  Coptic. 

Cor  Corinthians. 

corr  corresponding. 

Corn  Cornish. 

Cr  Chromium. 

crystal  crystallography. 

Cs  Caesium. 

ct  cent. 

Cu  Copper  (Cuprum). 

cwt  a  hundred  weight. 

Cyc  Cyclopaedia. 

Cym  Cymric. 

D  Didymium. 

D.  or Dut.... Dutch, 
d  died. 

d.  (1.  s.  d.)... penny,  pence. 
Dak  Dakota. 

Dan  Daniel. 

Dan  Danish. 

dat   .dative. 

dau  daughter. 

D.  C   District  of  Columbia 

D.  C.  L  Doctor  of  Civil  (or 

Common)  Law. 

D.  D  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Dec  December. 

dec  declension. 

def  definite,  definition. 

deg  degree,  degrees. 

Del  Delaware. 

Del  Delegate,  Delegates 

Dem  Democratic. 

Dep  Deputy,  Deputies. 

dep  deponent. 

dept  department. 

deri V  derivation ,  deriva- 
tive. 

Deut  Deuteronomy. 

dial  dialect,  dialectic. 

diam  diameter. 

Die  Dictionary. 

dim  diminutive. 

dist  district. 

distrib  distributive. 

div  division. 

doz  dozen. 

Dr  Doctor. 

dr   ...dram,  drams. 

dram  drama,  dramatic. 

d  wt  pennyweight. 

dyn  dynamics. 

E  Erbium. 

e  east,  eastern. 

E.,  Eng  English. 

Eccl  Ecclesiastes. 

eccles  ecclesiastical. 

ed  edited,  edition,  edi- 
tor. 


e.  g  for  example, 

Egypt  Egyptian. 

elect —  electricity. 

Emp  Emperor. 

Encyc  Encyclopaedia. 

engin  engineering. 

engr  engraving. 

entom  entomology. 

env.  ext. . . .  c envoy  extraordi- 
nary. 

ep  epistle. 

Eph  Ephesians. 

Epis  Episcopal. 

eq  equal,  equals. 

equiv  equivalent. 

Est  Esther. 

estab  established. 

etc  and  others  like. 

Eth  Ethiopic. 

ethn  ethnography,  eth- 

nology. 

et  seq  and  the  following, 

etym  etymology. 

Eur  European. 

Ex  Exodus. 

exclam  exclamation. 

Ezek  Ezekiel. 

Ezr  Ezra. 

F  Fluorine. 

f  father. 

Fahr  Fahrenheit. 

Fe  Iron  (Ferrum). 

Feb  February. 

fern  feminine. 

fig  figure,  figuratively. 

Finn  Finnish. 

Fl  Flemish. 

Fla  Florida. 

for  foreign. 

fort  fortification. 

Fr  French. 

fr  from. 

f  req  frequentative, 

Fris  Frisian. 

ft  foot,  feet. 

fut  future. 

G  Glucinium. 

Ga  Gallium. 

Gael  Gaelic. 

Gal  Galatians. 

gal  gallon. 

gal  V  galvanism,galvanic 

Gen  General. 

Gen   Genesis. 

gen.  or 

genit  genitive. 

Geo.  Georgia. 

geog  geography. 

geol  geology. 

geom  geometry. 

Ger   German. 

Goth   Gothic. 

Gov   Governor. 

govt  government. 

Gr  Grand. 

Gr  Greek. 

gr  grain,  grains. 

gram  grammar. 

H  Hydrogen. 

h  hour,  hours. 

Hab  Habakkuk. 

Hag  Haggai. 

H.  B.  M  His  (or  Her)  Britan- 
nic Majesty, 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Heb   Hebrew,  Hebrews. 

her  heraldry. 

Hg  Mercury,  Hydrar- 
gyrum. 

hhd  hogshead,  hogs- 
heads. 

Hind  Hindostanee,  Hin- 
du, or  Hindi. 

hist  history,  historical. 

Hon  Honorable. 

hort  horticulture. 

Hos  Hosea. 

Hung  Hungarian. 

hydros  hydrostatics. 

I  Iodine. 

I.,  Is  Island,  Islands. 

i.,  or  in tran. intransitive. 

Icel  Icelandic. 

ich  ichthyology. 

Ida  Idaho. 

i.e  that  is. 

HI  Illinois. 

illus  illustration. 

Imp. .   Imperial. 

imper  imperative. 

nnperf  imperfect. 

impers  impersonal. 

In  Indium. 

in   inch,  inches. 

incept  inceptive. 

Ind  Indiana. 

ind  indicative. 

indef  indefinite. 

Indo-Eur  Indo-European. 

inf  infantry. 

inf  infinitive. 

int  interest. 

intens  intensive. 

interj  interjection. 

introd  introduction. 

lo  Iowa. 

Ir  Iridium. 

Ir  .Irish. 

Iran  Iranian. 

irr  irregular. 

Is  Isaiah. 

It..  Italian. 

Jan  January. 

Jas  James. 

Jer   Jeremiah. 

Jn  John. 

Josh  Joshua. 

Jr  Junior. 

Judg  Judges. 

Jul  July. 

K  Potassium  (Kalium) 

K  Kings  (in  Bible). 

k  king. 

Kan  Kansas. 

Kt  Knight. 

Ky  Kentucky. 

Jj  Latin. 

Ii  Lithium. 

1.  (1.  s.  d.) . . . .  pound,  pounds 
(sterling). 

La  Lanthanium. 

La  Louisiana. 

Lam  Lamentations. 

lang  language. 

lat  latitude. 

lb.,  lib  pound,  pounds 

(vreight). 

Lett  Lettish. 

Lev  Leviticus. 


L.  G. .   Low  German. 

Lieut  Lieutenan  t. 

Linn  Linnaeus,  LinnaeiU 

lit  literal,  literally. 

Lith  Lithuanian. 

L.  L  Late    Latin,  Low 

Latin. 

LL.D  Doctor  of  Laws, 

Ion  longitude. 

M  Monsieur. 

m  mile,  miles. 

M.  A  Master  of  Arts. 

Mace  Maccabees. 

mach  machinery. 

Mag  Magazine. 

Maj  Major. 

Mai  Malachi. 

manuf  manufactures. 

Mar  March. 

masc  masculine. 

Mass   Massachusetts. 

math  mathematics,  math- 
ematical. 

Matt  Matthew. 

M.  D  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Md  Maryland. 

Me  Maine. 

mech         ..mechanics,  me- 
chanical. 

med  medicine,  medical. 

Med.  L  Mediaeval  Latin. 

mem  member. 

mensur  mensuration. 

Messrs.  or 
MM  Gentlemen,  Sirs. 

metal  metallurgy. 

metaph  metaphysics,  meta- 
physical. 

meteor  meteorology. 

Meth  Methodist. 

Mex  Mexican. 

Mg  Magnesium. 

M.  H.  G  Middle  High  Ger- 

man. 

Mic  Micah. 

Mich  Michigan. 

mid  middle  (voice). 

milit   military. 

min  minute,  minutesi. 

mineral  mineralogy. 

Minn  Minnesota. 

Min.  Plen.  ..Minister Plenipotenf 
tiary. 

Miss  Mississippi. 

Mile.  Mademoiselle. 

Mme  Madam. 

Mn  Manganese. 

Mo   Missouri. 

Mo   Molybdenum. 

mod  modern. 

Mont  Montana. 

Mr  Master  (Mister). 

Mrs  Mistress  (Missis). 

MS. ,  MSS  Manuscript,  Manu- 
scripts. 

Mt  Mount,  mountain. 

mus  music. 

Mus.  Doc  Doctor  of  Music. 

myth  mythology,  mytho- 
logical. 

N   .Nitrogen. 

N  Norse,  Norwegian, 

n  north,  northern, 

northward. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


n  noun. 

Na  Sodium  (Natrium). 

Nah  Nahum. 

nat  natural. 

naut  nautical. 

navig  navig^ation. 

Nb  Niobium. 

N.  Car  North  Carolina. 

Neb   Nebraska. 

neg  negative. 

Neh  Nehemiah. 

neut   neuter. 

Nev. .:  Nevada. 

N.  Ham  New  Hampshire. 

N.  H.  G  New  High  Ger- 
man. 

Ni  Nickel. 

N.  Jer  New  Jersey. 

N.  Mex  New  Mexico. 

N.  T.,  or 

N.  Test  New  Testament. 

N.  Y  New  York. 

nom  nominative. 

Norm  Norman. 

North.  E  . . .  Northern  English. 

"Nov  November. 

Num   Numbers. 

numis  numismatics. 

O  Ohio. 

O   Oxygen. 

Chad  Obadiah. 

obj  objective. 

obs., or t  ...obsolete. 

obsoles  obsolescent. 

O.  Bulg  Old  Bulgarian. 

Oct  October. 

OE  Old  English. 

OF.  or  O.  Fr.Old  French. 

O.  H.  G  Old  High  German. 

Ont  Ontario. 

O.  Prus  Old  Prussian. 

Or  Oregon. 

ord  ordnance. 

orig  original. 

ocnith  ornithology. 

Os  Osmium. 

O.  Sax  Old  Saxon. 

O.  T.,  or 

O.  Test. . .  .Old  Testament. 

Oxf  Oxford. 

ojB  ounce,  ounces. 

P  Phosphorus. 

p.,  pp  page,  pages. 

p.,  or  part. .  .participle. 

paleon  paleontology. 

pari  parliament. 

pass  passive. 

pathol  pathology. 

Pb  Lead  (Plumbum). 

Pd  Palladium. 

pejor  pejorative. 

Penn  Pennsylvania. 

Per   Persic  or  Persian, 

perf  perfect. 

pers  person. 

persp  perspective. 

Peruv  Peruvian. 

Pet  Peter. 

Pg  Portuguese. 

phar  pharmacy. 

Ph.D  Doctor  of  Philoso- 
phy. 

Phil  Philippians. 

Fhilexn. .  .Philemon. 


philol  philology,  philo- 
logical. 

philos  philosophy,  philo- 
sophical. 

Phen  Phoenician, 

photog  photography. 

phren  phrenology. 

phys  physical,physiology 

physiol  physiology,  physi- 
ological. 

PI  Plate. 

pi  plural. 

PI.  D  Piatt  Deutsch. 

plupf  pluperfect. 

P.  M  after  noon. 

pneum  pneumatics. 

P.  O  Post  Office. 

poet  poetical. 

Pol  Polish. 

pol.  econ  —  political  economy, 

pop.   population. 

poss  possessive. 

PP  pages. 

pp  past  participle. 

p.  pr  present  participle, 

Pr  Provencal. 

prep  preposition. 

Presb  Presbyterian. 

Pres  President, 

pres  present. 

pret  preterite. 

prim  primitive. 

priv  privative. 

prob  probably. 

Prof  Professor, 

pro  pronoun. 

pron  pronunciation,  pro* 

nounced. 

pros.   prosody. 

Prov  Proverbs. 

prov  province,  or  provin- 
cial. 

Ps  Psalm,  Psalms. 

psychol  psychology, 

pt  pint. 

Pt  Platinum. 

pub  published,  publish- 
er. 

pwt  pennyweight, 

Q  Quebec  . 

qt  quart. 

qtr  quarter  (28  lbs.)» 

qu  query. 

K  Rhodium. 

r.,  or  riv  river. 

Rb  Rubidiuna 

q.v  which  see. 

Rom.  Cath.. Roman  Catholic. 

rec.  sec  recording  secretary 

Ref  Reformed. 

refl   reflex. 

reg  regular. 

rel.  pro  relative  pronoun. 

rep  representation. 

Rev  Revelation. 

Rev  Reverend. 

Rev.  V  Revised  Version. 

rhet  rhetoric,  rhetoricaL 

R.  I  Rhode  Island. 

Rom  Roman,  Romans. 

r.r  railroad. 

Rt  Right. 

Ru  Ruthenium. 

Rua.  « .  .^.^ .  .Eussiau. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


r.w  railway. 

B  Sulphur. 

B  second,  seconds. 

B  shilling,  shillings. 

S.  or  s  south,  southern, 

southward. 

Sam  Samuel. 

Bax  Saxon. 

Bb  Antimony  (Stibi- 
um). 

Sc..  Scotch. 

Bcand  Scandinavian. 

B.  Car  South  Carolina. 

Bcr  sciniple,  scruples. 

Scrip  Scripture,  Scriptu- 
ral. 

Bculp  sculpture. 

Be  Selenium. 

sec  secretary. 

sec  section. 

Sem  Semitic. 

Sep  September. 

Berv  Servian. 

Si  Silicon. 

sing  singular. 

sis  sister. 

Skr  Sanskrit. 

Slav  Slavonic,  Slavic. 

Sn  Tin  (Stannum). 

Soc  Society. 

Song  Sol ....  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sp   Spanish. 

Bp.  gr  specific  gravity. 

Bq  square. 

Br  Senior. 

Sr  Strontium. 

Bt  Saint. 

Bt  street. 

Btat  statute. 

B.  T.  D  Doctor  of  Sacred 

Theology. 

Bubj  subjunctive. 

suf  suffix. 

Buperl  superlative. 

Supp  Supplement. 

Supt  Superintendent. 

surg  surgery,  surgical. 

Surv  surveying. 

Sw  Swedish. 

sym   .symbol. 

syn  synonym. 

Syr  Syriac. 

t  town. 

tr  transitive. 

Ta. .   Tantalum. 

Tart  Tartar. 

Te  Tellurium. 

technol  technology. 


teleg  telegraphy. 

Tenn  Tennessee. 

terr  territory. 

term  termination. 

Teut  Teutonic. 

Tex  Texas. 

Th  Thorium. 

theol   theology,  theolog- 

ical. 

Thess  Thessalonians. 

Ti  Titanium. 

Tim  Timothy. 

Tit  Titus. 

Tl.  ..   Thallium. 

toxicol  toxicology. 

trigon  trigonometry. 

Turk  Turkish. 

typog  typography,  typo- 
graphical. 

U  Uranium. 

Unit  .Unitarian. 

Univ  Universalist. 

Un  iv  University. 

U.  Presb.  ...United  Presbyters 
an. 

U.  S  United  States. 

Ut  Utah. 

V  Vanadium. 

V  verb. 

Va  Virginia. 

var  variety  (of  species). 

Vt  Vermont. 

V.  1  verb  intransitive. 

vill  village. 

viz  namely. 

V.  n  verb  neuter. 

voc  vocative. 

vol  volume. 

vols  volunteers. 

V.  tr  verb  transitive. 

W  Tungsten  (Wolf- 
ram). 

W  Welsh. 

w  west,    western,  , 

westward. 

Wash  Washington. 

Wis  Wisconsin. 

wt  weight, 

W.  Va  West  Virginia. 

Wyo  Wyoming. 

Y  Yttrium. 

yd  yard. 

yr  year. 

Zech  Zechariah. 

Zeph  Zephaniah. 

Zn  Zinc. 

zool  zoology,  zoological. 

Zr  Zirconium. 


Manifold  Cyclopedia. 


COSMOGRAPHY,  n.  koz-mog'rd-fl  [Gr.  kosmos,  the 
world;  grapfio,  I  describe,  I  write  of:  F.  cosmograpMe]:  a 
description  of  the  world  or  universe;  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  several  parts  of  the  universe,  their  laws  and  re- 
lations, and  therefore  comprehends  geography,  geology,  and 
astronomy.  Cosmog'kapher,  n.  -ra-fer,  one  who  describes 
the  world  or  universe.  Cos'mogkaph  ical,  a.  -mo-graf  i-kdl, 

COS  MOGRAPH  ICALLY,  ad.  -U. 

COSMOLABE,  n.  koz'mo-ldb  [Gr.  kosmos,  the  world; 
lambano,  I  take]:  instrument  for  taking  the  angles  between 
the  heavenly  bodies  and  their  height.  It  was  nearly  the  same 
as  the  astrolabe. 

COSMOLATRY,  koz  moV a-tri  [kosraos,  the  world;  latreiay 
divine  worship] :  the  w^orship  of  the  world.  In  some  cases 
it  might  rest  on  a  foundation  of  pantheistic  belief. 

COSMOLOGY,  n.  k6z-mvl'6-ji  [Gr.  kosmos,  the  world; 
logos,  a  discourse:  F.  cosmologie]:  science  (or  rather  specu- 
lation) as  to  the  system  oi  the  universe  and  the  nature  of  the 
world  and  material  things;  used  sometimes  in  same  sense 
as  Cosmogony  (q.v.).  Cosmol'ogist,  n.  one  who  writes  of. 
Cos'molog'ical,  a.  -mb-loj'i-kdl.    Cos'molog'ically,  ad. 

COSMOMETRY,  n.  koz-mom' et-ri  [Gr.  kosmos,  the  world; 
metron,  a  measure] :  the  science  which  measures  the  world. 

COSMOPLASTIC,  a.  koz'md-plds'm  [Gr.  kosmos,  the 
world;  ^te^^ to,  plastic] :  world-forming;  pertaining  to  the 
formation  of  the  world. 

COSMOPOLITAN,  n.  koz'md-pbl'i-tdn,  or  Cosmop'o- 
LiTE,  n.  -mbp'6-Ut  [Gr.  kosmos,  the  world;  polltPs,  a  citizen: 
F.  cosmopolite]:  one  w^ho  is  at  home  everywhere;  a  citizen 
of  the  world.  Cos  mopol'itanism,  n.  -md-p6l' l-tdn-izm,  cit- 
izenship cf  the  world. 

COSMORAMA,  n.  koz'md-rd'md  [Gr.  kosm/>s,  the  world; 
{h)ordma,  a  view] :  an  optical  exhibition  in  which  objects  are 
represented  vividly,  and  greatly  enlarged  in  size;  a  diorama. 
Cos  moram'ic,  a.  -rdm'ik,  pertaining  to. 

COSMOS,  n.  koz'mos  [Gr.  kosmos,  order,  harmony,  the 
world  or  universe] :  the  world  or  universe,  comprehending 
our  globe  and  all  things  therein,  and  the  whole  celestial 


COSMOSPHERE— COSSACKS. 

bodies;  the  universe — so  named  from  the  perfection  of  its 
arrangement,  and  its  system  of  laws:  see  Cosmogony.  Cos- 
mic, a.  which  see.  Microcosm,  n.  man  as  an  epitome  of  the 
universe  in  the  different  parts  and  qualities  of  his  nature: 
see  Microcosm. 

COSMOSPHERE,  n.  hoz'mo-sjer:  an  instrument  for  repre- 
senting, though  of  necessity  very  imperfectly,  the  relative 
position  of  the  earth  with  regard  to  tlie  stellar  '  firmament.' 

COSMOTHETIC,  a.  koz-ino-thet  lk  [Gr.  kosmos,  the  world; 
thetes,  one  who  places]:  believing  in  the  existence  of  matter, 
but  at  the  same  time  denying  that  the  external  world  has 
any  existence  except  in  our  own  mental  conception. 

COSNE,  A;o7i.*  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Ni^vre,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  here  crossed  by  a  suspension- 
bridge.    It  has  iron  manufactures.    Pop.  6,000. 

COSSACKS,  n.  plu.  kos'sdks  [Russ.  kozake,  said  to  be  a 
Tartar  word  meaning  '  vagabond  ':  Tartar,  kasak,  a  cava- 
lier]: in  Russia,  military  tribes  guarding  the  s.  and  e.  fron- 
tiers of  the  Russian  empire — very  skilful  as  horsemen:  a 
race  whose  origin  is  scarcely  less  disputed  than  that  of 
their  name.  The  latter  has  been  variously  derived  from 
words  meaning,  in  radically  distinct  languages,  *an  armed 
man,  a  sabre,  a  rover,  a  goat,  a  promontory,  a  coat,  a  cas- 
sock, and  a  district  in  Circassia.'  The  C.  are  by  some  held 
to  be  Tatars,  by  more  to  be  of  nearly  pure  Russian  stock. 
The  most  probable  view  is  that  they  are  of  very  mixed 
origin.  Slavonic  settlers  seem  to  have  mingled  with  Tatar 
and  Circassian  tribes  in  the  regions  s.  of  Poland  and  Mus- 
covy, in  the  Ukraine  and  on  the  lower  Don;  and  to  have 
given  to  the  new  race,  first  heard  of  as  Cossacks  in  the 
10th  c,  a  predominantly  Russian  character.  On  the  con- 
quest of  Red  Russia  by  Poland,  numerous  Russian  refu- 
gees fled  to  the  Cossack  country;  and  more  on  the  Tatar 
conquest  of  Muscovy.  The  numbers  of  the  C.  were  also 
recruited  from  time  to  time  by  adventurers  or  fugitives  from 
Poland,  Hungary,  Walachia,  and  elsewhere;  but  in  phy- 
sique, as  in  language  and  religion,  the  C,  have  always  been 
mainly  Russian.  They  distinguished  themselves  in  war 
against  Turks  and  Tatars,  and  were  known  as  a  powerful 
military  confederacy  in  the  15th  c.  The  kings  of  Poland 
and  the  czars  of  Muscovy  employed  them  largely  to  defend 
their  frontiers,  especially  against  nomadic  neighbors;  but 
the  connection  between  the  C.  and  their  lords  paramount 
was  always  very  elastic,  and  was  frequently  repudiated  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  either  party.  The  C.  are  still  the 
outposts  of  Russian  authority  towards  Siberia,  Central 
Asia,  and  the  Caucasus,  Living  near,  or  as  '  free  Cossacks ' 
among,  hostile  peoples,  the  C.  developed  their  peculiar 
military  organization — either  forming  a  cordon  of  military 
settlements  along  the  confines  of  occupied  territory,  or  as 
isolated  camps  in  the  nomad  country  be^^oud.  Agricul- 
ture they  eschewed;  self-reliance  and  readiness  at  all  times 
for  defense  or  assault  w^ere  their  chief  characteristics; 
though  such  of  them  as  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Don 
and  Dnieper,  and  their  islands,  became  and  stUl  are  skilful 

2. 


COSSET— COSTA. 

boatmen  and  fishers.  Their  political  constitution  was  com- 
pletely democratical;  all  offices  were  elective  for  one  year 
only;  and  every  Cossack  might  be  chosen  to  any  post,  in- 
cluding the  supreme  one  of  Attaman  or  Hetman.  This 
organization  they  have  in  great  measure  retained,  though 
the  office  of  Hetman  was  abolished  hy  the  Emperor  Ni- 
cholas, except  as  a  title  hereditary  in  the  imperial  family. 
There  have  been  two  main  branches  of  the  C. — the  Malo- 
Russian  and  the  Don  C.  To  the  first  belonged  the  Zapor- 
ogian  C,  those  dwelling  near  the  Pmvgi  or  falls  of  the 
Dnieper.  From  them  again  are  descended  the  Tscherno- 
merian  C,  those  of  the  Kuban  Valley  and  of  Azov.  From 
the  Don  C.  spring  those  of  the  Volga  or  of  Astrakhan,  of 
the  Terek  Valley,  of  Orenburg,  of  the  Ural,  and  of  Siberia. 
They  furnish  a  large  and  valuable  contingent  of  light 
cavalry  to  the  Russian  army,  and  are  very  patient  of  fa- 
tigue, hunger,  thirst,  and  cold.  The  Don  C.  give  name  to 
a  province  with  an  area  of  nearly  60,000  sq.  m.;  population 
over  a  million,  of  whom  20,000  are  Kalmucks.  Though 
the  C.  have  generally  been  represented  in  the  west  of 
Europe  as  little  better  than  fierce  savages,  they  have  left  a 
very  favorable  impression  on  those  who  have  dwelt  among 
them.  Jonas  Hanway  found  them  in  1743  'a  civilised, 
and  a  very  gallant  as  well  as  sober  people;'  and  many  more 
recent  travellers  agree  in  asserting  that  the  C.  are  in  intel- 
ligence, cleanliness,  refinement,  and  enterprise  greatly  the 
superiors  of  the  average  Russians.  See  Springer,  Die 
Kosacken  (1877),  Wallace  Mackenzie's  Russia  (1877),  and  an 
article  in  the  Geograjilitcal  Magazine  for  1878. 

COSSET,  n.  h'ls'sH  [It.  casiccio,  a  lamb  bred  by  hand — 
from  casa,  a  cottage]:  a  lamb  brought  up  by  hand;  a  pet 
Iamb:  V.  to  fondle.  Cos  seting,  imp.  Cos'setted,  pp. 
'Se-ted. 

COSSIMBAZAR,  kos-sim-ha-zdr'  (Cossim's  market):  town 
on  the  Bhagirathi,  which  is  the  first  or  most  westerly  offset 
of  the  Ganges.  It  is  the  river  port  of  Moorshedabad. 
It  was  formerly  famous  for  its  silk  manufactures.  Pop. 
about  4,000. 

COS'SUS:  see  Goat  Moth. 

COST,  n.  kdst  [OF.  coste7\  and  covster,  to  stand  one  in,  to 
cost — from  L.  constdre,  to  stand  together,  to  consist,  to  cost: 
It.  costare,  to  cost:  comp.  Gael,  cosd  or  cosg,  to  spend]:  the 
price  or  value  of  a  thing;  expense;  charge;  expense  of  any 
kind;  paiu;  suffering:  V.  to  be  had  at  a  price;  to  be  bought 
for;  to  require  to  be  given,  laid  out,  bestowed,  or  employed; 
to  cause  to  bear  or  suffer.  Cost'ing,  imp.  Cost,  pt.  and 
pp.  Costs,  n.  plu.  law  charges.  Cost  ly,  a.  -Uy  of  a  high 
price;  expensive;  sumptuous.  Cost  liness,  n.  expensive- 
ness.  Cost  less,  a.  without  cost.  Cost-free,  a.  free  of 
cost  or  charges. — Syn.  of  'cost,  n.':  value;  worth;  loss; 
detriment. 

COSTA,  n.  kbs'ta  [OF.  coste,  a  side— from  L.  costa,  a  rib, 
a  side]:  a  rib;  the  mid-rib.    Cost^,  n.  plu.  kos'te,  in  hot,, 
the  prominent  bundles  of  vessels  in  the  leaves;  inzool.,  the 
rows  of  plates  which  succeed  the  inferior  or  basal  portion 
I 


COSTA— COSTARDMOKGER. 

of  the  cup  among  Crinoidea;  vertical  ridges  on  the  outer 
surface  of  tbecae  among  corals.  Costal,  a.  kos'tdl  [It.  cos- 
tale;  F.  costal,  costal]:  pertaining  to  the  sides  or  ribs  of  the 
body.  Cost  ATE,  a.  Ms  tat,  or  Cos  tated,  a.  ribbed;  in 
hot.,  applied  to  leaves  which  have  a  single  rib. 

COSTA,  kos'td,  Isaac  da:  poet  and  religious  writer. 
1798,  Jan.  14—1860,  Apr.  28;  b.  Amsterdam.  His  parents 
were  Portuguese  Jews,  who  had  settled  in  Holland.  In 
his  twentieth  year,  C.  acquired  the  degree  of  doctor  at  law; 
and  shortly  afterward  embraced  Christianity  and  was  bap- 
tized. This  subjected  him  to  considerable  persecution, 
which,  however,  subsided  as  his  genius  gradually  gained 
recognition.  The  most  interesting  of  his  writings  to  the 
Engtish-speaking  public  are  probably  his  translation  of 
Byron's  Cain,  hi^  Israel  and  the  Gentiles,  and  Harmony  of 
the  Gospels,  the  last  two  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
English.  As  a  public  lecturer,  C.  specially  excelled.  His 
Battle  of  Nieuwpoort,  the  last  of  his  poems,  is  one  of  his 
masterpieces. 

COSTA,  Sir  Michael:  1810,  Feb.— 1884,  Apr.  29;  b. 
Naples:  popular  musician  and  composer.  As  he  early 
showed  talent  for  music,  he  was  sent  to  the  Conservatoire  in 
his  native  city  for  education,  where  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  In  1829,  his  fame,  though  he  was  then  but  19, 
having  reached  England,  he  was  invited  to  take  part  in  the 
Birmingham  Musical  Festival ;  and  being  well  received,  he 
resolved  to  settle  in  England.  In  1832,  he  was  appointed 
conductor  of  the  music  at  the  King's  Theatre,  London,  an 
office  which,  in  1847,  he  resigned  for  a  similar  one  in  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden.  His  great  work,  the 
oratorio  Eli,  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  1855, 
raised  him  to  eminence  as  a  composer.  Naaman,  tirst  sung 
in  Birmingham,  1864,  was  a  great  success.  From  1857  on- 
ward, he  conducted  at  the  Handel  Festival.  He  was 
knighted  by  the  Queen,  1869;  and  in  the  same  year  received 
an  order  from  the  king  of  WUrtemberg,  in  token  of  his 
majesty's  admiration  of  Eli.  C.  was  the  author  of  several 
ballets,  and  of  some  operas,  the  most  successful  of  which 
was  Don  Carlos.  As  a  composer,  he  holds  a  respectable 
place  in  the  second  rank. 

COSTARDMOKGER,  n.  kos'terd-mung'ger  — now  spelt 
Cos'termon'ger,  n.  kos'ter-  [OE.,  costard,  Si  largle  nipple, 
and  monger] :  one  who  sells  fruit,  fish,  or  vegetables  in  the 
streets  of  a  town  in  a  barrow  or  small  cart.  Cos  tard,  n. 
in  OE.,  the  head;  a  largle  apple. 


COSTA  RICA. 

COSTA  BICA,  kos'td  rekct:  most  south-easterly  state  of 
Central  America;  occupying  the  entire  breadth  from  sea  to 
sea  between  Nicaragua  and  New  Granada;  n.  lat.  from  8° 
to  10^  40',  w.  long,  from  83'  to  85°;  19,976  sq.  miles. 

The  surface  of  C.  R.  is  occupied  chiefly  by  mountains, 
plateaux  and  valleys.  Both  the  e.  and  the  w.  coasts  have  a 
general  n.w.  and  s.e.  direction,  but  they  differ  considerably 
in  character.  Along  the  Caribbean  Sea  the  coast  is  bordered 
by  a  narrow  plain,  is  indented  by  creeks  and  small  bays, 
and  its  chief  harbor  is  Port  Matina.  The  w.  coast  is  much 
more  broken.  At  its  s.  extremity  is  the  Gulf  of  Dulce;  fur- 
ther n.  is  Port  Montas  and  beyond  that  is  the  bay  formed 
by  the  Rio  Estrella.  The  Gulf  of  Nicoya  some  distance  n.  has 
a  wide  entrance,  but  becomes  narrower  inland,  is  70  m.  long, 
affords  good  shelter  for  shipping,  and  contains  several  isl- 
ands. The  Punta  de  Arenas  on  the  e.  side  of  the  gulf  has 
an  excellent  harbor  and  is  the  port  of  San  Jose,  the  capital. 
Another  good  harbor  on  this  coast  is  the  Punta  Culebra, 
formed  by  the  rocky  headland,  Punta  Catalina.  The  mount- 
ains belong  to  the  Cordilleras  range,  and  contain  many  vol- 
canic peaks  of  considerable  height.  While  the  general  ele- 
vation of  the  range  is  5,000-6,000  ft.,  Turrialba  rises  12,500 
ft,  Blanco,  11,740,  Cartago,  11,400,  Chiriqui,  11,265,  and 
Los  Yotos  9,840.  Toward  the  Caribbean  Sea  the  descent  is 
for  the  most  part  abrupt,  but  terminating  20-30  m.  from 
the  sea;  toward  the  Pacific  the  descent  is  more  gradual, 
while  the  highland  advances  much  nearer  to  the  sea  and  de- 
scends to  it  in  a  series  of  terraces.  The  n.e.  extremity  of  the 
country  subsides  gradually  into  the  plain  of  Nicaragua.  The 
most  important  river  of  C.  R.  is  the  San  Juan,  w  hich  issues 
from  the  s.e.  extremity  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  from  that 
point  to  its  outlet  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  forms  the  boundary 
between  the  republics  of  C.  R.  and  Nicaragua.  Among  the 
numerous  rivers  which  enter  the  Caribbean  Sea  are  the  Ma- 
tina, the  Purissima,  and  the  Tortuga;  the  chief  of  those 
falling  into  the  Pacific  are  the  Estrella,  the  Arena,  and  the 
Baranca.  The  climate  of  C.  R.  is  on  the  whole  more  regu- 
lar and  healthy  than  in  other  parts  of  Central  America. 
There  is  a  dry  season  Nov.  to  Apr. ,  and  a  wet  season  through 
the  remainder  of  the  year.  The  thermometer  seldon"  rises 
above  85°  or  falls  below  65°.  The  soil  is  of  varied  qiiality, 
but  in  many  parts  very  fertile.  Large  quantities  of  timber, 
especially  Brazil-wood,  mahogany,  and  cedar  are  exported. 
Tn  the  w.  and  n.w.  portions,  wheat,  maize,  sugar,  and  coffee 
are  abundantly  grown;  fruits  and  vegetables  are  prolific; 
sheep  thrive  on  the  tableland,  swine  in  the  low  districts,  and 
cattle  along  the  San  Juan.  In  minerals,  rock  crystal  and 
placer  gold  are  found  in  the  Cuesta  Blanca;  onyx  in 
Pacaca;  amethysts  in  the  Colorado  salines  and  the  Barbudal 
Mountain,  where  there  is  also  handsome  jasper;  opals  in 
Candelaria;  labradorite  in  the  mountains  n.  of  Raicero; 
Kaolin  in  San  Ramon;  lime  for  cement  in  Candelaria;  phos- 
phate of  lime  in  San  Antonio;  and  iron  ore  on  the  coast  at 
Sardinal.  C.  R.  is  divided  into  six  provinces,  San  Jose,  Car- 
ago,  Heredia,  Alajuela,  Punta  de  Arenas — with  capitals  of 
the  same  name,  and  Guanacaste,  cap.  Liberia.   The  chief 

6 


COSTA  KICA. 

cities  are  San  Jose,  on  the  elevated  tableland,  9°  46'  n.  lat., 
84''  w.  long.;  a  modern  city,  4,500ft.  above  the  sea;  Cartago, 
at  the  base  of  the  volcano  of  that  name,  16  m  e.  by  s.  of 
San  Jose;  formerly  the  capital;  almost  entirely  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  1841;  and  Alajuela,  about  midway  be- 
tween San  Jose  and  Punta  de  Arenas.  The  govt,  of  the 
republic,  prescribed  by  the  constitution  of  1859  and  the 
amendments  of  1871  and  82,  is  vested  executively  in  a  pres. 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  legislatively  in  a  con- 
gress composed  of  a  senate  and  chamber  of  representa- 
tives, comprising  two  senators  from  each  province  and 
one  representative  for  every  10,000  inhabitants.  The  con- 
gress is  chosen  in  electoral  assemblies,  whose  members  are 
elected  by  the  votes  of  all  persons  of  age  who  are  able  to 
support  themselves.  The  judicial  authority  is  represented 
by  a  court  of  justice  at  the  capital,  composed  of  a  court  of 
common  pleas,  a  court  of  appeals,  and  a  supreme  court; 
besides  which  each  parish  has  a  judge  known  assijuizdepar- 
tido.  The  financial  condition  of  the  country  is  steadily  im- 
proving. The  reports  of  the  minister  of  finance  for  1884 
showed:  amount  outstanding  of  6  per  cent,  loan  of  1870, 
$4,706,000,  overdue  interest  $2,823,600;  amount  outstanding 
of  7  per  cent,  loan  of  1872,  $7,301,000,  overdue  interest 
$5,365,875;  total  funded  debt  $20,196,475.  In  1886,  Feb., 
the  reported  total  consolidated  foreign  debt  £2,000,000;  do- 
mestic debt  $873,826.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  1886, 
Mar.  3,  the  national  income  was  $3,200,065.  In  1887,  June, 
the  foreign  debt  was  reported  at  the  same  figure  as  1886, 
and  the  domestic  at  $527,819.  The  income  of  the  fiscal 
year  was  $2,888,752,  nearly  $200,000  in  excess  of  the  esti- 
mate, and  the  expenditures  $2,772,315.  The  govt,  relieved 
itself  of  an  annual  loss  of  $48,000  on  the  central  and  Atlan- 
tic sections  of  its  railroad  by  renting  them  to  a  London 
syndicate  which  agreed  to  finish  and  operate  them.  During 
the  fiscal  year  1886-7  the  imports  amounted  to  $4,562,- 
727,  an  increase  of  more  than  $1,000,000  over  the  previous 
year.  The  exports  1885  were  $3,296,508;  1886  $3,225,807. 
The  trade  with  the  United  States  (1886)  showed  imports 
valued  at  $898,045,  and  exports  $548,215;  (1887)  imports 
$1,409,516,  exports  $703,930.  During  the  summer  of  1887 
arrangements  were  effected  for  running  eight  steamships  per 
month  from  Port  Lam  on  to  the  United  States  to  convey 
plantains;  and  the  time  previously  allowed  a  corporation 
to  complete  arrangements  to  establish  a  line  of  steamships 
between  Port  Lamon  and  New  Orleans  or  New  York  was 
extended  to  1888,  Jan.  A  renewed  interest  in  the  progress 
of  education  is  now  being  taken  both  by  the  people  and  the 
govt.  In  1886,  Jan.  there  were  115  primary  public  schools 
for  boys,  and  101  for  girls.  The  children  of  school  age 
numberered  32,306,  of  whom  17,026  were  boys  and  15,280 
girls;  the  school  attendance  was  13,413,  boys  7,355,  girls 
6,058.  There  were  also  86  private  primary  schools,  with  1,861 
students;  The  school  tax  in  the  six  provinces  amounted  to 
$24,489.  In  1887,  Jan.  the  number  of  primary  public 
schools  had  increased  to  138,  with  278  teachers,  and  an  at- 
tendance of  14,478  children.    In  that  year  the  govt,  an- 

9 


COSTEANING— COSTER. 

nounced  its  willingness  to  defray  the  whole  expense  of  the 
technical  education  in  the  United  States  of  eight  boys  and 
two  girls  as  an  experiment,  and  with  the  hope  of  thus  secur- 
ing superior  native  talent  for  teachers.  There  is  a  univ.  at 
San  Jose,  with  profs,  of  Latin,  Spanish,  English,  French, 
mathematics,  civil  engineering,  and  architecture.  Cartago, 
Heredia,  and  Alajuela  are  similarly  provided.  Each  chief 
town  has  a  central  or  high  school,  and  the  primary  schools 
are  judiciously  distributed  among  the  villages,  towns,  and 
cities.  The  state  religion  of  C.  R.  is  Rom.  Cath.,  but  there 
is  a  complete  tolerance  of  other  forms. 

C.  R.  was  discovered  b}^  Christopher  Columbus,  1502, 
while  on  his  fourth  voyage  to  the  new  world.  He  anchored 
in  the  harbor  of  San  Juan,  made  several  landings,  and 
because  of  the  numerous  specimens  of  gold  found  on  the 
coast  named  the  place  La  C.  R.  y  Castilla  de  Oro.  It  was 
included  in  Guatemala  and  held  as  a  province  of  Spain  till 
1821,  Nov.,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  Mexican  empire 
of  Iturbide.  In  1823,  it  united  with  Guatemala,  San  Salva- 
dor, Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  the  territory  of  Mosquitia 
in  forming  the  Central  American  confederacy,  and  main- 
tained this  relation  till  1840,  when  it  withdrew  and  pro- 
claimed itself  an  independent  republic.  It  adopted  a  con- 
stitution 1847,  was  recognized  by  Spain  and  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  her  1850,  declared  war  against  the  American 
filibuster,  William  Walker,  pursued  him  into  Nicaragua 
and  helped  to  force  his  surrender  to  the  U.  S.  naval 
authorities  1856,  and  joined  Guatemala,  Honduras,  and 
San  Salvador  in  a  treaty  for  the  creation  of  a  Central 
American  union  1872.  Pop.  (1872)  167,000;  (1874)  185,000; 
(1885)  193,144;  (1886,  Dec.  31)  196,280. 

COSTEANING,  n.  kos-ten'mg :  in  mining,  the  act  or 
operation  of  sinking  shallow  pits  at  intervals,  and  driving 
headings  at  right  angles  to  the  general  course  of  the  veins, 
for  the  purpose  of  discovering  ore. 

COSTELLO,  kos-tel'o,  Louisa  Stuart:  1815-70:  Eng- 
lish authoress.  Her  first  production,  at  least  of  any  note, 
was  Specimens  of  the  Early  Poetry  of  France  (1835),  but  it 
was  as  a  tourist  she  gained  the  greatest  popularity.  The 
works  in  which  she  describes  her  travelling- trips  are-yl 
Summer  Among  the  Socages  and  the  Vines  (1840);  A  Pilgriin- 
age  to  Auvergne,  etc.  (1842);  Beam  and  the  Pyrenees  (ISM); 
The  Falls,  Lakes,  and  Mountains  of  North  Wales  (1845);  and 
A  Tour  to  and  From  Venice  by  the  Vaudois  and  the  Tyrol 
(1846).  Miss  C.  also  wrote  several  novels,  the  principal  of 
which  are  The  Queen-mother  (1841),  and  Jacques  Coeur,  the 
French  Argonaut  (1847).  In  1853,  she  published  a  work 
professedly  historical,  eniit]ed  Monoirs  of  Mary,  the  Young 
Duchess  of  Burgundy;  and  in  1855,  another  of  the  same 
kind,  Anne  of  Brittany. 

COSTER,  kos'ter,  Laukens  Janszoon,  according  to  the 
Dutch,  the  inventor  of  printing:  abt.  1370-1439;  b.  Haar- 
lem. The  time  of  the  invention  ascribed  to  him  must  have 
been  1420-26.  C,  at  first  for  his  own  amusement  and  the 
iftstructiou  of  his  grandchildren,  cut  letters  out  of  the  bark 


COSTER. 

of  the  beech-tree,  which  he  inverted,  and  employed  to 
print  short  sentences.  Afterward,  he  discovered  a  more 
glutinous  kind  of  ink,  which  did  not  spread  in  using,  and 
succeeded  in  printing  with  it  entire  pages  with  cuts  and 
characters.  He  also  replaced  his  wooden  types  by  types 
cast  out  of  metal,  at  first  using  lead  for  this  purpose,  after- 
ward pewter  which  he  found  harder  and  more  suitable. 
C,  for  a  time,  worked  in  secret,  because,  he  being  a  sacris- 
tan, his  art,  if  known,  would  have  brought  him  into  un- 
pleasant collision  with  the  manuscript-writing  clergy, 
whose  productions  he  tried  to  imitate,  even  to  the  abbre- 
viations; thus  his  name  did  not  appear  on  the  productions 
of  his  press.  As  custom  increased,  C.  had  to  take  appren- 
tices; and  one  of  them,  a  German,  Johann,  making  use  of 
the  confusion  occasioned  by  C.'s  death,  is  said  to  have  pur- 
loined the  greater  part  of  his  master's  types  and  matrices, 
and  to  have  tied  to  Mainz,  where  he  brought  the  hidden  art 
to  light.  The  Johann  was  probably  Johann  Gansfleisch,  a 
member  of  the  Gutenberg  family.  Such,  at  least,  is  the 
history  of  the  invention  of  printing  as  given  by  the  Dutch, 
and  which  they  support  by  the  testimony  of  Hadrianus 
Junius,  historian  of  the  states  of  Holland,  who,  in  his  ac- 
count of  the  discovery,  states  that,  at  the  time  he  wrote, 
C.'s  descendants  were  in  possession  of  drinking-cups  made 
out  of  the  remains  of  the  types  which  C.  had  used.  More- 
over, a  celebrated  printer  of  Cologne,  Ulrich  Zell,  deceased 
about  1500,  is  said  to  have  declared  '  that  Gutenberg  his 
master,  had  derived  his  art  from  Holland,  after  the  model 
of  a  Donatus  printed  there.'  Kow,  a  Donatus  of  C.'s  time 
still  exists;  it  was  produced  1740  by  Johannes  Enschede, 
also  a  celebrated  printer  of  Haarlem;  and  no  sooner  had 
his  discovery  been  made  known  in  Meerman's  Origines  Ty- 
pograpliicce,  than  fragments  of  the  same  work  appeared  in 
such  quantities,  that  no  one  could  any  more  aver  that  this 
early  monument  of  imperfect  typography,  mostly  printed 
from  indisputably  Dutch  types,  had  been  struck  off  from 
Gutenberg's  press.  Gutenberg's  works,  even  now,  are 
models  of  impression;  those  ascribed  to  C.,  at  first  printed 
on  one  side  only,  are  the  first  proofs  of  a  beginner.  Then, 
all  the  characters  of  the  oldest  Dutch  printed  books  re- 
semble the  Dutch  handwriting  of  the  first  half  of  the  15th 
c  ,  a  proof  of  the  independent  nature  of  the  attempts  to- 
ward imitating  manuscripts  for  sale.  Other  evidences  are 
given  by  the  Dutch  that  C.  was  the  true  inventor  of  print- 
ing; the  most  eminent  advocates  of  his  claims  being  Meer- 
man,  Koning,  Scheltema,  Van  Westreenen  van  Tiellandt, 
De  Yries,  Schinkel,  Noordziek,  Ebert,  Leon  de  Laborde, 
Paul  Lacroix,  and  Bernard.  Yet  the  most  thorough-going 
assault  on  the  claims  of  C.  and  of  Haarlem,  as  being  foun- 
ded on  local  legends,  was  made  1870  by  a  Nethei-lander, 
A.  von  der  Linde.  In  the  town -house  of  Haarlem,  the 
typographical  remnants  of  the  productions  ascribed  to  C. 
are  preserved.  See  Printing:  and  for  the  German  ac- 
count of  the  invention,  Gutenberg.  As  for  C,  his  mem- 
ory still  is  held  iu  due  honor  by  the  town  of  his  bi^th:  tJtiQ 


COSTIVE— COSTS. 

site  of  his  house  is  still  pointed  out  with  pride;  and  monu- 
ments to'his  memory  have  been  erected. 

COSTIVE,  a.  kbs'tiD  [L.  constipdre,  to  crowd  closely  to- 
gether— from  con,  stipdre,  to  cram :  contracted  from  F.  con- 
stipe,  constipated,  or  It.  costipativo,  having  a  tendency  to 
constipate]:  bound  or  confined  in  the  bowels.  Cos'tiyely, 
ad.  -li.  Cos  TiYENESS,  n.  nes,  obstruction  in  the  bowels, 
with  hardness  and  dryness  of  the  faecal  matter:  see  Consti- 
pation. 

COSTLY,  COSTLINESS:  see  under  Cost. 

COSTMARY,  kost'md-ri,  [Gr.  kostos;  L.  costus,  an  aro- 
matic plant,  and  Mary,  the  Virgin],  {BaUamita  vulgaris)-. 
aromatic  perennial  plant  of  the  nat.  ord.  Compodtce,  sub- 
ord.  Corymbiferoi,  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  long  cul- 
tivated in  Britain  for  the  agreeable  fragrance  of  the  leaves. 
It  is  often  called  Ale-cost.  The  root-leaves  are  ovate,  of 
a  grayish  color,  on  long  footstalks;  the  stem  is  2 — 3  ft. 
high;  the  stem-leaves  have  no  footstalk;  the  small  heads 
of  tlowers  are  in  loose  corymbs,  deep  yellow.  The  leaves 
were  formerly  put  into  ale  and  negus,  and  are  still  used  by 
the  French  in  salads. 

COSTREL,  n.  kos  trel  [mid.  L.  cosirellus,  a  wine-bottle]: 
in  OE.,  a  wine-bottle  which  could  be  suspended  by  its  ears 
from  the  waist-belt;  a  laborer's  drinking-bottle  in  harvest- 
time,  made  of  wood. 

COSTRO'MA:  see  Kostroma. 

COSTS,  in  Law:  expenses  incurred  in  legal  proceedings. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  C.  of  the  successful  party  are  paid 
by  the  loser,  but  the  rule  is  subject  to  important  excep- 
tions, among  which  are  the  following:  A  party  suing  or 
defending  in  forma  pauperis  does  not  pay  C. ,  though  he  is 
entitled  to  receive  them  if  successful.  Under  a  certain 
small  amount,  the  decision  as  to  costs  in  certain  cases  rests 
with  the  judge.  A  plaintitf  who  might  have  brought  his 
action  in  a  lower  court,  is  not  alwaj^s  entitled  to  C.  if  he 
sues  in  the  higher  courts.  A  party  who  is  successful  in 
the  main,  and  therefore  entitled  to  the  'general  costs,'  may 
be  unsuccessful  upon  some  minor  point,  and  therefore 
bound  to  pay  the  C.  which  belong  properly  to  it.  A  party 
who  has  tendered  the  amount  recovered,  and  who  pays  the 
sum  into  court,  and  pleads  the  tender,  is  not  bound  to  pay 
costs.  The  payment  of  money  into  court  in  the  course  of 
an  action  relieves  the  party  paying  from  C.  of  subsequent 
proceedings,  if  no  greater  amount  be  ultimately  recovered. 

In  Britain,  the  crown  is  now  entitled  to  C,  and  bound 
to  pay  C.  in  the  same  way  as  a  private  suitor.  In  the  United 
States,  when  the  U.  S.  govt,  is  a  party,  it  neither  pays  nor 
receives  costs,  except  under  a  special  statute.  In  equity, 
the  giving  of  costs  is  entirely  at  the  discretion  of  the  court 
which,  however,  is  exercised  generally  according  to  fixed 
principles.  In  criminal  cases,  the  prosecutor's  costs  may 
be  allowed  by  the  judge.  The  statutes  that  give  costs  must 
always  be  construed  strictly  according  to  the  letter. 

C.  are  taxed  (i.  e.,  the  items  allowed  or  disallowed)  by 
the  ofticer  of  the  court  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Whea 


COSTUME. 

so  ascertained,  they  are,  if  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  included 
in  the  amount  for  which  judgment  is  given,  if  it  be  in  his 
favor,  and  recovered  as  part  of  it.  If  they  are  in  favor  of 
the  defendant,  they  are  recovered  as  a  judgment  in  his 
favor. 

C,  in  Scotland,  are  called  expenses  (q.v.):  see  also  Audi- 
tor OF  THE  Court  of  Sessions. 

COSTUME,  n.  kos-tum'  or  kos'tum  [It.  and  F.  costume] : 
style  of  dress;  the  mode  of  dress  peculiar  to  any  people  or 
age.  Costumer  n.  kbs-tum'er,  or  Costum'ier,  n.  -i-er,  one 
who  makes  and  deals  in  fancy  dresses.— Syn.  of  '  costume ': 
dress;  attire;  apparel;  array;  clothes;  clothing;  habit;  gar- 
ment; vesture;  vestment;  raiment. 

COSTUME' :  dress;  another  form  of  the  word  custom,and, 
in  its  wider  sense,  the  external  appearance  which  the  life 
of  a  people  presents  at  a  particuler  epoch  of  its  history.  In 
its  narrower  and  more  usual  sense,  C.  signifies  the  custom, 
ary  modes  of  clothing  and  adorning  the  person,  in  any 
particular  age  or  country.  In  this  sense,  it  includes  the 
prevailing  fashion  in  jewelry,  weapons,  and  other  personal 
equipments.  In  both  senses,  C.  plays  an  important  part 
in  art.  The  poet,  especially  the  narrative  or  epic  poet,  is 
compelled  to  resort  to  it  as  a  means  of  carrying  his  reade? 
back  into  the  age  which  he  describes.  Homer  has  it  con 
stantly  in  view  in  narrating  the  exploits  of  his  heroes? 
Among  modern  romance  writers.  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  in 
troduced  the  fashion  of  perhaps  excessive  attention  tomero. 
external  costume.  But  it  is  in  art  as  presented  to  the  eye, 
that  C.  becomes  indispensable,  and  the  loose  and  general 
treatment  of  it  permitted  to  the  novelist  or  the  poet,  is  for- 
bidden to  the  painter,  the  sculptor,  and  the  player.  How 
sorely  the  sculptor  has  been  tried  by  the  wigs  and  breeches 
of  former  generations,  and  by  the  trousers,  straps,  hats,  and 
other  monstrosities  of  our  own,  no  one  needs  be  told.  Two 
means,  not  of  solving  but  of  escaping  from  the  dithculty, 
have  been  largely  resorted  to:  one  consists  in  departing 
from  the  modern  dresf^  Stltogether,  and  reverting  to  the 
ancient  toga;  the  other,  in  wrapping  up  the  figure,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  a  cloak.  The  first  of  these  devices  is  neither 
more  nor  less  tbau  a  deliberate  violation  of  what  artists 
regard  as  the  laws  of  C,  by  which  they  conceive  them- 
selves bound  to  represent  every  object  with  its  appropriate 
accessories;  the  second,  besides  being  very  often  open  in  a 
lesser  degree  to  the  same  objection,  has  the  further  disad- 
vantage of  accomplishing  its  object  very  imperfectly.  The 
v/isest  course  for  the  artist  is  boldly  to  face  the  dithculty. 
That  he  may  do  so  successfully,  many  of  the  works  of 
Ranch,  Tieck,  Thorwaldsen,  Schadow,  and  others  abun- 
dantly testify.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  art,  an  excessive  at- 
tention to  C.  may  generally  be  remarked,  which  though 
useless,  and  sometimes  hurtful  to  artistic  effect,  has  proved 
of  great  value  for  historical  purposes.  The  tendency  of 
the  earlier  schools  of  art  to  exhibit  C.  with  an  almost 
painful  accuracy  and  minuteness,  is  exhibited  in  the  works 

10 


COSTUS. 

of  the  older  masters,  both  of  the  Italian  and  German  schools. 
Even  durmg  the  period  of  the  highest  bloom  of  Italian  art, 
the  medieval  custom  of  representing  historical,  sacred,  and 
ideal  characters  in  the  C  peculiar  to  the  time  and  country 
of  the  artist,  was  in  a  great  measure  adhered  to.  From  Paul 
Veronese,  Tintoretto,  and  others,  we  may  learn  the  aspect 
which  a  marriage-feast  in  the  palace  of  a  Venetian  or 
Florentine  grandee  presented,  but  can  form  little  concep- 
tion of  the  C.  of  that  simpler  festivity  in  Cana  of  Galilee, 
or  of  that  supper  still  less  sensuous  in  Jerusalem,  which 
they  profess  to  represent.  In  the  hands  of  the  greater 
masters,  these  scenes  assumed  an  ideal  character;  and  in 
the  works  of  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo,  and  Raphael,  C, 
though  still  exhibiting  something  of  a  native  trace,  rises 
into  the  highest  regions  of  poetical  conception.  The  ef- 
lort  to  avoid  anachronisms  by  a  previous  historical  and 
antiquarian  study  of  the  subject,  belongs,  indeed,  almost 
entirely  to  the  modern  European  schools  of  art,  and 
many  painters  of  late  have  devoted  themselves  to  it  to 
such  an  extent  as  almost  to  forget  that  it  is  a  means,  and 
not  an  end,  except,  indeed,  to  a  mere  painter  of  clothes. 

But  it  is  in  theatrical  representations  that  attention  to  C, 
particularly  in  its  narrower  sense,  becomes  most  imperative. 
When  the  stage,  in  Western  Europe,  commenced  in  the 
religious  mysteries  of  the  middle  ages,  the  dress  adopted 
was  that  which  belonged  to  the  time  and  the  country.  To 
this  dress  some  fantastical  object  was  generally  added  to 
indicate  the  character  intended  to  be  personated.  The  case 
remained  thus  during  the  time  of  Shakespeare  in  England, 
of  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon  in  Spain,  and  even  of  Cor- 
neille,  Kacine,  and  Moliere  in  France.  Whether  a  Greek,  a 
Roman,  an  Assyrian,  or  a  Turk  was  represented,  the  ordi- 
nary court-dress  of  the  time  was  adhered  to,  and  the  turban, 
the  helmet,  or  the  laurel-crown  was  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
peruke  or  the  powdered  hair.  In  like  manner,  shepherdesses 
and  peasant-girls  had  their  hair  dressed  in  turrets  like 
feudal  keeps,  and  long  white  kid  gloves  which  covered 
their  hands  and  arms  to  the  elbow.  Toward  the  middle  of 
the  18th  c,  a  reform  was  introduced  by  the  famous  actress 
Clairon,  who  acted  Electra  without  hairpowder;  but  Talma 
was  the  first  who  introduced  a  C.  really  true  to  history. 
Garrick  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the  great  Frenchman, 
though  both  he  and  Siddons,  during  their  earlier  period, 
personated  Shakespeare's  characters  in  18th  c.  C.  Schlegel's 
Hermann,  and  Goethe's  Gotz  xon  BerlicMngen  were  the  first 
plays  given  in  Germany  with  historical  costume.  See 
Planche's  Gyclopoedia  of  G.  (2  vols.  1876-79),  and  Fairholt's 
C,  in  England  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1885). 

COSTUS,  or  CosTUS  Arabicus,  kos'tus  ar-ab'i-kus:  aro- 
matic, much  esteemed  by  the  ancients,  probably  the  dried 
root  of  Aucklandia  Gostus,  plant  of  the  nat.  ord.  Gompositoe, 
sub-ord.  GynarocepJialce;  native  of  the  moist  open  slopes 
surrounding  the  valley  of  Cashmere.  The  roots  are  there 
burned  as  incense.  They  have  a  strong  aromatic  pungent 
odor,  and  are  used  in  protecting  bales  of  shawls  from  moths, 
\\ 


OOSWAY— cOtE-D^OR. 

The  name  C.  is  also  given  to  a  genus  of  endogens,  ord„ 
Zingiber acem.  The  roots  of  0.  specioms  are  used  in  India 
and  elsewhere  as  a  preserve. 

COS  WAY,  kos'wa,  Richard:  1740-1821;  b.  Tiverton, 
Devonshire,  England:  noted  painter  in  his  day.  Between 
his  14th  and  24th  year,  he  carried  oif  five  premiums  from 
the  Soc.  of  Arts.  As  a  miniature-painter,  he  was  particu- 
larly famous,  and  gained  all  the  patronage  of  the  nobility 
of  his  time.  His  works,  in  fact,  were  the  fashion,  and  all 
attempts  at  rivalry  were  useless.  Many  of  them  were  dis- 
tinguished by  great  delicacy,  correctness,  and  beauty,  and 
his  drawings  were  not  unworthy  of  a  place  beside  some  of 
the  old  masters.  The  immense  sums  of  money  which  he 
made  enabled  him  to  live  in  the  most  sumptuous  style,  and 
to  give  musical-parties  (his  wife  on  such  occasions  being 
the  principal  performer),  so  far  surpassing  all  other  efforts 
of  the  kind  that  they  formed  a  feature  of  the  time,  and 
were  attended  by  the  rank,  fashion,  and  intellect  of  that 
day. 

COSY,  a.  Wzi:  see  Cozy. 

COT,  n.  k(jt  [Fin.  koti,  a  dwelling-place;  kota^  a  mean 
house:  Dut.  kot,  a  hut]:  a  small  house  or  cottage;  a  hut. 

COT,  n.  kot  [Ger.  zote,  a  cot,  a  lock  of  wool  clung  to- 
gether; kotze,  a  rough  shaggy  covering:  prov.  Eng.  cot,  a 
matted  fleece  of  wool:  mid.  L.  coitus,  a  rug,  a  rough  cover- 
ing] :  originally  a  mat  of  shaggy  materials,  then  an  inartificial 
sleeping- place,  where  a  rug  or  mat  may  be  laid  down  for 
that  purpose;  a  small  bed:  a  swinging  bed-frame  or  cradle; 
a  sleeping  place  in  a  ship,  usually  of  canvass,  stretched  out 
on  a  wooden  frame  and  holding  a  mattrass — the  whole  being 
slung  from  the  rafters  of  the  cabin. 

COTE,  V.  kot  [F.  cote,  a  rib,  a  shore  or  coast — from  L. 
costa,  a  rib] :  in  OE.,  to  coast  or  keep  alongside;  to  pass  or 
go  by;  to  leave  behind;  to  overpass.  Cot'ing,  imp.  Coted, 
pp.  kot'ed. 

COTE,  n.  kot  [AS.  cote;  "W.  ctctt,  a  cavity,  a  hovel:  Gael. 
coit,  a  fishing-boat — lit.,  a  shelter,  as  of  an  inverted  coracle 
or  fishing-boat] :  a  pen  or  shelter  for  animals,  as  sheep-cote, 
dove-cote;  a  cottage. 

COTE-D'OR,  kot-dor':  dept.  in  the  e.  of  France,  formed 
of  part  of  the  old  province  of  Burgundy;  lat.  46°  55' — 48^ 
10'  n.,  long.  4°  2'— 5°  30'  e.;  3,350  sq.  m.  The  surface  is 
in  general  rather  elevated,  and  is  traversed  by  a  chain  of 
hills  forming  the  connecting-link  between  the  Cevennes 
and  the  Vosges,  A  portion  of  that  range,  called  the  Cote- 
d'Or  golden  slope receives  its  name  (which  it  gives  to 
the  dept.)  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  the  wines  pro- 
duced on  its  declivities:  see  Bukgundy  Wines.  A  great 
part  of  the  dept.  is  covered  with  forests.  The  valleys  and 
plains  are  fertile,  and  there  is  good  pasture-land;  but  agri- 
culture is  in  a  backward  state.  C.  is  watered  by  the  Seine, 
which  rises  in  the  n.w.,  and  by  several  of  its  affluents;  by 
the  Saone,  and  by  the  Arroux,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire. 


n  COTEMPORANEOUS— COTES-DU-NORD. 

tl  By  means  of  canals,  C.  has  water  communication  with  the 
i  German  Ocean,  Mediterranean,  English  Channel,  and  Bay 
^  of  Biscay.  The  climate  is  temperate;  iron,  coal,  marble, 
j  •  gypsum,  and  lithographic  stones  are  found,  the  first  in  large 
'  quantities.  C.  is  divided  into  four  arrondissements;  viz., 
*  Beaune,  Chatillon-sur  Seine,  Dijon,  and  Semur,  with  Dijon 
for  a  capital.— Pop.  (1881),  380,548. 

COTEMPORANEOUS,  COTEMPORARY,  etc.:  see 
under  Contemporaneous. 

CO-TENANT,  n.  kd-ten'dnt  [con  and  tenant]:  a  tenant  in 
common. 

COTERIE,  n.  kd'ter-e  [F.  coterie,  a  club,  a  society — from 

^  mid.  L.  cotdriuSy  a  neighbor — from  mid.  L.  cota,  a  cot] :  a 
friendly  party;  a  circle  of  familiar  friends,  particularly  of 

.  ladies;  a  select  party.  Note. — Littre  connects  coterie  v^iih 
OF.  coterie,  servile  tenure — from  mid.  L.  coterid,  a  tenure 
of  land  by  cottars  who  clubbed  together:  OF.  cottier,  a  cot- 

V  tar — from  mid.  L.  cota,  a  cot. 

COTERMINOUS;  see  Conterminous. 

^  COTES,  kdts,  Roger:  1682,  July  10— abt.  1705;  b.  Bur- 
bage,  near  Leicester,  England.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
admirable  preface  explaining  the  Newtonian  philosophy, 
and  answering  objections  to  gravitation,  prefixed  to  the 
second  edition  (1713)  of  Newton's  Principia.  Various 

i  mathematical  papers  of  his  own,  tending  greatly  to  the 
development  of  logarithms,  were  published  after  his  death. 
Short  as  his  life  was,  his  influence  on  mathematics  is  clearly 

i  traceable.  He  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  the  schol- 
ars and  scientific  men  of  his  time;  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is 
asserted  to  have  said  of  him  that,  had  he  lived,  '  we  should 
have  known  something.' 

COTES-DU-NORD,  kdt-du-nor'  (northern  coasts):  dept. 
in  the  n.w.  of  France,  forming  a  part  of  Bretagne,  and 
bounded  n.  by  the  English  Channel,  in  which  are  several 
small  islands  belonging  to  C;  lat.  48^  3 — 48°  57'  n.,  long. 
1°  53—3°  35'  w.;  2,650  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1881),  619,632.  The 
Armoric  Hills,  called  also  the  Montagues  Noires,  and  the 
Menez  Mountains,  cross  the  dept.  from  e.  to  w. ,  having  a 
breadth  of  about  16  m. ,  and  consist  chiefly  of  granite  and 
clay-slate.  These  formations  give  a  rude  and  broken  aspect 
to  the  coasts.  The  chief  rivers,  short  but  navigable,  are  the 
Ranee,  Gouet,  Trieux,  Guer,  and  Arguenon.  The  s.  dis- 
trict has  the  advantage  of  a  considerable  length  of  the  canal 

'  between  Nantes  and  Brest.  Though  a  great  portion  of  the^ 
south  and  the  higher  plains  is  occupied  by  heath  and  woods,' 
there  are,  here  and  there,  fertile  spots;  and  in  the  north  the 
influence  of  the  neighboring  sea  is  favorable  to  vegetation. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  and  hemp,  with  pasturage  and  iron- 

I  mining,  supply  employment  in  the  mountainous  districts; 
while  in  the  sheltered  valleys  and  on  the  coast-levels  all 
European  kinds  of  grain,  with  pears  and  apples  and  other 
fruits,  are  produced;  and  maize  is  cultivated,  but  does  not 
always  ripen.    The  coasts  are  well  supplied  with  various 

13 


COTGARE— COTONEASTER. 

kinds  of  fish.  The  dept.  is  divided  into  the  five  arrondisse- 
ments  of  St.  Brieuc,  Dinan,  Loudeac,  Lannion,  and  Guin- 
gamp.    The  chief  town  is  St.  Brieuc. 

COTGARE,  n.  kot'gdr  [Eng.  refuse  wool;  prov.  Eng. 
garCy  accouterments]:  refuse  wool. 

COTHEN,  or  Kothen,  Icoien:  an  ancient  town  in  the 
duchy  of  Anhalt,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Saale.  Sugar  from 
beetroot  is  largely  manufactured  here;  spirits  are  distilled; 
and  there  is  a  trade  in  wool  and  corn.  Brown  coal  is 
found  in  the  neighborhood.    Pop.  (1880)  16,155. 

COTHURN,  n.  kd-th  em' J  or  Cothurnus,  n.  kd-ther'nus 
[L.  cothurnus;  Gr.  kothornos,  a  high  hunting-boot  among 
^  the  Greeks]:  among  the  anc,  the  buskin  or  boot  worn  by 
actors  in  tragedy,  while  the  soccus  or  sock  was  a  shoe  worn 
by  the  comic  actor;  tragedy:  see  Buskin.  Cothur'nal,  a. 
tragic;  solemn. 

COTICE,  CoTTiSE,  kot%s,OY  Cost,  kost,  in  Heraldry:  one 
of  the  diminutives  of  the  Bend  (q.v.). 

COTICULAR,  a.  kd-tik'u-ler  [L.  coticula,  dim.  of  cos,  a 
whetstone]:  pertaining  to  a  whetstone;  like  a  whetstone  or 
suitable  for  it. 

CO-TIDAL  LINES,  ko-tl'dal:  lines  on  a  chart  or  map, 
showing  the  places  of  high  tide  at  the  same  moment. 

COTILLIOK  or  Cotillon,  n.  ko-tWyun  [F.  cotillon,  a 
little  petticoat— from  cotte,  a  petticoat] :  a  lively  dance  of 
French  origin,  engaged  in  by  eight  persons — so  named  be- 
cause petticoats  were  seen  as  the  women  danced.  The 
quadrille  which  superseded  it  is  only  a  new  variety  of  the 
cotillion. 

COTINGA,  ko-tm'ga  (Ampelis):  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Ampelidm,  or  Chatterers  (q.v.),  having  a  rather 
feeble  and  deeply-cleft  bill,  and  feeding  both  on  insects 
and  on  fruits.  They  are  natives  of  S.  America,  inhabit 
moist  places,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  splendor  of 
plumage  of  the  males  during  the  breeding-season.  Azure 
and  purple  are  then  their  prevalent  colors.  During  the 
rest  of  the  year,  they  are  clothed  in  a  tame  gray  or  brow^n. 

COTLANDER,  n.  kbt'land-er:  a  cottager  who  keeps  a 
horse  for  plowing  his  small  piece  of  land. 

COTONEASTER,  ko-tdn-e-as'ter:  genus  of  plants  of  the 
nat.  ord.  Eosacece,  sub-ord.  Pomacew,  having  polygamous 
fiow^ers;  a  top-shaped  calyx,  with  five  short  teeth;  five 
small,  erect  petals;  erect,  short  stamens;  and  a  top-shaped 
fruit,  the  nuts  of  which  adhere  to  the  inside  of  the  calyx, 
but  do  not  cohere  in  the  centre.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, shrubs  or  small  trees;  some  of  them  evergreen;  with 
simple  undivided  leaves,  more  or  less  w^oolly  beneath; 
small  flowers  in  lateral  cymes;  and  small  fruit  not  agree- 
able to  the  palate,  but  the  bright  color  of  which,  and  its 
remaining  on  the  tree  in  winter,  make  them  very  orna- 
mental. G.  imlgaris  is  a  deciduous  species,  a  native  of  hills 
in  Europe  and  Siberia.    C.  tomeniosa  is  found  also  in  the 

14 


COTOPAXI— COTRONE. 

Alps.  Most  of  the  species  are  natives  of  mountainous 
parts  of  Asia;  they  are  suthciently  hardy  for  the  climate  of 
Britain,  and  have  become  there  common  ornamental 
shrubs.  Some  of  them,  as  C.  rotundifolia  and  G.  micro- 
phylla — both  from  the  north  of  India — are  much  planted 
for  covering  walls. 

COTOPAXI,  ko-to-paks'e:  loftiest  active  volcano  in  the 
world,  is  in  Ecuador,  in  the  e.  chain  of  the  Andes, 
abt.  50  m.  s.  of  the  equator.  Humboldt  gave  the  height  at 
18,800  ft. ;  Reiss,  the  tirst  to  ascend  it  (1872)  found  it  19,500 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  valley  at  its  foot,  however,  is  itself 
9,000  ft.  high.  The  upper  part  of  C,  a  perfect  cone  of  4,400 
ft.  is  entirely  covered  with  snow,  except  that  the  verge  of  the 
crater  is  a  bare  parapet  of  rock.  Whymper,  who  ascended 
1880  to  the  edge  of  the  crater,  gives  the  height  as  19,600  ft. 
Below  the  snow  is  a  well-marked  barren  belt  covered  with 
lichens  and  shrubs,  below  w^hich  again  is  torest.  Smoke 
issues  from  the  summit;  sounds  as  of  explosions  are  occa- 
sionally heard;  and  above,  a  fiery  glow  is  often  visible  by 
night.  Lava  rarely  flows  even  during  eruptions,  but 
flame,  smoke,  and  immense  volumes  of  ashes  are  then 
ejected;  and  when  the  heat  melts  large  masses  of  the  snow 
lying  on  the  sides,  destructive  floods  are  occasioned  in  the 
valleys  beneath.  The  first  eruption  recorded  was  in  1533. 
Others  followed  in  1698,  1743,  1744;  and  in  1768,  most 
terrible  of  all.  On  the  latter  occasion  ashes  were  carried 
130  m.,  and  thickly  covered  an  extensive  area.  C.  was 
quiet  till  1851.  In  1854,  1855,  and  1856  there  were  erup- 
tions of  more  or  less  violence. 

COTQUEAN,  n.  kot'kwen  {cot,  a  small  house,  and  queaUy 
a  woman:  a  probable  corruption  of  cock-qucan  =^  male- 
woman] :  an  effeminate  man ;  a  man  interfering  in  woman's 
concerns;  a  feeble  womanly  man.  Note. — Wedgwood  sug- 
gests, Dut.  kutte;  Fin.  kiUta,  the  distinctiv  features  of  a 
woman,  as  the  etymology  of  cot  in  cotquean:  in  OE.,  cut  is 
a  term  of  abuse  for  a  v/oman— hence  Cutty:  see  under 
Cut  2. 

COTRONfi.  ko  trond:  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Catan- 
zaro,  on  a  point  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea;  lat.  39  7 
n.,  long.  17°  iO' e.  Pop.  above  7,000.  It  is  almost  sur- 
rounded by  the  Esaro  (ancient  ^sarus),  which  here  has  its 
embouchure.  C.  is  very  strongly  fortified.  Its  streets  are 
dark  and  narrow,  and  its  port  of  no  importance.  C.  posses- 
ses interest  from  its  antiquity  and  historic  associations.  It 
owes  its  origin  to  a  colony  of  Achgeans,  as  far  back  as  B.C. 
710,  its  ancient  name  being  Croton  or  Crotona.  It  soon 
became  prosperous,  wealthy,  and  powerful.  Its  walls 
measured  12  m.  in  circumference,  and  the  territory  over 
which  it  extended  its  sway  was  considerable.  Its  inhabi- 
tants were  celebrated  for  athletic  exercises,  and  they  car- 
ried off  most  of  the  prizes  at  the  Olympic  games.  Milo 
w^as  its  most  renowned  athlete.  Pythagoras  settled  here 
about  the  middle  of  b.c.  6th  c;  but  the  influence  M^hich 
he  exercised  by  means  of  a  league  of  his  formation,  be- 

15 


COTSWOLD— COTTA. 

came  obnoxious  to  the  citizens,  and  he  was  expelled. 
About  B.C.  510,  C.  sent  forth  an  army  oi  above  100,000 
men  to  fight  the  Sybarites,  who  were  utterly  defeated,  and 
their  city  destroyed.  The  war  with  Pyrrhus  completely 
ruined  the  importance  of  C,  and  B.C.  2d  c.  it  had  sunk  so 
low,  that  a  colony  of  Romans  had  to  be  sent  to  recruit  its 
well-nigh  exhausted  population.  It  never  recovered  its 
prosperity.  Some  ruins  of  the  old  are  near  the  modern 
city,  the  most  important  of  which  is  a  Doric  column,  part 
%  of  a  once  magnificent  temple  to  Juno,  on  Cape  Colonne  or 
Nau  (the  Naus  <^  the  ancients). 

COTSWOLD,  n.  kois'wold  [AS.  cote,  a  hovel;  wold,  a 
wood]:  inclosures  for  sheep  in  an  open  country;  a  breed 
of  sheep.  Cotswold  Hills,  or  Coteswold,  range  of 
oolitic  and  lias  hills,  traversing  the  middle  of  Gloucester- 
shire, England,  from  Chipping  Camden  in  the  n.e.,  by 
Cheltenham  and  Strou-1,  to  near  Bath  in  the  s.w.  They 
are  parallel  to  the  Avon  and  Severn,  and  separate  the 
Lower  Severn  from  the  sources  of  the  Thames.  They  are 
54  m.  long,  and  in  some  parts  8  broad,  and  cover  312  sq. 
m.,  with  an  average  height  of  500  to  600  ft.  Thejiighest 
points  are  Cleave  Hill,  1,134  ft.,  and  Broadway  Hill, 
1,086  ft.  The  soil  is  a  clayey  loam,  with  gravel  and  stone- 
brash.  The  surface  is  generally  bare,  with  little  wood; 
corn,  turnips,  and  sanfoin  are  grown,  and  coarse- woolled 
sheep  fed  on  them.  At  Stroud,  they  are  crossed  by  the 
Thames  and  Severn  Canal,  and  the  Swindon  Junction 
railway. 

COTTA,  kot'd:  name  of  a  very  old  German  publishing- 
house,  established  at  Tubingen  1649,  and  still  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  in  Germany.  The  family  came  from 
Italy  about  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century. 

JoHANN  FiiiEDRiCH  Freiherr  VON  C.  was  the  most 
prominent  member  of  the  family,  a  theologian,  and  one  of 
the  most  eminent  publishers  that  Germany  ever  produced: 
1764,  Apr.27— 1832,  Dec,  29;  b.  Stuttgart.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Univ.  of  Tubingen,  and  for  some  time  practiced  as  an 
advocate.  In  1787,  he  undertook  to  conduct  the  family 
book-trade  at  Tubingen;  and  in  1795  established  XheHoren, 
a  literary  journal,  under  the  editorship  of  Shiller.  In  the 
same  year,  he  commenced  two  larger  periodicals,  the  Poll- 
UscJien  Aniialen,  and  the  Jahrhuclier  der  Baukunde.  In 
1798,  he  established  the  Allgemeine  Zeitiing  (at  Augsburg, 
now  published  at  Munich),  the  Almanack  fur  Damen,  and 
similar  works.  C.  now  began  to  publish  the  works  of  the 
illustrious  modern  authors  of  Germany,  such  as  Goethe, 
Herder,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Jean  Paul,  Tieck,  Voss,  The- 
rese  Huber,  Matthisson,  the  Humboldts,  Joh.  von  Miiller, 
and  Spittler.  Besides  the  periodicals  already  mentioned, 
C.  established  the  MorgenUatt  and  the  Liter aturblatt,  and 
carried  on  the  Kunstblatt,  founded  by  Schorn.  In  1810, 
he  went  to  live  at  Stuttgart.  The  nobility  of  his  family, 
which  dated  far  back,  was  confirmed  in  his  person  under 
the  title  of  Fi'eihen*  C.  von  Cottendorf .    In  1824,  he  intro- 

16 


COTTAGE— COTTIN. 

duced  the  first  steam-press  into  Bavaria,  and  shortly  after- 
ward founded  at  Munich  the  Literary  and  Artistic  Insti- 
tute. C.'s  political  principles  were  liberal,  but  temperate. 
In  the  diet  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  afterward  as  pres.  of  the 
Second  Chamber,  he  was  always  the  fearless  defender  of 
constitutional  rights.  In  manners,  C.  was  simple  and 
pure;  and  though  covered  with  'ititles  and  orders  from  dif- 
ferent governments,  he  had  neither  the  pride  nor  the  self- 
ishness of  a  hereditary  patrician.  The  first  Wiirtemberg 
proprietor  who  abolished  servitude  on  his  estates,  C.  also 
furthered  the  interests  of  his  farmers  by  establishing 
model-farms,  and  by  setting  an  example  in  all  rural  im- 
provements. 

COTTAGE,  n.  kot'tij  [mid.  L.  cotdgmm,  a  serf's  dwell- 
ing: Fin.  koti,  a  dwelling  place:  AS.  cotSj  a  hovel  (see 
Cote  2)]:  any  small  detached  house;  a  small  country  house. 
Cot  tager,  n.  -er,  one  who  lives  in.  Cot  ter,  Cot  tar, 
n.  Mt'ter,  and  Cot  tier,  n.  kot'yer,  contractions  for  cot- 
tager. Cottage  orne,  or'nd  [F.  adorned,  decorated] : 
a  cottage  of  a  superior  and  ornate  character,  the  residence 
of  one  in  good  circumstances.  Cottage-piano,  n.  a  small 
upright  piano. 

COT  TAGE:  small  dwelling-house,  detached  from  other 
buildings,  and  usually  one  story  in  height.  Originally 
applied  to  a  humble  order  of  dwellings  in  the  country,  the 
term  C.  now  embraces  a  wide  variety  of  structures,  from 
the  cottage  orne  of  the  French,  to  the  simple  but  not  unat- 
tractive cabin  in  the  English  rural  districts,  and  the  moun- 
tain chalet  of  Switzerland.  In  England,  where  universal 
security  enables  the  people  to  establish  dwellings  in  retired 
and  picturesque  situations,  the  building  of  cottages  has 
been  brought  to  great  perfection.  For  the  different  styles 
of  this  class  of  houses,  see  the  elaborate  work  of  J.  C.  Lou- 
don, on  Cottage  Architecture.  The  subject  of  proper  C. 
accommodation,  as  regards  the  laboring  peasantry  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  has  lately  engaged  serious  attention:  see 
papers  in  the  Transactions  of  the  National  Assoc.  for  the  Pro- 
motion  of  Social  Science.  The  best  methods  of  keeping  cows, 
pigs,  poultry,  bees,  etc.,  are  ordinarily  described  under  the 
comprehensive  title  of  C.  economy:  see  Cobbett's  Cottage 
Economy;  also  Chambers's  Information  for  the  People. 

COTTBUS,  or  KOTTBUS,  kot'hos:  town  of  Prussia, 
province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Spree,  about  70  m.  s.e.  of 
Berlin.  It  is  an  ancient  place,  surrounded  by  walls,  and  it 
has  an  old  castle  with  towers,  a  royal  palace,  a  gymnasium, 
and  manufactures  of  beer,  woolens,  linen,  leather,  and  to- 
bacco.   Pop.  (1885),  28,265. 

COTTER,  n.  kbt'ter  [a  probable  corruption  of  Cutter]: 
a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  wood  or  other  material  employed 
to  fasten  the  parts  of  a  structure;  a  key:  see  Gib. 

COTTID^,  kot'tl-de:  family  of  spiny-finned  fishes; 
type.  Coitus. 

COTTIN,  kO'tang,  Sophie:  1773-1807,  Aug.  25;  b.  Ton- 
n 


COTTING— COTTLE. 

neins  (Lot  et-Garonne):  popular  French  authoress.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Ristaud.  Educated  at  Bordeaux,  she 
was  married,  when  only  17  years  of  age,  to  M.  Cottin,  a 
Parisian  banker,  who  left  her  a  widow  at  the  age  of  20. 
She  had  early  shown  a  love  of  literature;  and  to  cheer  the 
solitude  of  her  affliction  (for  she  had  no  children),  she  be- 
took herself  to  the  composition  of  verses,  and  even  ven- 
tured on  a  long  history.  But  in  fiction  she  was  destined 
to  win  unfading  laurels.  In  1798,  appeared  Claire  d  Albe; 
in  1800,  Malmna;  in  1802,  Amelie  Mansfield;  in  1805,  Ma- 
thilde;  and  in  1806,  Elisabeth,  ou  les  Exiles  de  Siberie,  a 
work  which  has  been  translated  into  most  European  lan- 
guages, and  has  always  been  extraordinarily  popular  with 
the  young. 

COTTING,  John  Ruggles,  m.d.,  ll.d:  1787-1867,  Oct. 
18;  b.  Acton,  Mass.:  scientist.  He  was  educated  at  Am- 
herst College,  the  medical  school  of  Dartmouth  College 
and  Harvard  Univ.;  ordained  a  Congl.  minister  1810, 
studied  chemistry  and  the  allied  sciences,  manufactured  a 
line  of  chemical  compounds  never  before  attempted  in  this 
country,  at  Boston,  1812-15;  was  prof,  of  chemistry  at  Am- 
herst College  and  the  Pittsfield  Medical  School;  and,  re- 
moving to  Augusta,  Ga.,  1835,  made  an  agricultural  and 
geological  survey  of  Burke  and  Richland  cos.  on  the  invi- 
tation of  the  leading  cotton-planters.  A  copy  of  his  report 
with  the  analyses  of  the  cotton  lands,  and  finely  executed 
maps  and  drawings,  w^as  solicited  by  the  emperor  of  Russia 
for  the  royal  library.  Subsequently  he  undertook  a  similar 
survey  of  the  entire  state,  but  had  to  desist  from  lack  of 
funds.  Among  his  published  works  are  an  IntroducUon  to 
Chemistry/  {Boston,  1822),  and  Synopsis  of  Lectures  on  Geology 
(Trenton,  1825). 

COTTLE,  kdt'l,  Joseph:  abt.  1774-1853;  b.  England: 
poet.  In  early  life  he  was  a  bookseller,  then  became  a 
publisher  in  Bristol,  and  brought  out  the  first  poems  of 
Southey  and  Coleridge,  1796.  Re  was  noted  for  his  stead- 
fast friendship  for  those  poets  in  their  adverse  days,  as  well 
as  for  his  own  poetical  writings — Malwrn  Hills,  Alfred,  and 
The  Fall  of  Cambria,  Reminiscences  of  Coleridge  and  Southey 
(1847),  and  various  essays. 

Id 


COTTON. 

COTTON,  n.  kot'tn  [F.  coton;  Sp.  algodon;  Arab.  qoHon; 
prov.  F.  coutou,  wool,  flock,  cotton]:  a  soft  downy  sub- 
stance resembling  fine  wool,  consisting  of  hairs  attached  to 
the  seeds  of  a  plant  grown  in  warm  countries;  the  thread 
made  from  it;  the  cloth  made  from  it;  calico:  Adj.  made 
of  or  pertaining  to  cotton.  Cottony,  a.  kot'tn-i,  soft  like 
cotton.  Cotton-gin,  -fin,  a  machine  to  separate  the  seeds 
from  the  cotton-wool.  Cotton-plant,  the  various  species 
of  Gossyp'iam,  ord.  Malvdcem,i^YO(\\icmg  the  cotton  of  com- 
merce. CoTTON-PRESS,  a  prcss  in  which  cotton  is  baled 
for  transportation  and  storage.  Cotton-thistle,  the  book- 
name  for  Onopordon,  a  genus  of  composite  plants:  see 
Thistle. 

COTTON,  V.  kot'tn  [W.  cyteno,  to  agree,  to  consent]:  in 
OE.,  to  agree;  to  succeed.  Cot  toning,  imp.  Cottoned, 
pp.  kbt'tnd. 

COT'TON:  important  vegetable  fibre,  extensively  culti- 
vated in  various  parts  of  the  globe,  within  the  35th  parallels 
of  latitude. 

1.  Botanical  and  Commercial  Classiflmtions. — C.  is  the 
produce  of  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Gossypium,  which 
belongs  to  the  nat.  ord.  Malvacem,  and  is  thus  allied  to  Mal- 
low, Hollyhock,  Hibiscus,  etc.,  the  general  resemblance  to 
which  is  very  apparent,  both  in  foliage  and  in  flowers. 
The  species  are  partly  shrubs,  partly  herbaceous,  and  either 
perennial  or  annual;  they  are  natives  of  the  tropical  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  but  their  cultivation  has 
extended  far  into  the  temperate  zones.  They  all  have  leaves 
with  three  to  five  lobes,  which  in  a  very  young  state  are 
often  sprinkled  with  black  points,  and  rather  large  flowers, 
mostly  yellow,  but  sometimes  in  whole  or  in  part  purple; 
the  flowers  very  soon  fall  off;  they  grow  singly  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves,  and  are  surrounded  at  the  base  by  three 
large,  heart-shaped,  cut  or  toothed,  involucral  leaves  or 
bracts,  partially  growing  together  as  one.  The  fruit  is  a 
3-5-celled  capsule,  springing  open  when  ripe  by  3-5  valves, 
and  containing  numerous  seeds  enveloped  in  C,  w^hich  is 
generally  white,  but  sometimes  yellow,  and  issues  elasti- 
cally  from  the  capsule  after  it  has  burst  open.  The  figure 
represents  a  species  of  C.  plant  found  in  India,  and  shows 
the  manner  in  which  the  C.  escapes  from  the  capsule. 
Some  of  the  other  kinds  have  the  flowers  larger  in  propor- 
tion, and  the  leaves  divided  into  more  numerous  and  much 
deeper  and  narrower  lobes;  but  the  general  appearance  of 
all  is  very  similar.  Botanists  differ  in  opinion  as  to  the 
number  of  distinct  species,  and  there  are  very  many  varie- 
ties in  cultivation,  the  number  of  which,  throuc:!!  climatic  in- 
fluences and  other  causes,  is  continually  inereasinp:;  but  there 
are  certain  leading  peculiarities  on  account  of  which  some 
botanists  and  practical  farmers  rcckice  all,  at  least  of  the 
cultivated  kinds,  to  four  primary  species— viz.,  1.  Gossypium 
Barhadense;  2.  G.  Herbaceum  or  Indicum;  3.  G.  Peruvia- 
num;  and  4.  G.  Arhoreum.  The  produce  of  the  first  species 
is  the  most  valuable.  The  beautiful  long-stapled  silky  wool 
known  as  '  Sea  Island  '  is  a  variety,  and  is  grown  exclu- 

19 


COTTON. 

sively  upon  the  islands  and  a  portion  of  the  mainland  of 
Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and  Florida;  the  saline  ingre- 
dients of  the  soil  and  atmosphere  being  indispensable 
elements  of  the  growth.  The  plant  bears  a  yellow  flower, 
and  the  seeds  are  small,  black,  and  quite  smooth,  and  the 
wool  is  easily  separated  therefrom;  but  when  sown  far 
inland,  away  from  the  saline  influences  of  the  coast,  the 
seeds  increase  in  size,  and  become  covered  with  innumera- 
ble short  hairs.  A  large  percentage  of  the  crops  raised  in 
Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Texas,  etc.,  are  varieties 
of  this  species,  though,  owing  to  climatic  influences,  the 
wool  is  shorter  in  staple  and  less  easily  separated  from  the 


Cotton  (Gossypium  tricuspidatum). 


seeds  than  Sea  Island.  The  commercial  value  of  the  latter 
kind  varies  from  25  cents  to  75  cents  per  lb.,  rare  speci- 
mens sometimes  realizing  |1.25  or  |1.50  per  lb.  The  better 
descriptions  of  Egyptian  cotton  belong  to  G.  Barhadense, 
and  bring  25  cents  to  62  cents  per  lb.  in  the  Liverpool 
market.  The  short-staple  varieties,  known  as  New  Orleans, 
Mobile,  etc.,  sell  at  from  10  to  20  cents,  extra  qualities 
sometimes  bringing  25  cents  per  lb.  G.  herhaceum  is 
found  in  India,  China,  Egypt,  etc.  The  principal  com- 
mercial varieties  are  those  known  as  Surat,  Madras,  and 
short-stapled  Egyptian.  It  is  a  small  shrubby  plant,  bears 
a  yellow  flower,  the  seeds  are  covered  wath  short  grayish 
down,  and  the  staple  produced,  though  not  long,  is  very 

30 


COTTON. 

fine.  Its  price  varies  from  7  to  18  cents  per  lb.  A  variety 
is  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and  the  C.  known  as 
nankeen  is  thought  to  belong  to  this  species.  G.  herhaceum 
can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  colder  countries  than  any 
other  species  of  C.  plant.  The  third  species  is  a  native  of 
S.  America,  and  the  '  green  seed  '  C.  of  the  United  States 
appears  to  be  a  variety.  The  stem  reaches  10  to  15  ft.  in 
height,  the  flowers  are  yellow,  and  the  capsules  contain 
eight  or  ten  black  seeds,  firmly  attached  in  a  cone-like 
mass.  The  wool  is  long  and  strong-stapled,  and  in  value 
stands  next  to  Sea  Island  and  long-stapled  Egyptian. 
Maranham,  Bahia,  and  Maceio  are  varieties  which  sell  in 
Liverpool  at  from  16  to  28  cents  per  lb.  G.  arhoreum  is 
found  in  India,  China,  etc.,  and,  as  its  name  imports,  is  a 
large  tree-like  plant.  It  bears  a  red  flower,  and  produces 
a  tine  yellowish-white  wool.  Varieties  of  it  have  been 
long  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and,  with  the  requi- 
site soil  and  climate,  are  said  to  produce  a  wool  some- 
what resembling  Sea  Island. 

2.  Cultivation. — The  plant  is  a  very  delicate  organism, 
and  requires  a  peculiar  soil  and  climate  for  its  due  devel- 
opment. The  method  of  cultivation  is  much  the  ^ame  in 
the  various  countries  where  the  fibre  is  grown;  but  the 
most  perfect  system  is  that  practiced  in  the  United  States. 
Although  the  plant  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  an  annual,  it 
is  found  more  profitable  to  destroy  the  shrub,  after  the 
crop  is  gathered,  and  sow  new  seed  every  j^ear.  The 
preparation  of  the  land  takes  place  during  the  winter 
months.  After  the  ground  has  has  been  thoroughly 
plowed,  and  as  soon  as  all  symptoms  of  frost  have  disap- 
peared, the  soil  is  laid  off  into  rows  varying  in  width  from 
3  to  4  ft.,  according  to  situation  and  quality  of  the  soil. 
The  seed  is  then  sown  along  the  centre  of  the  beds  in  a 
straight  furrow,  made  with  a  small  plow  or  opener;  but  in 
some  plantations  the  seed  is  sown  in  holes  from  12  to  18 
inches  apart.  The  sowing  commences  in  March,  and  gen- 
erally continues  through  April;  but  sometimes,  owing  to 
late  spring  frosts,  the  planting  is  prolonged  to  May.  The 
young  shoot  appears  above  ground  in  about  eight  to  ten 
days,  and  is  then  and  subsequently  weeded  and  thinned. 
Blooming  takes  place  about  the  beginning  of  June — in 
early  seasons,  toward  the  latter  end  of  May;  the  average 
date  is  about  June  5.  As  a  general  rule,  C.  is  a  dry- 
weather  plant.  For  plowing,  the  planter  requires  just 
suflicient  rain  to  give  the  soil  a  moist  and  spongy  texture. 
During  the  early  stages  of  its  growth,  the  crop  flourishes 
best  with  a  warm,  steamy  sort  of  weather,  with  an  occa- 
sional shower  until  blooming;  too  much  rain  being  pro- 
ductive of  weeds  and  wood  at  the  expense  of  wool,  while 
a  severe  drought  produces  a  stunted  plant  forced  into  too 
early  maturity,  and  resulting  in  a  small  and  light-stapled 
crop.  Much,  however,  depends  on  the  position  of  the 
plantation;  lands  in  hilly  or  upland  districts  obviously 
requiring  more  moisture  than  those  in  the  plains  and  river- 
bottoms.  From  the  date  of  blooming  to  the  close  of  the 
picking  season,  warm,  dry  weather  is  essential.  Picking 
i\ 


COTTON. 

generally  commences  in  Aug.,  occasionally  in  July,  and 
continues  until  the  occurrence  of  frost — about  the  end  of 
Oct.  or  beginning  of  Nov. — puts  a  stop  to  the  further 
growth  of  the  plant.  All  the  available  hands  of  the  plan- 
tation, young  and  old,  are  called  into  full  employment 
during  the  harvest.  The  C.  is  gathered  into  baskets  or 
bags  suspended  from  the  shoulders  of  the  pickers,  and 
when  the  crop  has  been  secured,  it  is  spread  out  and  dried, 
and  then  separated  from  the  seeds.  The  latter  process  was 
formerly  performed  by  hand — a  tedious  operation,  by 
which  one  hand  could  clean  only  a  pound  or  so  a  day;  but 
since  the  invention  of  the  saw-gin  by  Eli  Whitney,  1793, 
the  process  of  cleaning  has  been  both  rapid  and  eltectual. 
This  machine  is  composed  of  a  hopper,  having  one  side 
formed  of  strong  parallel  wires  placed  so  close  together  as 
to  exclude  the  passage  of  the  seeds  from  within.  The 
wool  is  dragged  through  the  apertures  by  means  of  circular- 
saws  attached  to  a  large  roller,  and  made  to  revolve  between 
the  wires,  the  seeds  sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  hopper. 
This  process  is  adopted  only  in  cleaning  the  short-stapled 
varieties  of  American  C,  the  seeds  of  which  adhere  so 
firmly  to  the  wool  as  to  require  a  considerable  amount  of 
force  to  separate  them.  The  Sea  Island  variety  is  cleaned 
by  being  passed  through  two  small  rollers,  which  revolve 
in  opposite  directions,  and  easily  throw  oil"  the  hard 
smooth  seeds.  In  India,  though  the  saw-  and  other  ma- 
chine-gins have  been  introduced  in  some  districts,  the  wool 
is  mostly  cleaned  by  means  of  the  primitive  roller.  Both 
descriptions  of  gins  are  used  in  Egypt  and  Brazil.  The  C. 
cleaned  by  the  roller-gin,  being  uninjured  thereby  in  staple, 
realizes  the  better  price;  but  the  deterioration  caused  by 
the  sa»w-gin  is  compensated  for  by  the  greatly  increased 
quantity  cleaned;  the  latter  turning  out  four  or  five  times 
as  much  work  as  the  former  in  an  equal  space  of  time,  and 
thereby  considerably  reducing  the  expense  of  cleaning. 
The  introduction  of  improved  gins  has  very  largely  in- 
creased the  production  of  cotton  in  Egypt  and  Brazil 
during  the  past  14  years. 

3  Production  and  Distribution. — The  oldest  C. -producing 
country  is  India,  in  which  empire  the  plant  has  been  grown 
and  manufactured  from  time  immemorial.  Early  mention 
is  made  of  it  in  the  annals  of  Egypt  also,  and  it  is  believed 
to  have  a  high  antiquity  in  all  parts  of  Africa.  In  the  west- 
ern world,  it  was  found  by  Columbus,  but  was  not  so  ex- 
tensively cultivated  as  in  the  east;  though  during  the  past 
half -century  the  culture  there  has  outstripped,  both  in 
quantity  and  quality,  the  produce  of  the  Old  World.  Down 
to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the  C.  con- 
sumers of  Europe  were  dependent  upon  the  E.  and  W.  In- 
dies and  the  Levant  for  their  raw  material;  but  the  inven- 
tive genius,  superior  farming,  and  greater  energy  brought 
to  bear  on  the  culture  in  the  United  States,  had,  prior  to 
the  war  of  secession,  almost  secured  the  monopoly  of  sup- 
plying the  manufactures  of  Great  Britain  and  the  European 
continent  with  this  valuable  fibre.  The  average  import  of 
American  cotton  into  Great  Britain,  1858-60,  reached  79 per 

•22 


COTTON. 


cent,  of  the  entire  arrivals;  during  the  war  the  proportion 
fell  to  3^  per  cent.;  but  in  1871,  it  rose  to  58  per  cent. 

History  of  tlie  Cotton  Trade. —  United  States. — The  intro- 
duction of  the  plant  is  traced  as  far  back  as  1536,  but  the 
export  trade  did  not  commence  until  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies later,  the  first  shipment  of  importance  being  about 
2,000  lbs.  in  1770.  In  1791,  the  amount  reached  189,316 
lbs.  In  1793,  the  invention  of  the  saw  gin  gave  a  new  stim- 
ulus to  the  trade,  and  in  1800,  the  exports  reached 
17,789,803  lbs.;  from  which  period  the  shipments  have 
continued  to  increase,  being  over  124  000,000  lbs.  in  1821, 
277,000,000  lbs.  in  1831,  530,000,000  lbs.  in  1841,  927,000,- 
000  lbs.  in  1851,  and  about  2,160,000,000  lbs.  in  1860. 
Simultaneously  with  this  rapid  increase  in  production, 
there  was,  down  to  1851,  a  gradual  decline  in  the  price  of 
the  wool,  in  consequence  of  improved  processes  of  cultiva- 
tion and  cleaning,  and  the  cheapening  of  carriage,  etc. ;  the 
average  price  in  Liverpool,  in  1793,  being  Is.  M.  per  lb.; 
in  1801,  2s.  2d.\  in  1811,  Is.  2d.  \  in  1821,  9^(^.;  in  1831,  M.\ 
in  1841,  ^Id.)  in  1851,  5fcZ.  per  lb.;  from  which  period, 
however,  the  downward  course  was  not  only  checked,  but 
a  movement  in  the  opposite  direction  commenced,  the 
average  for  1856-61,  being  Id.  per  lb.;  the  low  prices  cur- 
rent having  caused  consumption  to  overtake  production. 
The  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1861,  and  its  contiouance 
until  1865,  completely  revolutionized  the  industry  of  the 
South.  The  abolition  of  slavery  added  materially  to  the 
cost  of  producing  cotton;  and  this,  with  the  general  rise 
which  has  taken  place  in  values  of  all  kinds  during  the 
past  12  or  15  years,  has  raised  the  price  at  which  it  will  pay 
to  sell  American  cotton  in  Liverpool  to  nearly  %d.  per  lb., 
against  an  average  of  Hd.  per  lb.  for  the  five  years  ended 
with  1861.  During  the  war,  middling  Orleans  touched  2«. 
'7\d.  per  lb.  In  1867,  Dec,  there  was  a  decline  to  7|d  — 
every  one  expecting  a  return  of  old  prices;  in  a  few  months, 
there  was  a  reaction  to  Is.  \d.  Since  then  the  tendency 
has  been  downward;  the  average  for  1875  being  lid., 
against  M.  in  1874,  and  M.  in  1873. 

The  following  table  is  interesting  as  showing  the  wide 
fluctuations  which  have  taken  place  in  the  exports  of  cot- 
ton from  the  United  States  during  the  12  years  ending  in 
1871,  expressed  in  millions  oilh^.  In  1871-2,  there  was  a 
reduction  to  933,000,000  lbs.,  owing  to  a  failure  of  the  crop. 


Weight,  ^^JY 

lbs.  ' 

cents. 

1859-  60                1767.6  10.85 

1860-  61                  307.5  11.07 

1861-  62                    5.0  23.30 

1862-  63                   11.4  58.43 

1863-  64                   10.8  83.43 

1864-  65                     6.6  86.58 


Weight, 

cents. 

1865-  66   650.6  43.24 

1866-  67   661.5  30.1 

1867-  68   784.3  19.2 

1868-  69   644.3  24.9 

1869-  70   900.4  23.3 

1870-  71   1462.9  14.8 


In  1874-5,  the  weight  exported  was  about  1,178,700,000 
lbs.;  in  1878-9,  1,628,400,000  lbs.,  and  in  1879-80,  1,822,- 
000,000  lbs. 

23 


COTTON. 


STATEMENT  OP  THE  PRODUCTION,  DISTRIBUTION,  AND  AVERAGE  PRICE 
OF  FIFTY  CROPS  (1826-75)  OF  COTTON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
ACTUAL  AND  PROPORTIONAL,  IN  AVERAGE  PERIODS  OP  FIVE  YEARS 
EACH  (expressed  IN  THOUSANDS  OF  BALES). 


Average  Produce 

o 

Proportional 

of 

u 
O 

Produce  of 

Periods 

3 

of 

o 

a 

Five 
Years. 

eorgia  via 
Savannah. 

,  Carolina  v 
Charleston 

.  Carolina 
Virginia. 

Florida  vii 
palachicola, 

Alabama  via 
1  Mobile. 

ouisiana,  M 
rk.,  Tennes: 
and  Texas 

verage  T 

eorgia. 

Carolina. 

N.  Carolina  ; 
1  Virginia. 

o 

labama. 

suisiana,  etc 

O 

m 

< 

< 

O 

m 

< 

1826-30. 

216 

152 

91 

4 

84 

302 

849 

25^ 

m 

10| 

35^ 
38| 

1831-35. 

252 

194 

69 

29 

143 

424 

1111 

22| 

m 

23 

12| 

1836-40. 

267 

249 

44 

96 

295 

673 

1624 

m 

151 

5| 

18i 

41| 

1841-45. 

246 

314 

28 

141 

421 

874 

2024 

12i 

15i- 

7 

20| 

1846-50. 

285 

341 

21 

161 

410 

993 

2211 

12| 

15^ 

1 

7i 

18? 

44-1 

1851-55. 

338 

449 

42 

168 

508 

1377 

2882 

Hi 

15i 

H 

5| 

17f 

47| 

1856-60. 

400 

458 

63 

154 

646 

1900 

3621 

12# 

11 

If 

4i 

171 

521 

1866-70. 

371 

192 

188 

56 

314 

1299 

2420 

15| 

8 

7| 

2i 

13 

53| 

1871-75. 

604 

375 

469 

14 

329 

1939 

8730 

16| 

10 

12-1 

3 
8 

8| 

52 

Periods 
of 
Five 
Years. 

Average 
Exports  to 

Av'ge  Consumption  of  U.  S. 
{N.  of  Virginia  only). 

Average  Stock  at  close  of 
Season. 

Total  Average  Deliveries. 

Proportional 
Distribution  of 
Total  Average 
Deliveries. 

Average 
Price  p.  lb. 
of  Whole 
Crop. 

Great  Britain. 

France. 

Other  Foreign 
Ports. 

Total. 

■J 

61| 
60f 
59| 
58| 
53| 
553 
54f 
49| 
50| 

1  France. 

bp 

|| 

6 

5| 
3| 
5i 

m 

13i 
13| 

O  M 

c  -2 

O  e« 
c  S 

6^ 

13 

171 
15| 
16 
21| 
20 
18| 
32^ 
281 

Five  Years. 

^* 

QO 
fl 

c. 

9| 

8x^5 
K15 

8f 
lOf 
23| 

1826-30. 
1831-35. 
1836-40. 
1841-45. 
1846-50. 
1851-55. 
1856-60. 
1866-70. 
1871-75. 

539 
673 
966 
1181 
1180 
1595 
1970 
1234 
1898 

173 

202 
308 
347 
308 
387 
464 
237 
261 

46 
41 

88 
172 
229 
323 
485 
206 
507 

758 
916 
1362 
1700 
1717 
2305 
2919 
1677 
2666 

114 
193 
255 
325 
477 
576 
678 
798 
1062 

35 
58 
54 
91 
163 
126 
119 
95 
85 

872 

HOP 

1617 
2025 
2194 
2881 
3597 
2475 
3727 

191 
19 

14 

13^ 
12| 

9| 
7 

c. 

m 
ii| 
i2i 

81 
9| 

lU 

28 

The  figures  between  1861-65  were  disturbed  by  the  war. 
Until  a  few  years  before  the  war,  the  bulk  of  the  crops 
grown  in  the  various  states  were  shipped  at  the  several 
ports  of  each  state — Alabama  C.  at  Mobile,  Georgia  C.  at 
Savannah,  and  so  on ;  but  the  more  general  introduction  of 
railways  has  diverted  a  great  deal  of  C.  from  the  old  chan- 
nels. The  increase  under  the  head  'N.  Carolina  and  Vir- 
ginia' is  owing  almost  entirely  to  this  cause.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  in  the  last  line  of  the  above  ta- 
ble is  the  large  proportionate  increase  in  the  consumption 
of  the  United  States. 

Cotton  seed  is  remarkably  rich  in  oil,  now  used  for  a  va- 
riety of  purposes.  The  crop  of  C.  seed  in  the  United  States 
amounts  to  about  3,000,000  tons,  or  180,000,000  bushels;  in 

24 


COTTOK. 


1881,  the  oil-mills  consumed  180,000  tons  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  C,  seed  oil,  while  less  than  half  of  the  remainder 
was  used  for  fertilizers,  for  seed,  and  for  feeding  stock 
(the  residue  being  totally  lost).  C.-seed  cake  or  meal  is 
especially  rich  in  nutritious  matter  for  farm-stock,  causing 
cattle  to  fatten  rapidly,  and  producing  very  rich  milk 
(though  the  butter  is  not  improved).  Boiled  C.  seed,  with 
hay  or  straw,  is  admirable  feeding.  The  oil  is  admirable 
for  culinary  purposes,  and  is  said  to  be  equal  to  the  best 
lard. 

East  Indies. — After  the  United  States,  the  most  exten- 
sive C. -producing  country  is  India.  The  plant  is  indi- 
genous to  the  soil,  and  the  culture  and  manufacture  have 
existed  from  prehistoric  times.  A  century  ago,  the  west- 
ern world  was  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the  east  for 
its  C.  goods,  but  within  the  past  hundred  years  the  order 
of  things  has  been  almost  reversed.  The  mills  of  Lanca- 
shire, England,  and  those  of  New  England  and  other  parts 
of  the  United  States  are  now  in  successful  competition 
with  the  famed  looms  of  India,  and  the  natives  of  that  vast 
empire  find  it  cheaper  to  take  English  calicoes  in  exchange 
for  their  raw  C,  than  it  is  to  manufacture  their  own  cloth- 
ing. The  first  import  of  East  Indian  C.  into  Great  Britain 
was  in  1783.  The  average  receipts,  from  that  year  to  1792, 
were  65,550  lbs.;  from  1793  to  1800,  2,223,039  lbs;  1801  to 
1810,  6,357,000  lbs.;  1811  to  1820,  24,016,805  lbs.;  1821  to 
1830,  18,835,567  lbs  ;  1841  to  1850,  79,815,403  lbs.;  and  1851 
to  1859,  23,017,310  lbs.  In  1820,  only  224  pounds  weight 
of  C. -yarn,  and  14,191,177  yards  of  goods,  were  exported 
from  Britain  to  India;  but  in  1880,  the  figures,  including 
shipments  via  Suez,  were  44,000,000  lbs.  yarn,  and  1,670,- 
000,000  yards  of  calico.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the 
total  amount  of  C.  raised  in  India;  but  the  fibre  is  grown 
all  over  the  peninsula,  and  is  used  for  all  the  purposes  for 
which  we  employ  C,  flax,  wool,  and  mostly  hemp.  The 
following  figures  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  ex- 
port branch  of  the  Indian  cotton-trade;  they  show  also  the 
expansion  incidental  to  the  American  war. 

WEIGHT  AND  VALUE  OF  COTTON  EXPORTED  FROM  INDIA. 


lbs.  £ 

1857           319,653.524  4,487.949 

1860           345,953.569  5,687,6-24 

1863           473,678,421  18,779,040 


lbs.  £ 

1866   803,150,424  35,587,389 

1869   691,196,905  19.778,924 

1872   809,240,087  21,272,430 


Prior  to  the  civil  war  in  America,  the  supply  of  C.  from 
India  was  merely  supplementary  to  that  from  the  United 
States.  With  a  small  crop  in  America,  prices  advanced, 
and  the  imports  from  India  increased;  but  with  a  large 
American  yield,  prices  drooped,  and  ther  eceipts  from  In- 
dia fell  oil';  the  surplus  produce  finding  its  way  to  China, 
or  being  consumed  in  the  interior.  This  is  in  a  measure  still 
the  case  (as  is  shown  in  the  above  figures),  though  not  to 
the  same  extent  as  formerly.  By  the  introduction  of  im- 
proved methods  of  cultivation,  cleaning,  etc. ,  the  quality 
of  Indian  C.  has  been  greatly  improved;  and  it  is  now 
much  more  generally  used  than  it  was  12  or  15  years  ago. 
In  1879-80  the  E.  Indies  exported  1,189,000  bales  to  Europe; 


COTTON. 

1880,  had  13,307  looms,  1,471,000  spindles,  and  89,537  per- 
sons employed  in  C.  manufacture;  1887-88,  produced 
1,508,000  bales;  and  1887,  had  2,420,000  spindles  in  opera- 
tion. 

Brazil. — The  C.  trade  of  Brazil  has  had  extraordinary 
development  during  the  past  ten  years,  ovv'ing  to  the  im- 
petus given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  during  the 
American  war,  and  to  the  general  adoption  of  the  saw  gin 
in  place  of  the  roller-gin;  this  substitution  of  the  American 
gin  has  produced  quantity  at  the  expense  of  quality;  but 
the  demands  of  line  spinners  have  been  met  by  increased 
supplies  from  Egypt.  The  subjoined  statement  shows  the 
progress  made  by  this  branch  of  Brazilian  trade: 

EXPORT  OF  BRAZIL  COTTON  TO  EUROPE. 

Bales.  Bales. 

1831—1835,  average         175,000    I    1861—1865,  average   201,000 

1841—1845,       "                 105,000         1866-1870,    614,000 

1851—1855,      "                149,000    |     1871—1874,      "    723,000 

In  1874-5  the  exports  to  Europe  amounted  to  615,000 
bales;  1875-6,  rose  to  647,000;  and  1879-80  fell  to  161,000. 

Egypt. — The  C.  plant  has  been  known  in  Egypt  from 
time  immemorial;  but  the  trade,  properly  so  called,  was 
first  introduced  by  the  celebrated  Mehemet  Ali,  about  50 
years  ago.  The  first  exportation  took  place  1821,  and 
amounted  to  944  cantars.  During  the  seven  years  ending 
1827,  1,011,697  cantars  were  produced,  or  144,528  cantars 
per  annum.  In  the  next  septennial  period,  there  was  a 
falling  oft",  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  a  large  number  of 
laborers  to  carry  on  the  wars  of  the  pasha  in  Soudan,  etc., 
and  Syria;  the  exports  therefore  only  reached  900,521  can- 
tars, or  128,646  per  year.  The  transactions  of  the  subse- 
quent seven  years  show  considerable  improvement,  the 
total  shipments  being  1,498,042  cantars,  and  the  annual 
average  214,006  cantars.  During  the  years  1842-48,  the 
total  rose  to  1,549,909  cantars,  being  an  annual  average  of 
221,415  cantars.  Since  then,  the  trade  has  continued  to 
augment.  The  average  shipments  of  the  years  1849-59 
were  473,282  cantars.  The  cantar  is  equal  to  94  lbs.,  and 
there  are  about  5^  cantars  to  the  bale  of  the  present  (1873) 
average  size;  so  "that  the  exports  in  1849-59  represented 
86,000  bales  per  annum.  In  1865,  the  shipments  reached 
406,000  bales;  in  1875  they  amounted  to  347,000  bales— or 
2,020,000  and  1,908,000  cantars  respectively.  Great  Britain 
is  the  principal  consumer  of  Egyptian  C,  after  which  is 
Austria,  then  France.  The  following  figures  show  the 
destination  of  the  C.  exported  from  Alexandria  during  the 
six  years  ending  1875,  Sep.  30. 

EXPORTS  TO 

FnHanrl  France  Austria  , 
ii^ngiand.  gp^.^  j^^j^  lotai. 


1870   177,631  26.356  26,735  230,722 

1871   246,513  14,974  52,391  313,878 

1872   274.921  2-2,.577  43.967  341.465 

1873   299.082  35.251  50,580  384,913 

1874   312,172  54,540  43.545  410,257 

1875   273,019  34,644  39,651  347,314 


COTTON. 

Egypt  produced  440,600  bales  (1878-9),  446,870  (1879-^80); 
and  416,000  a887-8);  and  exported  to  Europe  (1876-7)  202,- 
000  bales,  (1877-8)156,000,  (1878-9)  119,000,  and  (1879-80) 
123,000. 

OtJier  Countries. — C.  is  grown  in  many  other  countries 
beside  those  above  reviewed.  During  the  infancy  of  the 
trade,  British  spinners  received  75  per  cent,  of  the  C.  con- 
sumed from  the  AY.  Indies,  and  the  remainder  from  the 
Levant;  with  the  great  expansion  of  the  culture  in  the 
United  states,  the  supplies  from  the  W.  Indies  gradually 
fell  off,  the  planters  tinding  it  more  profitable  to  occupy 
their  labor  and  capital  in  the  production  of  sugar  and 
other  growths.  Early  in  the  present  century,  the  exports  to 
Great  Britain  from  the  W.  Indies  averaged  80,000  bales  per 
annum;  but  by  1858,  they  had  dwindled  to  6,500  bales,  of 
which  only  about  2,200  bales  were  from  the  W.  Indies, 
properly  so  called.  Under  the  stimulus  of  the  high  prices 
during  the  C.  famine,  the  supplies  to  Great  Britain  from 
miscellaneous  sources — that  is,  from  all  countries  except 
the  United  States,  East  Indies,  Brazil,  and  Egypt — rose 
from  6,500  bales  in  1858,  and  9,800  in  1860,  to  23,000  in 
1863,  and  131,000  in  1865.  AVith  the  decline  in  prices,  the 
import  fell  to  100,000  in  1868.  There  was  an  increase  to 
166,000  in  1872,  owing  to  the  high  x^rices  in  that  year,  but 
the  increase  was  chielly  from  Pern.  Since  that  year,  with 
a  falling  market,  the  import  from  '  other  countries  '  has 
annuall}^  diminished,  being  only  89,000  bales  in  1875, 
against  166,000  in  1872.  the  decrease,  like  the  previous  in- 
crease, being  principally  in  Peruvian.  Twenty  years  ago, 
Peruvian  cotton  was  almost  unknown  in  the  Liverpool 
market;  in  1864,  the  imports  reached  27,000  bales;  in  1872 
the}'  amounted  to  nearly  105,000  bales;  but  in  1875,  they 
fell  to  56,000  bales. 

4.  Consumption  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  An  im- 
mense quantity  of  C.  is  consumed  annually  in  India,  China, 
and  Africa,  but  there  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  even  an 
approximation  of  the  amounts  so  used.  There  are  11  spin- 
ning and  weaving  mills  in  Bombay,  containing  404,000 
spindles,  and  4,294  looms;  and  there  are  8  mills  in  other 
towns  of  the  presidency.  'These,'  saj's  an  official  report 
(1873),  'are quite  independent  of  the  old  native  manufac- 
tories, and  were  started  entirely  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
feriority of  the  piece  goods  imported  from  Manchester.' 
This  inferiority  was  occasioned  by  the  excessive  and  dele- 
terious method  of  sizing  adopted  during  the  C.  famine,  in 
order  to  meet  the  demand  for  low-priced  goods,  and  is  a 
matter  which  has  lately  occupied  the  serious  attention  of 
the  Manchester  chamber  of  commerce.  Besides  the  mills 
in  the  Bombay  presidency,  factories  have  been  erected  in 
the  Bengal  and  Madras  presidencies,  and  in  the  N.  W.  and 
Central  Provinces;  a  considerable  native  manufacture  is 
carried  on  also  in  Burmah. 

Great  Britain. — The  origin  of  the  C.  trade  of  the  conti- 
nent dates  as  far  back  as  the  10th  c,  at  about  which  period 
the  staple  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Mohammedans. 
Since  that  time,  the  manufacture  has  continued  to  expand, 

27 


COTTON. 

more  or  less,  until  it  has  arrived  at  its  present  gigantic  pro- 
portions. Though  we  have  early  mention  of  C  goods  in 
the  annals  of  almost  every  country  of  Europe,  still  the 
progress  of  the  trade  wds  very  slow  until  within  the  past 
hundred  years.  Indeed,  before  the  middle  of  the  18th  c  , 
C.  goods,  properly  so  called,  were  never  produced — the 
fabrics  manufactured  being  a  mixture  of  either  C.  and 
linen,  or  C.  and  wool,  C.  yarn  being  used  for  weft  only. 
It  is  from  the  dates  of  the  patents  of  Wyatt  (spinning  by 
rollers,  1788),  Arkwright  (water-frame,  1769),  Hargreaves 
(jenny,  1770),  Crompton  (mule,  1779),  and  Cartwright 
(loom,  1785),  that  the  rise  of  the  modern  manufacture 
must  be  dated.  The  stimulus  given  to  the  trade  of  Britain 
by  these  inventions  was  instantaneous,  and  when  adopted 
on  the  continent,  a  few  years  after  their  utility  had  been 
sufficiently  proved,  similar  effects  followed  there.  The 
following  figures  give  an  idea  of  the  rapid  increase  in  con- 
sumption of  C.  in  Great  Britain  : 


IMPORT  OP  COTTON  WOOL  INTO  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

United  States. 


none 

none 
none 
189,316 

487,600 


Tear.  lbs. 

1701   none 

1751    none 

1771,  one  year  after  Arkwright's  ) 

loom  and  Hargreaves'  >■  

jenny.  ) 

1780,  year  after  Crompton's  mule   

1785   

1791  

1794,  year  after  the  invention  of  I 

the  saw-gin.  f  

1800   

1820    89,999,174 

1840    487,856,504 

1860   1,115,890,608 

1871   1,038,677,920 

1875   816,223,920 

The  imports  of  cotton  ioto  Britain,  1880,  were  1,628,664,- 
576  lbs.,  valued  at  £42,772,088.  The  following  table  fur- 
nishes particulars  of  the  imports,  exports,  and  home  con- 
sumption of  C.  in  Britain  in  periods  from  1801  to  1875 : 

SUPPLY  AND  CONSUMPTION  OF  RAW  COTTON  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN,  IN  THOU- 
SANDS OF  BALES,  1801—75. 


Total  Of 
all  kinds, 
lbs. 
1,976,359 
2,976,610 

4,764,589 

6,766,613 
18,400,384 
31,447,605 

19,040,929 

43.379,278 
151,672.655 
592,488,010 
1,390.938.752 
1,778.139,776 
1,458,598,470 


Average 
Periods  of 
Ten  Years. 

Import. 

Export. 

Home  Con- 
sumption. 

Total 
Deliveries. 

United 
States. 

Brazil. 

Egypt. 

West 
Indies, 
etc. 

East 
Indies. 

Total. 

1801—10... 

127 

72 

81 

19 

299 

8 

291 

299 

1811- -20..  . 

1.59 

130 

54 

70 

413 

31 

346 

377 

1821—30.... 

436 

144 

36 

26 

54 

696 

65 

630 

695 

1831-40.... 

818 

128 

31 

25 

131 

1130 

97 

1014 

1111 

1841—50.... 

1190 

113 

52 

13 

209 

1577 

176 

1403 

1579 

1851— 60  ... 

1778 

125 

106 

9 

432 

2450 

362 

2070 

2432 

1861—70  ... 

907 

332 

227 

80 

1405 

2951 

804 

2151 

2955 

1871-75  ... 

1873 

525 

397 

129 

1138 

3962 

727 

3183 

3910 

COTTON. 

The  bales  vary  considerably  in  weight.  In  1875  the  aver- 
ages were  as  follow:  United  States,  489  lbs.;  Brazilian, 
160  lbs.;  Egyptian,  602  lbs.;  Smyrna,  370  lbs.;  W.  Indian, 
etc.,  205  lbs.';  Siirat,  890  lbs.;  Madras,  300  lbs.;  and  Ben- 
gal, 300  lbs.  During  the  C.  famine,  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  C.  was  received  from  China  in  bales  averaging  266 
lbs.  The  comparative  statement  in  the  following  table 
shows  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  sources  of 
supply — actual  and  proportional — in  1802;  and  on  the 
average  in  1828-80,  1858-60,  and  1874-5.  The  quantities 
are  given  in  iiiillions  of  pounds — 82*1  equal  82,100,000  lbs. 

The  factory  returns  for  1879  state  that  there  were  in 
Great  Britain  in  that  year,  43,206,690  cotton  spindles,  and 
514,900  power-looms,  and  that  482,900  persons  were  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture.  In  1875,  the  figures  were  41,- 
300,000  spindles,  468,000  looms,  479,500  persons.  It  is  said 
that  the  buildings  and  machines  have  cost  £70,000,000,  and 


Weight  in  lbs. 

1802 

1828—1830 

185&-1860 

1874—1875 

America  

Egypt,  etc  

West  Indies,  etc   

Total  

32-1 
105 

150 
2-7 

173-3 
30-4 
5-5 
5-8 
23-2 

970-3 
19-4 
40-1 
10-8 

176-4 

837-9 
73-2 

170-2 
21  2 

386-6 

636 

238-2 

1217-0 

14801 

Proportion. 

1802 

1828—1830 

1858—1860 

1874—1875 

America  

Brazil   

Egypt,  etc  

West  Indies,  etc  

East  Indies  and  China  

53-2 
17-4 

250 
4-4 

72-7 
12-8 
23 
2-4 
9-8 

79-7 
1-6 
3-3 
0-9 

14-5 

56-3 
4-9 

11-4 
1-4 

260 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

100  0 

that  a  floating  capital  of  £80,000,000  is  employed  in  carry- 
ing on  the  trade.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  persons 
employed  in  the  building  of  the  mills  and  making  of  the 
machines,  and  in  the  buying  and  selling  of  the  raw  and 
manufactured  niaterial,  it  will  be  found  that  something 
like  4,500,000  individuals  are  dependent  upon  the  pros- 
perity of  the  cotton  trade  for  their  livelihood.  The  total 
quantity  of  yarn  exported  1880,  was  215,000,000  lbs.,  worth 
£12,000,000;  and  the  total  quantity  of  calicoes,  cambrics, 
fustians,  etc.,  was  4,495,000,000  yards,  worth  £57,677,000. 
Besides  these,  there  were  £6,000,000  worth  of  lace,  small- 
wares,  etc.  ;  which  raises  the  total  value  to  £75,677,000, 

99 


COTTON. 

France  and  Alsace. — The  first  import  of  C.  into  France 
was  in  1668 — viz.;  350,000  lbs.  via  Marseilles  from  the  Le- 
vant. In  1750,  the  receipts  reached  6,978,588  lbs.;  but 
during  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  the  first  Empire, 
little  progress  was  made.  In  1815,  the  import  was  86,- 
200,000  lbs.;  in  1825,  it  rose  to  55,150,000  lbs.;  in  1836,  to 
118,000,000  lbs.;  in  1846,  to  159,000,000  lbs.;  in  1856,  to 
211,000,000  lbs.;  in  1860,  to  270,000,000  lbs.  In  1862,  the 
arrivals  fell  to  127  millions,  owing  to  the  stoppage  of  sup- 
plies from  America.  In  1869,  the  consumption  was  esti- 
mated at  242  millions;  but  the  war  with  Germany  cut 
down  the  figures  to  165  millions  in  1870,  and  185  millions 
in  1871.  In  1874,  there  was  a  rise  to  208  millions.  These 
latter  figures  are  exclusive  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  which 
use  about  65  million  lbs. ;  making  273  millions  for  France, 
as  she  stood  before  the  war,  against  242  millions  in  1869. 
In  1880  the  importation  of  raw  C.  amounted  to  263,000,000 
lbs.,  and  there  were  5,000,000  spindles  in  operation,  exclu- 
sive of  Alsace-Lorraine  where  there  were  about  1,700,000. 

Belgium. — The  average  import  of  C.  into  Belgium,  1836- 
40,  was  about  39,500  bales;  in  1846-50,  56,600  bales;  in 
1856-60,  61,000  bales;  in  1870,  91,000  bales;  in  1874,  127,- 
000  bales;  and  in  1880,  46,754,000  lbs.  In  1874,  91,000 
bales  were  consumed;  part  of  the  remainder  was  forwarded 
to  Germany,  Switzerland,  or  Alsace,  and  part  was  added 
to  stock.  The  number  of  spindles  in  Belgium  was  esti- 
mated at  800,000  (1880). 

Switzerland. — The  trade  of  this  confederation  has  flour- 
ished. In  1833,  its  consumption  was  about  6,000,000  bs. ; 
in  1843,  about  22,000,000  lbs.;  in  1859,  about  28,000,000 
lbs.;  in  1874,  about  52,500,000  lbs.  The  first  spinning- 
machine  was  set  up  at  Zurich  1807.  In  1826,  the  number 
of  spindles  was  300,000;  in  1830,  400,000;  in  1835,  650,000; 
in  1840,  750,000;  in  1845,  850,000;  in  1850,  950,000;  in 
1860,  1,350,000;  and  1881,  1,850,000,  with  over  25,000 
looms.  Prior  to  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  the  Swiss  spin- 
ners received  the  bulk  of  their  raw  material  ma  France, 
but  now  they  are  supplied  mainly  through  Holland  and 
Germany.  The  manufactured  products  of  Switzerland 
are  well  liked,  and  compete  successfully  with  those  of 
England  in  the  various  continental  markets.  In  1880  the 
importation  of  raw  C.  amounted  to  49,000,000  lbs. 

Holland. — The  C.  trade  of  Holland  is  chiefly  a  transit 
one.  The  imports,  (1872)  were  268,000  bales;  (1873)  180,- 
000  bales;  (1874)  168,000  bales;  (1880)  92,698,000  lbs.  The 
deliveries  were  (1872)  224,000;  (1873)  180,000;  (1874)  183,- 
000;  but  only  about  28,000  bales  per  annum  were  retained 
for  consumption,  the  remainder  passing  to  Germany,  etc. 
The  number  of  spindles  in  Holland  is  about  245,000. 

German  Empire. — Under  this  head  are  included  the 
various  political  divisions  of  Germany.  The  several  states 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  production  of  C.  fab- 
rics. The  C.  is  received  chiefly  through  the  ports  of  Ham- 
burg and  Bremen,  but  a  considerable  quantity  also  is  re- 
ceived via  Holland  and  Belgium,  while  a  further  portion  is 
received  into  s.  Germany  from  Trieste.    The  average  im- 

30 


COTTON. 

ports  into  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Amsterdam,  and  Rotterdam, 
in  the  live  years  ending  with  1840,  reached  109,000  bales; 
in  the  five  years  ending  with  1855,  they  averaged  233,000 
bales;  in  the  three  years  ending  with  1874,  they  averaged 
()")5,000  bales;  in  1880  they  amounted  to  327,000,000  lbs. 
The  deliveries  in  the  last  named  period,  however,  did  not 
exceed  044,000  bales— the  remainder  being  retained  in 
stock.  The  number  of  spindles  in  Germany  (1846)  was 
about  815,000;  (1858)  2,000,000;  (1874)  3,500,000,  besides 
1,700,000  in  Alsace;  total,  5,200,000;  and  (1881)  in  Ger- 
many alone  4,815,000.  The  Germans  consume  nearly  the 
whole  of  their  own  produce,  and  are  besides  large  buyers 
of  English  yarns  and  goods.  The  leading  seat  of  the 
manufacture  after  Alsace  is  Saxony;  then  follow  Bavaria, 
Prussia,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  etc. 

Austria. — In  the  C.  trade,  Austria  has  made  the  least 
progress  of  any  country  on  the  continent.  In  1854,  there 
were  in  all  Austria,  including  Lombardy  and  Venice, 
about  1,533,000  spindles;  Avhile  in  1872  (including  the 
Italian  provinces  for  the  purpose  of  comparison)  there  were 
only  1,900,000 — an  increase  of  only  24  per  cent,  in  18 
years.— In  1881,  the  number  in  Austria  Hungary  was  esti- 
mated at  1,765,000.  The  manufacturers  receive  nearly  the 
whole  of  their  raw  material  via  Trieste.  The  deliveries 
from  that  port  averaged  about  82,000  bales  in  the  five 
years  ending  with  1840;  107,000  in  1851-55;  125,000  in  the 
three  years  ending  with  1874,  and  aggregated  153,000,000 
lbs.  1880,  when  the  number  of  spindles  was  reported  at 
1,750,000,  looms  29,546.  The  C.  trade  of  Trieste  has  in- 
creased considerably  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
by  which  means  the  spinners  of  Austria  and  s.  Germany 
have  been  brought  into  direct  communication  with  India. 
Formerly,  a  large  quantity  of  C.  was  annually  imported  to 
Trieste  from  Liverpool,  but  the  success  of  M.  Lesseps'  en- 
terprise has  entirely  destroyed  this  branch  of  trade. 

Italy. — The  statistical  materials  relating  to  this  part  of 
the  continent  are  very  scanty.  The  imports  into  Genoa 
and  Naples,  1851,  amounted  to  about  31,000  bales;  in  1860, 
they  reached  94,000,  but  a  portion  of  this  was  forwarded 
to  Switzerland  and  other  places.  In  1870,  the  import  was 
only  47,000  bales;  in  1871,  the  figures  reached  92,000;  in 
1874,  fell  to  61,000;  and,  1880,  rose  to  95,000,000  lbs.  There 
are  considerable  imports  also  into  Venice  and  Naples.  The 
number  of  ppindles  in  Italy  was  estimated,  1881,  at  985,000. 

Spain. — The  C.  trade  of  Spain  is  the  oldest  in  Europe, 
but  until  recently  has  made  the  slowest  progress  of  any. 
During  the  past  25  years,  however,  it  has  greatly  improved. 
In  1850,  the  annual  consumption  was  only  about  80,000 
bales;  (I860)  106,000;  (1870)  152,000;  (1874)  189,000.  In 
1880  the  importation  of  raw  C.  amounted  to  91,000,000 
lbs.;  there  were  1,800,000  spindles  in  operation,  which  in- 
creased to  1,835,000,  1881. 

Eussza. — The  C.  manufacture  of  this  empire  is  of  com 
paratively  recent  origin.  The  imports  of  raw  C.  in  1824- 
26  (average  of  three  years)  were  only  2,700,000  lbs. ;  in  1833 
-85,  they  reached  6,200,000  lbs.;in  1845-47,  28,000,000  lbs.; 


COTTON. 

in  1853-55,  55,000,000  lbs.;  in  1858-60,  94,000,000  lbs.;  in 
1869-70,  100,000,000  lbs.,  besides  a  considerable  quantity 
from  Bokhara,  say  15,000,000  to  20,000,000  lbs.;  and,  1880, 
175,000,000  lbs.  In  1879  there  were  84,956  mechanical 
looms  in  operation  and  178,094  persons  employed,  and, 
1881,  the  number  of  spindles  was  reported  at  3,640,000. 

Sweden,  etc. — There  are  in  Sweden  and  Norw^ay  about 
310,000  spindles.  The  coarser  sorts  of  yarn  are  produced, 
and  the  annual  cousumption  of  C.  is  about  18,000,000  lbs.; 
20,000,000  lbs  of  raw  material  was  imported,  1880. 

United  States. — About  four-fifths  of  all  the  C.  product  of 
the  world  is  grown  in  the  United  States.  It  is  generally 
understood  that  the  first  attempt  to  raise  it  was  made  in 
Va.  as  an  experiment,  1621;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  while  its  cultivation  is  now  confined  exclusively  to  the 
states  and  islands  of  the  south,  its  earliest  progress  was 
toward  the  north.  It  was  grown  in  small  quantities  and  for 
individual  domestic  use  in  Md.,  Del.,  N.  J.,  Peun.,  and  N. 
Y.,  long  before  it  reached  the  proportions  of  a  distinctively 
southern  staple.  Seeds  from  the  n.  were  planted  in  Ga., 
and  the  Carolinas,  1733,  and  in  La.,  1742,  and  the  first  ex- 
ports were  made  from  Charleston,  1747,  followed  by  others 
from  N.  Y.,  Md.,  Va.,  and  N,  C,  1770.  The  first  C.-mill 
built  in  the  United  States  was  in  1791,  a  year  that  yielded 
2,000,000  lbs.  of  the  staple;  the  second,  1795,  when  the  ex- 
ports amounted  to  6,276,300  lbs.,  and  the  imports  4,107,000; 
the  third,  1803,  when  the  crop  was  over  50,000,000  lbs.,  and 
the  export  nearly  30,000,000;  the  fourth,  1804;  followed  by 
11  more  mills  during  the  next  three  years.  By  1810  the 
exports  had  run  up  to  94,000,000  lbs.;  in  1821  the  crop  was 
180,000,000  lbs,  and  the  export  nealy  125,000,000;  and,  1825 
the  product  reached  255,000,000  lbs.  In  1810  the  mills  had 
31,000  spindles  in  operation;  (1831)  1,246,503;  (1850)  3,633,- 
693;  (1860)  5,035,798;  (1874)  9,415,000;  (1880)  11,500,000; 
(1881)  11,875,000;  (1883)  12,660,000;  (1884)  13,200.000; 
(1885)  13,250,000;  (1886)  13,350,000;  (1887)  13,500,000.  In 
1831,  the  consumption  amounted  to  182,000  bales;  (1850) 
613,000;  (1860)  843,000;  (1871)  1,173.000;  (1880-1)  2,118,- 
000;  (1881-2)  2,197,000;  (1882-3)  2,375,000;  (1883-4)2,244,- 
000;  (1884-5)  1,909,000;  (1885-6)  2,278,000;  (1886-7)  2,423,- 
000.  The  total  production  in  the  United  States  (1876-7) 
was  4,485,423  bales;  (1878-9)  5,073,531;  (1880-1)6,589,000; 
and  (1887-8)  6,864,000.  In  1880  there  were  756  C.-mills  in 
operation,  with  11,500,000  spindles,  230,222  mechanical 
looms,  189,629  operatives,  and  a  working  capital  of  over 
$200,000,000.  Until  1845,  supply  kept  constantly  ahead  of 
demand,  and,  at  the  close  of  that  year,  the  stock  of  C.  in 
Europe  reached  1,219,000  bales,  or  about  27  weeks'  con- 
sumption, the  average  rate  at  that  time  being  about  45,000 
bales  per  week.  The  result  was  a  very  serious  fall  in 
prices — middling  Orleans  descending  to  3fc?.  per  pound. 
The  produce  of  the  United  States  had  almost  driven  the 
growth  of  every  other  country  out  of  the  market;  and,  in 
1846,  the  exports  to  Europe  from  the  United  States  repre- 
sented 86  per  cent,  of  the  total  arrivals.  The  great  decline 
in  values  naturally  led  to  a  serious  reduction  in  the  rate  of 

82 


COTTOK 

production,  which  reduction  was  further  aggravated  by 
unfavorable  seasons  in  the  South,  and  in  184(3  the  exports 
from  the  United  States  fell  to  401  million  pounds,  and  in 
1847  to  364  millions,  against  626  millions  in  1845.  Then 
followed  a  sharp  reaction  in  prices,  and  ultimately  an  im- 
portant recovery  in  the  amount  of  supply.  Between  1845 
and  56,  however,  consumption  encroached  upon  produc- 
tion to  such  an  extent,  that  the  stock  in  Europe  at  the  close 
of  1856  was  only  439,000  bales,  or  about  six  weeks'  con- 
sumption, against  1,219,000  bales,  or  27  weeks'  require- 
ments, at  the  end  of  1845.  In  the  autumn  of  1857,  there- 
fore, middling  Orleans  touched  9|fZ.  per  pound.  Thence  to 
1860,  there  was  a  gradual  recovery  in  stocks,  and  a  corres- 
ponding decline  in  prices;  but  even  at  the  end  of  1860,  the 
stock  was  only  782,000  bales,  or  about  9^  weeks'  con- 
sumption, and  though  middling  Orleans  had,  in  the  inter- 
val, declined  to  slightly  below  Qd.,  the  average  price  for 
the  five  years  ending  with  1861  was  7d.  per  pound.  Then 
followed  the  war  of  secession,  with  effects  already 
noted. 

The  following  tables,  showing  (1)  the  C.  product  of  the 
world;  (2)  the  C.  consumption  of  the  world;  (3)  the  num- 
ber of  spindles  in  the  world;  (4)  the  number  of  looms  and 
operatives  employed  in  the  C.  manufacturing  industry  in 
the  world;  and  (5)  the  deliveries  of  C.  to  Europe,  compiled 
from  the  latest  available  reports,  indicate  the  high  position 
that  the  United  States  occupy  in  the  production,  manu- 
facture, and  supply  of  this  great  staple: 


COTTON  PRODUCT  OF  THE  WORLD.  (BALES.) 


Countries. 

Bales. 

1876-7. 

1878-9. 

1879-80. 

1887-8. 

East  Indies  

4,485,423 
1,506,000 

5,073,531 

*6,589,000 

6.864,000 
i.  508.000 
'416.000 
416,000 
52,000 

Egypt  

440,600 
449.000 
102,000 

446  870 
252,410 
23,430 

Brazil,  West  Indies,  Peru.. . 
Turkey,  Snnyrna  

Total  

449,000 
102,000 

6,542,423 

7,311,710 

6,065,131 

9,256,000 

cotton  consumption  of  the  woRjiD.  (bales.) 

BALFS,  etc.,  at  400  LBS. 

1880-1. 

1881-2. 

1882-3. 

1883-4. 

Total  Europe   

Total  United  States  

Total  World  

3,572,000 
2,956,000 

3,640,000 
3,198,000 

3,744,000 
3,380.000 

666,000 
3.380,000 

6,528,000 
2,118,000 

6,838,000 
2,197,000 

7,124,000 
2,375,000 

7,046,000 
2,244,000 

8,646,000 

9,035,000 

9,499,000 

9,290,000 

*  Product  of  1880-1. 


COTTON. 


CONSUMPTION  OF  THE  vtorijD— Continued. 


Bales,  etc.,  at  400  lbs. 

1884-5. 

1885-6. 

1886-7. 

3,433,000 
3,255,000 

3,628,000 
3,446,000 

3,707,000 
3,588,000 

Total  United  States  

6,688,000 
1,909,000 

7,074,000 
2,278,000 

7,295.000 
2,423,000 

8,597,000 

9,352,000 

9,718,000 

1887. 

23,180,000 

42,740,000 
13,500,000 
2,420,000 

81,840,000 

«D 

GO 
OO 

22,900,000 

42,700,000 
13,350,000! 
2,260,000 

81,210,000 

1885. 

22,750,000 

43,000,000 
13,250,000 
2,145,000 

81,145,000 

00 
00 

22,650,000 

43,000,000 
13,200,000 
2,000,000 

80,850,000 

1883. 

22,500,000 

42,000,000 
12,660,000 
1,790,000 

78,950,000 

1881. 

3,640,000 

310,000 
4,815,000 
1,765,000 

245,000 
1,850',000 

800,000 
5.000,000 
1,835.000 

985,000 1 

21,245,000 

40,100,000 
11,875,000 
1,500,000 

74,720,000 

1880. 

3,380,000 

310,000 
4,750.000 
1,750,000 

235  000 
1,850,000 

800,000 
5,000,000 
1,800,000 

930,000 

20,805,000 

39,750,000 
11,500,000 
1,471,000 

73,526,000 

5^1 


COTTON. 


MECHANICAL  LOOMS  AND  OPERATIVES  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  COTTON 
MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRY. 


Countries. 

Years. 

Mechanical 
Looms. 

Opera- 
tives. 

1875 
1877 
1878 
1877 
1880 
1879 
1876 
1880 
1880 

84,353 
59,409 

514,911 
22,467 
29,546 
84,956 
13,517 

230,223 
13,307 

:  III 

Austria  

178,094 

Italy  

189,629 
39,537 

COTTON  DELIVERIES  TO  EUROPE.  (BALES.) 


Years. 

Number  of  Bales. 

United 
States. 

East 
Indies. 

Brazil. 

Egypt. 

Other 
Countries 

Total. 

1873-  4  

1874-  5 

1875-  6  

1876-  7 

1877-  8 
1878  9 
1879-80. . . . 

2,722,000 
2,587,000 
3,132,000 
3,013,000 
3,476,000 
3,664,000 
3,715,000 

1,534,000 
1,615,000 
1,395,000 
1,269,000 
877,000 
897,000 
1,189,000 

600,000 
615,000 
647,000 
479,000 
247,000 
125,000 
161,000 

370,000 
293,000 
232,000 
202,000 
156,000 
119,000 
123,000 

264.000 
336,000 
464,000 
441,000 
435,000 
257,000 
447,000 

5,518,000 
5,418,000 
5,570,000 
5,404,000 
5,191,000 
5,064,000 
5,636,000 

exports  and  DOMESTIC  CONSUMPTION  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON  IN 
BALES. 


1882-3. 

1883-4. 

1884-5. 

1885-6. 

1886-7. 

Consumption,  U. 
S.  and  Canada. 

Total  : . 

4,695,905 
2,140,532 

3,880,466 
2,042,867 

3,898,905 
1,764,326 

4,296,825 
2,087,785 

4,414,326 
2,265,324 

6,836,437 

5,923,333 

5,663,231 

6,384,610 

6,679,650 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  acreage  of  the  C. -grow- 
ing states  in  the  order  of  production,  according  to  official 
reports,  1880 : 

States. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Alabama  

Arkansas  

South  Carolina.. 

Louisiana  

North  Carolina.. 

Tennessee  

Florida   

1,397,835 
1,170,832 
774,806 
1,250,427 
597,857 
523,535 
847,044 
388,474 
463,042 
143,727 

1,537,618 
1,311,331 
914,269 
1,387,972 
693,512 
570,652 
940,218 
450,629 
518,605 
158,099 

1,706,755 
1,455,577 
1,097,122 
1,499,009 
811,409 
677,717 
1,034,239 
513,717 
596,395 
167,584 

1,501,944 
1,310,020 
1,119,064 
1,289,148 
722,154 
571,222 
827,391 
457,208 
548,683 
152,501 

2,016,326 
1,611,702 
1,483,500 
1,732,250 
1,133,000 
955,050 
1,415,730 
621,428 
780,000 
185,393 

Indian  Territory. 

Total  

7,557,579 

8,432,905 

9,509,524 

8,499,335 

11,934,37? 

COTTON. 


States. 


Mississippi  

Georgia  

Texas   

Alabama  

Arkansas  

South  Carolina. . . 

Louisiana  

North  Carolina. . . 

Tennessee   

Florida   .  . 

Missouri   

Indian  Territory  . 

Virginia  

Kentucky  


1876. 


1,976.000 
1,515,000 
1,483,500 
1,73-^,250 
1.133,000 
945.500 
1,260,000 
609,000 
741,000 
165,000 


Total. , 


11,560,250 


1877. 


2,055.040 
1,530,150 
1,706,025 
1,766,895 
1,189,650 
917.135 
1,335,600 
584,640 
755,820 
166,650 


12,007,605 


1879. 


2,093,330 
2,617,138 
2,173,732 
2,330,806 
1,042,976 
1,364,249 
864,787 
893,153 
722,569 
245.595 
32,711 
35,000 
24,000 
2,667 


14,441,993 


In  1884,  the  TJ.  S.  State  Dept.  issued  the  following  esti- 
mate of  the  amounts  of  C.  that  would  be  required  for  con- 
sumption by  the  several  countries  during  that  year,  and 
the  countries  from  which  the  demand  would  have  to  be 
supplied,  based  on  the  reports  of  the  consular  officers  and 
compiled  in  response  to  a  resolution  of  Congress : 


Countries  of  Consumption. 


The  United  Kingdom. . 

Germany  , 

Russia  

France  

Austria-Hungary  

Spain   

Italy  

Belgium  

Switzerland  

Sweden  

China  

Holland  

Mexico  

Canada  

Portugal   

Norway  

All  other  

Total  consumption 

Countries  of  supply: 

British  India  

Egypt  

Brazil  

Asia  Minor  

All  other  

Total  outside  U.  S . 
The  United  States. 

Grand  Total  


36 


COTTOK. 


The  following  table  shows  the  annual  crops,  in  bales  of 
440  lbs.,  1829-87,  Sept.  1: 


Bales. 


870,415 
996,845 
1,068,848 
987,487 
1,070,438 
1,205,324 
1,254,328 
1,360.752 
1,422.930 
1,801,497 
1,360,532 
2,177,835 
1,634,945 
1.683.574 
2,378,875 
2,030,409 
2,394,503 
2,100,537 
1,778,651 


Year. 


1848  

1849  

1850  

1851  

1852  

1853  

1854  

1855  

1856  

1857  

1858  

1859  

1860  , 

1861  

1862-1865 
1866.  ... 


Bales. 


2,347,634 
2.728,596 
2,096,706 
2,355.257 
3.015,029 
3.262,882 
2,930,027 
2,847,339 
3,527,845 
2,939,519 
3,113,962 
3.851,481 
4,669.770 
3,656,006 
No  record. 
2,193,987 
2,019,774 
2,593,993 
2,439,039 


Year. 


1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
1876., 
1877. 
1878. 
1879., 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883., 
1884., 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 


The  following  compendium  of  C.  manufactures  in  the 
United  States  shows  the  number  of  looms,  spindles,  bales 
used,  and  persons  employed,  as  reported,  1881,  Jan.  1;  but 
excludes  factories  and  mills  where  C.  is  not  an  exclusive, 
but  a  component  material  used  in  the  manufacture  : 


States. 

Looms. 

Spindles. 

Bales  used. 

Operatives. 

Alabama  

1,060 

55,072 

14,887 

1,600 

28 

2,015 

720 

64 

18,036 

931,538 

107,877 

15,49T 

823 

48,858 

7,512 

695 

816 

350 

3S 

4,713 

200,974 

67,874 

6,678 

24 

4.860 

2,261 

281 

776 

33,396 

11,558 

720 

Kentucky  

73 

9,022 

4,215 

359 

120 

6,096 

1,354 

108 

Maine  

15,978 

696,685 

112,361 

11.318 

2,325 

125,014 

46,947 

4,159 

94,788 

4,465,290 

578,590 

62,794 

Michigan  

131 

12,120 

600 

208 

Mississippi  

704 

26,172 

6,411 

748 

Missouri  

341 

19,312 

6,399 

515 

New  Hampshire  

25.487 

1,008,521 

172.746 

16,657 

New  Jersey  

3,344 

232,305 

20,569 

4,658 

New  York  

12,822 

578,512 

70,014 

10,710 

North  Carolina  ,  

1,960 

102,767 

27,508 

3,428 

Ohio  

42 

14,328 

10,597 

563 

Pennsylvania  

10,541 

446,379 

86,355 

11,871 

Rhode  Island  

30,274 

1.649,295 

161,694 

22,298 

South  Carolina  

1,776 

■  92,788 

33,099 

2,195 

Tennessee  

1,008 

46.268 

11,699 

1,312 

Texas  

71 

2,648 

246 

71 

Utah  

14 

432 

29 

Vermont  

1,180 

55.088 

7,404 

785 

Virginia  

1,324 

44,336 

11,461 

1,11« 

Wisconsin  

400 

10,240 

3,173 

383 

Total  

230,223 

10,921,147 

1,586,481 

181,628 

37 


COTTON. 

U.  S.  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS,  1821-87. 


Fiscal  Years. 


1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1826 
1827 
1828 
1820 
1830 
1831 
1832, 
1833 
1834. 
1835. 
1836. 
1837 
1838. 
183.^, 
1840. 
1841 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 
1845 
1846. 
1847. 
1848, 
1849. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857, 
1858 
1859 
1860, 
1861. 
1862 
1863 
1864. 
1865 

r-"6f) 

1^'67. 
1.-^68. 
1869. 
1870 
1871, 
1872. 
1873. 
18?'4, 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878. 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 


C.  Manufactures. 


Raw  C. 


Imports. 


$7,589,711 
10.246,907 

8,554,877 

8,895,757 
12,509,516 

8.348,034 

9,316,153 
10,996,270 

8,362,017 

7,862,326 
16,090,224 
10,399,653 

7,660,449 
10,145.181 
15,367,585 
17,876,087 
11.150,841 

6,599.330 
14,908,181 

6,504,484 
11,757,036 

9,578,515 

2,958,796 
13,236,830 
13,360,729 
12,857,422 
14,704,186 
17,205,417 
15,183,759 
19,681,612 
21,486,502 
18,716,741 
26,412,243 
32,477,106 
15,742,923 
24,337,504 
28,114,924 
17,574,142 
26,026,140 

9,079,676 
24,722,079 

8,904,051 
14,121,589 
14,341,501 

7,324,438 
27,6.52,413 
23,872,474 
16,668,382 
19,088,783 
21,900,898 
26,587,995 
29,983,671 
31,810,680 
24,922,254 
24,199,793 
19,850,107 
16,456,296 
19,398,791 
19,928,310 
29,929,306 
31.219,329 
34,351,292 
36,8.53,689 
30,454,476 
28,152,001 
30,381,774 
29,474,281 

8ti 


Exports. 


$1,138,125 
1,159,414 
1,010  232 
1,259,457 


1,126,313 


2,858,681 
2,255,734 
2,831,473 
3,758,755 

'  3,549,604* ' 
3,122,546 
2,970,690 
3,223,550 
2,898,780 
4,327,928 
3,545,481 
4,082,533 
5,718,205 
4,923,129 
4,734,424 
7,241,205 
7,672,151 
8,768,894 
5,535,516 
5,857,181 
6,967.309 
6,115,177 
5,651,504 
8,316,222 
10,934,796 
8,059,549 
2,946,464 
2,906,411 
1.246,216 
3,323,637 
1,780,165 
4,608.235 
4,871,0.54 
5.874.222 
3,7S7.282 
3.5.^18.136 
2.304,3:50 
2,947,528 
3.095,840 
4.071.822 
7,722,978 
10,235.843 
11,435,628 
10,853.950 
9.981,418 
13,. 571, 387 
13,212,979 
12,951.145 
11,885,211 
11,836,591 
13,959,934 
15,090,060 


COTTON. 


The  following  table  shows  the  highest  ant  lowest  price 
of  C.  in  the  United  States,  in  cents,  per  lb.,  : 825-86  (the 
prices  1862-77  are  on  a  gold  basis,  the  others  currency) : 


Highest. 


27 
14 
12 
13 
11 
13 
11 
12 
17 
16 
20 
20 
17 
12 
16 
10 
11 


12 
8 
11 
14 
14 
10 
11 
10 
11 


Lowest. 


13 
9 


7 
7 
9 

10 
15 
12 
7 
9 
11 


Year. 


1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865, 
1866, 
1867. 
1868, 
1869, 
1870. 
1871. 
1872 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
18;6. 
1877. 
1878, 
1879 
1880 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885, 


Highest. 


12 

9 

15 

13 

13 

9 

12 

11 

11 

10 

28 

11 

68 

20 

88 

54 

1.90 

72 

1.22 

33 

52 

32 

36 

15 

33 

16 

35 

25 

26 

15 

25 

15 

25 

18 

21 

13 

19 

15 

17 

13 

13 

11 

13 

11 

12 

9 

13 

9% 

13 

\^ 

11% 

m 

In  the  healing  art,  C.  and  the  cloth  and  wadding  made 
from  it  are  used  for  wrapping  up  and  keeping  warm,  and 
of  late,  much  more  than  formerly,  for  binding  up  burns  and 
wounds.  A  prejudice  formerly  prevailed  against  the  use 
of  C,  as  irritating  to  wounds;  but  experience  has  show^n 
this  opinion  unfounded,  and  C.  is  now  used  in  many  hos- 
pitals quite  as  freely  as  linen. 

Cotton  Manufacture. — It  has  already  been  remarked  that 
the  modern  s}'stem  of  C.  manufacture  dates  no  further 
back  than  about  1760.  Prior  to  the  mechanical  inventions 
of  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  Crompton,  and  CartwTi^ht,  the 
arts  of  spinning  and  weaving  were  entirely  domestic,  and 
the  instruments  of  manipulation  much  the  same  as  those 
which  had  been  in  use  in  the  East  for  centuries  before.  By 
means  of  the  ancient  distaft*  and  spindle,  or  the  more  re- 
cent spinning-wheel,  only  one  thread  at  a  time  was  pro- 
duced, and  the  process,  as  may  be  imagined,  was  tedious, 
and  not  very  remunerative;  besides  which,  only  a  very 
inferior  yarn  was  the  result;  for  w^hile  a  tolerable  thread 
could  be  spun  from  flax,  the  produce  of  C.  was  soft,  weak, 
and  uneven,  and  in  weaving  was  used  for  weft  (or  transverse 
yarn)  only,  with  linen,  woolen,  or  worsted  for  the  warp 
(or  longitudinal  yarn).    Altogether,  in  the  middle  of  the 

'69  " 


COTTOK 

18th  c,  the  machinery  for  spinning  was  much  more  imper- 
fect than  that  for  weaving,  and  the  weavers  of  the  time 
were  often  at  a  stand  for  want  of  yarn  to  go  on  with. 

This  state  of  things  had  long  occupied  the  attention  of 
the  thinking  portion  of  the  spinners,  but  without  any  prac- 
tical result  until  the  invention  of  the  'jenny,'  by  Har- 
greaves,  about  1767.  By  this  machine,  eight  threads  at  a 
time  could  be  spun  against  the  one  of  the  spinning-wheel. 
Hargreaves  was  much  abused  by  the  populace  of  his  native 
town  and  neighborhood,  who  feared  that  the  invention 
would  deprive  them  of  all  employment;  the  machine  was 
destroyed,  and  the  inventor  compelled  to  leave  his  birth- 
place. Genius,  however,  ultimately  triumphed,  and  the 
'  spinning-jenny  '  was  patented  at  Nottingham,  1770.  The 
year  previously,  Arkwright  had  patented  his  '  water- 
frame,'  or  '  throstle,'  for  spinning  by  rollers,  by  means  of 
which  a  stronger  and  much  firmer  yarn  was  produced.  It 
was  about  this  period  that  fabrics  composed  entirely  of  C. 
were  woven  for  the  first  time,  the  '  jenny  '  supplying  the 
weft,  and  the  '  throstle  '  the  warp.  A  few  years  later,  Mr. 
Crompton  brought  out  a  new  piece  of  mechanism,  which 
he  styled  the  '  mule- jenny,'  from  its  combining  the  princi- 
ples of  both  Hargreaves'  and  Arkwright's  patents;  but  it 
had  an  advantage  over  both,  insomuch  as  it  produced  a 
much  finer  yarn  than  either.  The  '  mule  '  came  into  full 
play  in  or  about  1780,  which  is  the  period  assigned  for  the 
beginning  of  the  muslin  trade.  There  was  now  no  longer 
a  scarcity  of  yarn ;  the  fear  was,  that  there  would  be  too 
much,  for  it  was  clear  that  the  hand-loom  weavers  of  the 
time  could  not  keep  up  with  the  improved  spinning-ma- 
chinery. But  the  invention  of  the  '  power-loom  '  by  Dr. 
Cartwright,  1785,  set  aside  all  doubts  in  this  respect;  the 
question  now  was,  whether  a  sufilcient  quantity  of  raw  C. 
could  be  obtained  to  keep  pace  with  the  requirements  of 
the  rising  manufacture.  W.  India  C,  which,  1784,  averaged 
Is.  M.  per  lb.,  rose  to  2s.  in  1788,  2s.  Id.  in  1792,  and  28. 
M.  in  1798.  Great  exertions  were  made  to  obtain  increased 
supplies  from  India;  but  the  invention  of  the  saw-gin  in 
America  brought  the  required  succor  from  an  unexpected 
quarter.  It  was  only  by  means  of  this  machine  that  the 
production  of  the  short-stapled  C.  of  the  United  States 
could  be  made  at  all  remunerative.  The  export  of  hand- 
cleaned  C.  from  the  U.  S.,  1791,  was  only  189,316  lbs  ,  and 
in  1792  only  138,328  lbs. ;  but  the  year  after  the  appearance 
of  the  gin— 1794— the  exports  rose  to  1,601,700  lbs  ;  (1795) 
6,276,300  lbs.;  (1800)  17,789,803  lbs. 

But  to  return.  The  first  '  mule- jenny  '  contained  about 
thirty  spindles,  which,  instead  of  being  stationary,  as  in  the 
'jenny '  and  '  throstle,'  were  placed  on  a  carriage,  which 
was  moved  outward  while  twisting,  to  increase  the  fineness 
of  the  thread,  and  inward  again,  to  wind  the  yarn  on  the 
spindles.  This  required  the  constant  attendance  of  a  spin- 
ner to  wheel  the  carriage  forward  and  backward;  but  sub- 
sequent improvements  have  gone  so  far  as  to  produce  what 
is  called  the  self-acting  mule,  two  or  three  of  which  together 
require  the  assistance  of  only  one  person,  generally  a  boy 

40 


COTTON. 

or  girl,  whose  place  it  is  to  piece  any  of  the  threads  which 
may  break  during  spinning.  Mules  of  this  construction 
are  made  with  as  many  as  1000  or  2000  spindles,  sometimes 
more;  and  with  the  self -actor,  as  now  improved,  a  single 
thread  has  been  produced  measuring  upwards  of  one  thou- 
sand miles  in  length,  and  yet  weighing  but  one  pound  ! 

Processes  preliminary  to  spinning. — The  raw  material  is 
received  from  the  various  producing  countries,  packed 
either  in  bags  or  square  bales.  On  arrival  at  the  mill,  the 
C.  first  enters  the  mixing-room,  where  it  is  sorted,  and  the 
various  qualities,  which  are  often  contained  in  a  single 
purchase,  laid  out  in  layers  of  equal  extent,  one  over  the 
other,  and  trodden  close  together.  In  this  manner,  two 
descriptions  of  C.  are  sometimes  placed  in  one  mixing. 
When  Surat,  for  instance,  is  scarce  and  dear,  and  short- 
stapled  low  American  plentiful  and  cheap,  spinners  of  what 
are  called  coarse  numbers  invariably  use  a  mixture  of  both 
growths;  the  same  of  other  kinds,  provided  there  is  an  ap- 
proach to  equality  in  length  of  fibre.  C.  of  different  shades 
of  color  also  are  sometimes  spun  together,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce a  particular  yarn.  A  quantity  of  this  hing,  as  it  is 
called,  is  then  raked  down  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of 
the  side,  a  portion  of  each  layer  being  thus  secured.  This 
is  carried  to  the  scutching  or  willoicing -machine,  by  means 
of  which  the  C.  is  cleansed  from  all  impurities,  such  as 
sand,  seeds,  leaf,  etc.  The  cleaned  C.  is  then  taken  to  the 
spreading -mad line,  through  which  it  passes,  and  is  then 
wound,  in  a  fleecy  state,  upon  a  large  wooden  roller,  to  be 
transferred  to  the  carding -ma chine.  The  latter  machine  is 
brought  into  requisition  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  out 
the  fibres  of  the  C.  into  parallel  layers,  so  as  to  facilitate 
the  twisting  of  them  together.  Originally,  this  process  was 
performed  by  hand.  The  first  improvement  was  made  by 
Lewis  Paul,  1748,  and  the  next  by  Hargreaves,  1760.  Ark- 
wright  and  subsequent  spinners  have  perfected  the  machine. 
The  C.  was  formerly  cleaned  by  hand.  The  sliver  is  next 
passed  through  the  drawing -frame,  which  removes  all  ine- 
qualities, and  reduces  the  bands  to  one  uniform  thickness. 
Here  also  several  of  the  slivers  are  joined  together  (called 
doubling),  so  as  to  form  one  continuous  cord,  which  is  still 
further  lengthened  and  increased  in  fineness  by  the  roving- 
machine,  whence  it  passes  on  to  bobbins  ready  for  spinning. 
For  a  full  description  of  the  various  processes  above 
glanced  at,  see  Spinning:  Weaving.  For  other  branches 
of  the  subject,  see  Calico-printing:  Calendering:  Dye- 
ing: etc. 

The  finer  kinds  of  yarn  are  spun  from  Sea  Island  and 
long-stapled  Egyptian,  and  from  them  are  fabricated  mus- 
lins, laces,  etc.  From  Brazil  and  the  better  classes  of  short- 
stapled  American,  come  cambrics,  calicoes,  shirtings,  sheet- 
ings, etc.,  and  from  the  inferior  qualities  of  American  and 
Surat  are  spun  the  coarse  yarns  required  for  fustians  and 
other  heavy  fabrics.  Yorkshire  broadcloths  are  sometimes 
half  cotton.  From  warps  of  C,  and  wefts  of  wool  or 
worsted,  are  formed  varieties  of  Orleans  cloths,  Cobur^s, 
mousseliues  de  laine,  damasks,  etc.    There  are  also  fabrics 

41 


COTTON. 

composed  of  silk  and  C,  linen  and  C,  alpaca  and  C, 
etc. 

Of  the  total  amount  of  yarn  produced,  from  one-fifth  to 
one-fourth  is  exported  in  its  raw  state.  The  following  fig- 
ures give  an  idea  of  the  progress  of  British  export  trade  in 
C.  yarns  and  goods: 


Yarn. 


1816  

Total  Spun. 

Total  Exported. 

lbs. 

78,987,200 
622,840,000 
494,766,000 
965,993,000 
1,120,525,000 

lbs.  £ 

15,740,675  2,628,448 
63,678,116  4,133,741 
135,766,487  6.963,235 
197,343,655  9,870,875 
220,599,004  14,516,093 

1830  

1860  

1874  ••••  

Manufactured  Goods  Exported. 


Entered  by  the  Yard. 

At  Value 
only. 

Total  Value  of 
Yarn  and  Goods. 

1816... 
1830.... 
1845.... 
I860.... 
1874  ... 

Yards.  £ 

189,263,731  12,309,079 
441,578,498  14,119,770 
1,091,686,069  18,029,818 
2,776,218,427  40.346,342 
3,587,132,479  54,355,800 

£ 

746,643 
1,175,153 
1,126,288 
1,795,703 
5,380,477 

£ 

15,684,170 
19,428,664 
26,119,341 
52,012,380 
74,232,370 

In  1818,  14,743,675  lbs.  of  twist  were  exported  from  Bri- 
tain, of  which  14,727,882  lbs.  went  to  Europe,  and  only 
1,861  lbs.  to  India  and  China:  (1843),  149,206,448  lbs.  were 
exported;  128,664,218  lbs.  to  Europe;  899,746  lbs.  to  Amer- 
ica and  Africa;  12,642,484  lbs.  to  India  and  China:  (1874), 
of  the  220,599,'000  lbs.  exported,  77,438,000  lbs.  went  to 
Germany  and  Holland,  62,781,000  lbs.  to  India,  China,  and 
Japan:  (1880),  total  yarn  exported,  215,544,800  lbs. 

In  1820,  Germany  was  the  best  customer  for  both  British 
plain  and  printed  cottons.  The  next  largest  consumer  for 
cottons  was  Italy;  then  followed  the  Brazils,  United 
States,  Russia,  Portugal,  E.  Indies,  Holland  and  Belgium, 
W.  Indies,  etc.;  and  for  jorm^^cZ  cottons — British  W.Indies, 
United  States,  Italy,  Holland  and  Belgium,  Portugal,  E. 
Indies,  Brazil,  etc.  The  Netherlands  were  the  principal 
buyers  of  British  laces  and  small  w^ares;  then  Germany, 
British W.  Indies,  Central  America,  Brazil,  United  States, 
E.  Indies,  Portugal,  Russia,  Italy,  etc.  At  the  present 
time,  the  E.  Indies  take  nearly  one-third  of  British  export- 
ed manufactured  goods.  For  plain  calicoes,  the  next  best 
customer  for  Britain  is  China;  then  Turkey,  Brazil,  Egypt, 
United  States,  Portugal,  Italy,  Germany,  etc. ;  of  printed 
and  dyed  calicoes,  Turkey  is  the  largest  purchaser;  then 
India,  Brazil,  Germany,  United  States,  France,  W.  Indies. 
Central  America,  etc.  The  United  States  take  nearl}^  one- 
half  of  the  British  exports  of  lace  and  patent-net;  then  Bel- 
gium, France,  Holland,  Germany,  etc.    The  United  States 

-  - '     ■  42  ......  - 


COTTON. 

take  over  one-third  of  British  exports  of  stockings,  and  one- 
half  of  the  British  shipments  of  other  sorts  of  hosiery;  then 
Australia,  the  Argentine  Republic,  etc.  One-fourth  of  the 
sewing-thread  exported  from  Britain  goes  to  the  United 
States;  then  Germany,  Brazil,  Russia,  etc. 

Subjoined,  is  an  estimate  of  the  weight  and  value  of  the 
total  production  of  cotton  manufactures  in  Great  Britain, 
with  the  cost  of  cotton  consumed,  and  the  balance  remain- 
ing for  wages,  all  other  expenses,  interest  of  capital,  and 
proht  for  the  years  1870,  72,  and  74  (OOO's  omitted,  i.e. 
1,071, 770=^:1,071, 770,000): 


WEIGHT. 


1870. 
lbs. 

1872. 

IDS. 

1874. 
lbs. 

 1,071,770 

  129,310 

1,175,345 
134,965 

1,266,129 
145,604 

  942,460 

1,040,380 

1,120,525 

Do.      piece-goods,  etc. . 

  186,078 

  616,232 

  140,150 

211,940 
698,840 
129,600 

220,599 
726,000 
173,926 

  942,460 

VALUiC. 

1,040,380 

1,120,525 

  £14,671 

  61,424 

  17,050 

£16,710 
69,900 
15,660 

£14,516 
66,934 
20,110 

Total  

  £93,145 

  42,145 

£102,270 
48,054 

£100,560 
40,225 

Left  for  wages,  expenses,  profits,  etc.  £51,000 

£54,216 

£60,335 

The  figures  relating  to  the  exports  of  'piece-goods,  etc.,* 
include  two-thirds  of  the  goods  shipped  as  apparel,  haber- 
dashery, etc.  The  average  annual  production  of  yarn  and 
goods  for  the  three  years  1870-72,  was  1,018,563,000  lbs,, 
distributed  as  followed: 


Exported  to  India,  China,  Japan,  etc.,  includ-  lbs.      per  cent. 

ing  47,000,000  lbs.  yarn   333,000,000       32. 70 

Exported  to  all  other  countries,  including  150,- 

1 66.000  lb.s.  yarn   529,030,000       51 . 94 

Left  for  Home  Consumption  and  Stock   156,533,000  15.36 


Total  as  above     1,018,563,000  100.00 


111  round  numbers,  therefore,  it  maybe  said  that  one-third 
of  the  total  Britsh  production  of  cotton  goods  is  exported 
to  the  East,  one-half  to  other  countries,  and  one-sizth 
consumed  at  home. 

With  the  great  improvements  in  the  mechanics  of  the 
trade,  and  the  reduced  price  of  the  raw  material,  a  gradual 
but  considerable  decline  has  taken  place  in  the  cost  and 
price  of  the  fabrics  produced.  Vhe  price  of  1  lb.  of  yarn 
containing  100  hanks,  (1786)  was  38s.;  (1807)  6s. 
(1829)  3s.  M.\  at  the  present  time,  2s.  M,  The  cost  of 
weaving  during  the  last  60  years  has  been  reduced  upward 
of  60  per  cent.  A  species  of  calico,  selling  at  6s.  per  yard 
toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  can  be  purchased  in 
our  day  at  as  many  pence.  The  average  price  per  yard  of 
goods  exported  from  Britain  (1815)  was  Is.  5id;  (1825)  10|(f.,- 
4a 


COTTON. 

(1835)  6|(f.;  (1845)  S^c?.;  (1859)  In  1864,  the  price 

rose  to  per  yard,  but  in  1874  it  fell  to  3|(^.  per  yard. 
The  average  price  per  lb.  of  ya/rn  exported  (1815)  was  Bs. 
7|(^.;  (1825)  \s.  Wld.)  (1835)  Is.  4p.;  (1845)  1«  ^ld.\  (1859) 
life?.  In  1864,  the  average  rose  to  2s.  4f(i.  per  lb.;  but,  in 
1874,  fell  to  Is.  'did.  per  lb.  The  most  profitable  years  for 
spinners  are  said  to  have  been  1845,  48,  59,  60,  and  71. 

The  earnings  of  the  work-people  in  Britain  have,  upon 
the  whole,  steadily  increased  from  year  to  year.  The 
following  table  furnishes  the  rates  current  in  1839,  49,  59, 
and  75.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  proportionate  advance 
during  the  last-mentioned  16  years  was  much  greater  in 
the  lowest  than  in  the  highest  paid  hands: 

AVERAGE  WEEKLY  WAGES. 


1839 

1849. 

1859. 

1875. 

Week  of 

\  69  hours. 

Week  of  60  hours. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

24  0 

28  0 

30  0 

32  0 

Warehousemen  

18  0 

20  0 

22  0 

26  0 

Carding  Department — 

12  0 

Scutchers  (women  and'girls).  . . . 

7  0 

7  6 

8  0 

Strippers  (young  men)  

11  0 

12  0 

14  0 

19  0 

25  0 

28  0 

2^0 

32  0 

Spinning  on  Self-acting  Mules — 

Minders.  

16  0 

18  0 

20  0 

25  0 

Piecers  (women  and  young  men) 

8  0 

9  0 

10  0 

16  0 

20  0 

22  0 

26  0 

30  0 

Throstle  Spinning — 

Spinners  (girls  i4  to  18  years)  

4  0 

4  6 

5  0 

9  0 

"  (women)  

7  0 

7  6 

9  0 

13  6 

18  0 

20  0 

24  0 

26  0 

Ruling — 

Throstle  reelers  (women)  

9  0 

9  6 

9  6 

12  6 

Warpers    ...  . 

22  0 

22  0 

23  0 

26  0 

23  0 

23  0 

25  0 

30  0 

Doubling — 

Doubters  (women)  

7  0 

7  6 

9  0 

12  6 

24  0 

25  0 

26  0 

32  0 

Other  branclies  show  the  same  ratio  of  advance. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  extent  of  the  British 
manufacture  at  the  close  of  1874: 

Estimated  weight  of  cotton  consumed   1,226,129,000  lbs. 

value  of  same,  at  Tfd.  per  lb    £40,226,000 

"        weight  of  yarn  produced   1,120,525,000  lbs. 

Declared  weight  of  yarn  exported   220,599.000  lbs. 

value  of  yarn  exported  (Is.  3%c?.  per  lb.) . .  £14,516,000 

Number  of  yards  of  goods  exported  3,587,132,000  yards. 

Declared  value  of  same  (3|c?.  per  yard)   £54,356.000 

"  "       other  cotton  goods  exported   £5,380,000 

Total  declared  value  of  al'  cotton  manufactures 

exported   £74,232,000 

Total  declared  value  of  all  British  exports   £297,650,000 

Proportion  of  cotton  exports  to  ent^'^'e  exports  per 

cent    25  per  cent. 

Estimated  number  of  persons  employed   479,000 

"        average  rate»of  wages  per  week   I'ds. 

"        total  amount  of  wages  paid  in  twelv<* 
months   £15,190,000 

ESTIMATED  FIXED  CAPITAL. 

Cost  of  41,300,000  spindles,  at  25s.  to  27s.  per 

spindle,  inclusive  of  buildings,  etc  £53,690,000 

Cost  of  463,000  power- looms,  at  £26  each   12,038,000 

 £65,728,000 

44 


COTTON. 

COT  TON,  Gun:  see  Gun  Cotton. 

COTTON,  kbt'n,  John:  1585,  Dec.  4—1652,  Dec.  23; 
Derby,  England:  patriarch  of  New  England.  He  was  ed- 
ucated in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  obtained  a  fellowship 
in  Emmanuel  College  and  became  tutor,  lecturer,  and  dean 
there;  was  appointed  vicar  of  St.  Botolph's  church,  Boston, 
Lincolnshire,  1612;  and,  excepting  a  brief  suspension  for 
refusing  to  observe  some  ceremonies  of  the  established 
church  which  he  believed  unscriptural,  preached  there  with 
great  effectiveness  till  1632.  Then  specific  charges  were 
preferred  against  him,  and  he  was  cited  to  appear  and  an- 
swer before  Abp.  Lared.  He  declined  to  obey,  fled  to  Lon- 
don, and  thence  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  landing  at 
Boston,  1633,  Sept.  4.  In  the  following  month  he  was  or- 
dained teacher  of  the  First  Church  in  Boston  (organized 
1630)  and  colleague  of  the  Rev.  John  Wilson,  the  pastor,  and 
retained  his  connection  with  the  church  till  his  death.  He 
was  eloquent  and  forcible  in  the  pulpit,  an  accomplished 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew  scholar,  a  strict  Sabbatarian,  and 
author  of  nearly  50  published  works,  including  the  noted 
The  Keys  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  (1644),  and  Milk  for 
Babes  (1646). 

COT  TON,  Sir  Robert  Bruce:  1570,  Jan.  22—1631, 
May  6;  b.  Denton,  Huntingdonshire,  England:  distin- 
guished English  antiquary,  founder  of  the  Cottonian 
Library  now  in  the  British  Museum.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  soon  after  taking  his  degree  b.a.  in  his 
16th  year,  he  commenced  those  archeological  pursuits 
which  have  made  his  name  famous,  and  proved  of  such 
immense  value  to  British  historians.  The  dissolution  of 
the  monasteries  about  half  a  century  before,  dispersed 
many  valuable  collections  of  manuscripts  into  private 
hands,  and  C.  hunted  up  and  purchased  these  wherever 
praticable.  On  account  of  his  eminent  abilities  and  great 
knowledge,  he  was  frequently  consulted  by  ministers  of 
state  on  difficult  constitutional  points  and  international 
questions.  In  1600,  at  the  request  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 'who 
desired  to  have  the  views  of  the  Soc.  of  Antiquries  on  the 
matter,  he  wrote  A  Brief  Abstract  of  the  Question  of 
Precedency  between  England  and  Spain.  King  James,  by 
whom  he  was  made  a  knight,  employed  C.  to  vindicate 
the  conduct  of  his  mother,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  also  to 
examine  whether  the  Rom.  Catholics,  on  account  of  whom 
some  alarm  was  then  felt  in  the  nation,  should  be  impris- 
oned or  put  to  death.  C.  took  the  most  humane  view  of  the 
matter.  His  intimacy  with  the  Earl  of  Somerset  led  him 
to  be  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  death  of  Sir  Thomas 
Overbury,  and  in  consequence  he  was  imprisoned  for  about 
five  months.  In  1629,  a  tract  entitled  A  Project  how  a 
Prince  may  make  himself  an  Absolute  Tyrant,  was  obtained 
from  his  library,  the  tendency  of  which  was  considered 
dangerous  to  the  liberty  of  the  state.  His  library  was  ac- 
cordingly declared  unfit  for  public  inspection,  and  he 
himself  was  denied  all  use  of  it.  His  heart  being  bound 
up  in  his  library,  he  pined  and  died  in  less  than  two 
years  afterward. 

45 


OOTTOK  FAMINE. 

The  CoTTONiAN  Library,  which  now  forms  so  impor- 
tant a  part  of  the  British  Museum,  was,  after  the  death  of 
Sir  Robert  C.'s  son  and  grandson,  who  augmented  it  con- 
siderably, invested  in  trustees  for  the  use  of  the  public. 
In  1730,  the  library  was  removed  to  Ashburnham  House, 
Westminster,  where  the  royal  collection  was;  and  in  the 
following  year  a  hre  occurred  in  the  house,  in  which  about 
114  out  of  the  958  MS.  volumes  of  which  the  library  con- 
sisted were  reported  as  '  lost,  burned,  or  entirely  spoiled; 
and  98  damaged  so  as  to  be  defective.'  Fortunately,  how- 
ever, under  the  care  and  intelligence  of  skilful  keepers, 
a  great  number  of  these  injured  volumes  have  been  restor- 
ed, so  that  the  library  now  consists  of  nearly  900  vols.,  of 
which,  says  Mr.  Edwards  in  his  Memoirs  of  LihrarieSy 
'  nearly  200  are  state  papers  of  the  highest  value.  They 
include  a  vast  series  relating  to  the  diplomatic  intercourse 
between  England  and  almost  every  state  of  Europe,  exten- 
ding from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  to  that  of  James  I.; 
and  of  these  documents,  no  small  proportion  consists  of 
the  original  letters  of  sovereigns  and  of  statesmen.  Even 
those  papers  not  original  have  high  authority,  as  being, 
for  the  most  part,  coeval  transcripts. '  The  Cottonian  Lib- 
rary was  transferred  to  the  British  Museum  (q.v.)  1757.  In 
addition  to  the  MSS.,  the  Cottonian  collection  comprises 
many  valuable  coins  and  antiquities. 

COT  TON  FAM  INE:  decrease  of  the  cotton-supply  in 
Great  Britain  in  1861  and  following  years,  occasioned  by 
the  war  of  secession  in  the  United  States;  with  its  results  in 
manufactures  and  trade— a  striking  episode. 

The  years  1859  and  '60,  unparalleled  for  the  magnitude 
of  the  cotton  manufacture,  had  much  to  do  with  the  col- 
lapse that  followed.  So  rapidly  has  this  branch  of  industry 
increased  in  Lancashire,  that  the  annual  number  of  immi- 
grants into  that  county  from  other  districts  have  varied  from 
10,000  to  20,000  for  a  long  series  of  years,  irrespective  of  the 
natural  increase  of  population  by  the  excess  of  births  over 
deaths.  The  imports  of  raw  cotton,  the  exports  of  man- 
ufactured cotton,  the  number  of  mills,  the  number  of 
hands,  all  were  at  their  maximum  in  1860.  The  imports 
were  1,391,000,000  lbs.,  of  which  1,054,000,000  were 
worked  up  in  Great  Britain.  There  were  1,920  mills  in 
Lancashire,  275  in  the  adjacent  portions  of  Cheshire  and 
Derbyshire,  and  enough  elsewhere  to  make  up  a  total  of 
2,650.  There  were  440,000  hands  employed  in  these  mills; 
by  age,  90  per  cent,  adults  and  young  persons,  and  10  per 
cent,  children;  by  sex,  44  per  cent,  males,  and  56  females. 
The  machinery  was  worked  by  steam-engines  having  an  ag- 
gregate of  300,000  horse-power.  There  were  more  than 
80,000,000  spindles,  making  from  4,000  to  6,000  revolutions 
per  minute;  and  350.000  power-looms.  The  tixed  capital  in 
mills  and  machinery  was  valued  at  £54,000,000;  while  the 
money  paid  for  wages  in  that  year  was  £11,500,000.  The 
cotton  goods  of  various  kinds  manufactured  for  home  con- 
sumption used  up  180.000,000  lbs.  of  cotton,  and  were  val- 
ued at  £24,000,000;  w^hilethe  exported  goods — consisting  of 
2,710,009,000  yords  of  calico,  muslins,  etc.,  and  197,000,000 


COTTON  FAMINE. 

lbs.  of  yarn— were  valued  at  £50,000,000;  besides  £2,000, - 
000  more  for  cotton  hosiery  and  small  wares.  The  total 
value  for  home  consumption  and  export,  £76,000,000,  ex- 
ceeded the  total  imperial  revenue  for  that  year.  The  fact 
that  of  1,390,000,000  lbs.  of  cotton  imported,  no  less  a  weight 
than  1,120,000,000  came  from  the  United  States,  shows  the 
tremendous  effect  to  be  expected  from  any  stoppage  in  the 
American  cotton-trade.  Irrespective  of  this,  however,  there 
would  have  been  a  stagnation  in  British  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts in  1861,  even  if  raw  cotton  had  been  plentiful  and 
cheap.  The  manufacturers  had  glutted  all  the  markets  by 
the  wholly  unprecedented  extent  of  their  operations  in  1860. 
The  English  warehouses,  as  well  as  those  elsewhere,  w^ere 
full;  and  time  was  needed  to  carry  off  the  immense  stock. 
There  were  cotton  goods  on  hand  in  Great  Britain  at  the 
end  of  the  year  ralued  at  £20,000,000;  while  in  India  British 
merchants  continued  to  pour  in  goods  even  when  the  con- 
signments of  1860  exceeded  £17,000,000. 

Fort  Sumter  was  bombarded  1861,  April.  This  was 
virtually  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  secession  and  of  the 
rise  in  the  price  of  cotton.  A  blockade  was  early  established 
by  the  Federal  government  of  Washington;  and  it  was  only 
by  '  running '  this  blockade  that  cotton-laden  ships  could 
cleaj  from  the  Southern  or  Confederate  ports.  The  price 
of  Middling  Orleans  (the  kind  of  cotton  mostly  used,  and 
that  which  governs  the  price  of  all  other  kinds)  rose  from 
7f(f.  to  9d.,  lOd.,  and  12d.,  as  the  year  advanced.  There  w^as 
thus  a  twofold  motive  for  lessening  the  operations  of  the 
Lancashire  mills — the  markets  were  so  fully  supplied  with 
manufactured  goods,  that  no  immediate  augmentation  was 
necessary;  while  the  increase  in  the  price  of  the  raw  mate- 
rial rendered  manufacturing  less  profitable  than  before.  The 
Liverpool  dealers  made  colossal  fortunes  by  the  enormous 
rise  in  price  of  every  bale  of  cotton  which  could  reach  the 
country  from  any  quarter;  while  the  manufacturers  were 
also  prosperous,  because  they  could  sell  their  accumulated 
stocks  of  calicos  and  yarns  at  much  higher  prices  than  had 
been  obtainable  in  1860.  It  w^as  the  operatives  who  suffered 
One  by  one,  the  mills  were  put  upon  half-time,  because  the 
mill  owners  had  not  much  inducement  to  spin  and  weave, 
under  the  extraordinary  double  influence  above  adverted  to. 
It  was  not  until  autumn,  however,  that  these  effects  were 
heavily  fell,  when  there  was  the  enormous  quantity  of 
1,000,000,000  lbs.  of  cotton,  raw  and  manufactured,  on 
hand  in  Great  Britain.  When  half-time  began  at  the  mills 
in  Oct.,  there  were,  in  Lancashire  and  the  two."  neigh  boring 
counties,  890  spinning-mills,  593  weaving-mills,  635  spinning 
and  weaving  mills,  and  151  other  cotton-mills  of  miscellane- 
ous kinds,  employing  369,453  factory  hands;  and  all  these 
four  classes  of  establishments  became  equally  embarrassed. 
India  or  Surat  cotton  could  still  be  had  in  considerable 
quantity,  at  lOd.  per  lb.  instead  of  its  formar  price  of  5d. ; 
but  it  was  greatly  out  of  favor,  on  account  of  its  dirty  condi- 
tion, and  the  shortness  and  hardness  of  its  staple.  In  Nov., 
there  were  49  mills  stopped,  throwing  out  8,063  hands,  while 
119  were  working  half-time— placing  something  like  20,000 


COTTON  FAMINE. 

ersons  on  half  their  usual  wages.  In  Dec. ,  Middling  Or- 
leans rose  to  12d.  So  singular  was  the  state  of  things,  and 
so  unlike  what  would  be  called  a  '  famine,'  under  other  cir- 
cumstances, that  the  actual  quantity  of  raw  cotton  in  Great 
Britain  at  the  end  of  the  year  (280,000,000  lbs.)  was  greater 
than  ever  before  known  in  the  history  of  the  trade;  but  as 
the  market  price  of  yarns  and  piece-goods  at  that  time 
scarcely  equaled  that  of  raw  cotton  plus  wages,  the  manu- 
facturer could  scarcely  operate  without  a  loss;  and  therefore 
he  either  closed  his  mill,  or  placed  his  hands  on  half-time. 
It  was  not  so  much  a  famine  of  cotton  as  a  famine  of  em- 
ployment. 

The  year  1862  opened  very  gloomily.  Relief  committees 
began  to  be  formed  in  Manchester,  Wigan,  Blackburn, 
Preston,  and  other  towns,  to  distribute  subscribed  funds  to 
such  of  the  hands  as  were  totally  out  of  work.  The  streets 
were  thronged  with  the  unemployed;  but  there  was  no  dis- 
turbance, and  scarcely  any  begging.  Sewing-schools  were 
established  by  ladies  in  the  several  districts,  to  teach  the 
factory  girls  useful  domestic  needle-work — of  which  they 
are  generally  very  ignorant — to  get  them  to  make  clothes 
for  themselves  and  others;  and  to  shield  them  from  the 
vicious  temptations  which  would  beset  them  during  a 
period  of  idleness.  The  ladies  also  won  upon  the  affection 
of  the  girls  by  reading  to  them,  and  sympathizing  in  many 
ways  with  their  sorrows.  Many  of  the  manufacturers  set 
apart  large  rooms  as  school-rooms  and  soup-kitchens  for 
the  boys  and  men,  and  abundant  stores  of  soup  were  pro- 
vided at  Id.  per  basin.  The  poor-law  board  sent  down  in- 
structions to  the  local  guardians  how  to  give  as  much  elas 
ticity  as  possible  to  the  system  of  parochial  relief.  In 
April,  Blackburn  had  only  18  mills  on  full-time  out  of  84, 
the  rest  being  either  on  half-time  or  closed;  and  there  were 
9,000  of  the  inhabitants  receiving  parochial  relief.  Most 
of  the  other  towns  were  in  nearly  as  bad  a  plight.  In 
May,  matters  were  worse;  Preston  had  10,000  operatives 
out  of  work,  and  Blackburn  had  about  half  employment 
for  27,000.  Middling  Orleans  rose  in  price  to  16d.,  and 
manufacturers  had  more  inducement  to  speculate  in  cotton 
than  to  spin  it.  Meanwhile,  great  efforts  were  made  to 
assist  the  distressed  operatives.  The  letters  of  a  *  Lanca- 
shire Lad '  in  the  Times,  with  the  text  '  Con  yo  help  us  a 
bit  ? '  made  a  great  impression.  The  Daily  Telegraph  raised 
a  fund  of  £5,000  by  its  own  exertions.  The  Lancasliire 
landowners  established  a  *  cotton  district  relief  fund '  in 
London,  to  which  they  subscribed  £11,000  in  one  day;  the 
Lord  Mayor  established  a  'Mansion-house  committee,' 
which  received  subscriptions  from  all  parts  of  the  w^orld; 
Manchester  established  a  '  central  relief  committee,' as  a 
nucleus  for  various  local  funds;  while  a  great  county 
meeting  brought  in  £130,000,  of  w^hich  £70,000  was  sub- 
scribed in  one  day  in  one  room.  Mr.  Faruall  was  sent  down 
by  the  Poor-law  board,  as  special  commissioner,  to  super- 
intend the  plans  for  parochial  relief.  A  Rate-in-aid  Bill 
was  passed  through  parliament,  to  enable  the  government 
to  issue  orders  in  council,  authorizing  parishes  to  raise 

48 


COTTON  FAMINE. 

moueyon  the  guarantee  of  future  rates;  it  was  only  to  be 
done  where  the  current  poor-rate  had  already  reached  a 
high  figure,  and  the  money  raised  'vvas  to  be  applied  strictly 
to  mitigate  the  distress  of  the  operatives.  Notwithstand- 
ing all  these  sources  of  assistance,  the  work-people  became 
red\]ced  to  great  distress.  '  The  pawnbrokers'  stores,'  said 
an  eye-witness,  'were  glutted  with  the  heir-looms  of  many 
an  honest  family.  Little  hoards  were  drained  to  meet  the 
exigences  of  the  lime.  Many  found  it  the  sorest  trial  of 
their  lives  to  ask  for  food;  and  it  is  a  happy  circumstance 
for  all  to  remember,  as  it  is  honorable  to  those  of  whom  it 
is  recorded,  that  none  suffered  more  severely  than  those 
who  had  a  struggle  to  overcome  their  unwillingness  to 
subsist  upon  food  which  they  had  not  earned.  Rents  were 
falling  in  arrears,  and  many  a  house  which  had  held  only 
one  family,  was  now  occupied  by  three  or  four,  in  order 
to  economize  rent  fuel,  and  furniture.'  Nevertheless, 
none  died  of  privation,  and  the  average  sickness  was  even 
less  than  usual.  It  was  a  fact  well  ascertained  that  spirit- 
drinking  was  less  indulged  in  than  while  the  out- door  poor 
relief  was  about  £1,000,000  more  than  in  an  equal  period 
of  average  times.  During  the  course  of  the  famine,  the 
losses  of  the  trade  amounted  to  between  £65,000,000  and 
£70,000,000,  including  from  £28,000,000  to  £30,000,000 
loss  of  wages  to  operatives.  Of  the  latter  amount  about 
one-fourth  was  recovered  in  the  form  of  relief,  or  in  wages 
for  employment  in  the  above  public  works.  In  some  dis- 
tricts in  1863,  the  poor-rate  rose  to  nearly  6^.  in  the  £.  In 
the  same  year,  the  average  rate  for  the  whole  of  the  cot- 
ton districts  was  2^.  2|6Z.,  against  only7|d  in  1861. 

The  fluctuations  in  the  value  and  quantity  of  cotton 
available  during  this  extraordinary  period  are  strikingly 
shown  in  the  following  parallel  columns,  relating  to  the 
raw  cotton  imported,  and  the  money  paid  for  it: 


Quantities  (Cwts.). 

Value. 

I860  

12,410,000 
11,223,000 
4,678,000 
5,978,000 
7,976,000 
8,732,000 
12,296,000 

£35,757,000 
38,653,000 
31,093,000 
56,278,000 
78,204,000 
66,032,000 
77,521,000 

1861  

1862  

1863  

1864  

1866  

It  was  a  gloomy  winter,  that  of  1862-3,  for  the  mill- 
hands.  The  import  of  C.  fell  to  524,000,000  lbs, 
against  1,257,000,000  in  1861,  and  1,391,000,000  in  1860. 
In  Oct.,  the  loss  of  wages  was  estimated  at  £136,000  per 
week.  In  Nov.  there  were  208,000  persons  in  the  Lanca- 
shire district  receiving  out-door  parochial  relief,  and 
144,000  others  aided  by  subscribed  funds;  there  were  at 
the  same  time  20,000  mill-girls  at  the  sewing- schools.  At 
Christmas,  there  were  247,000  hands  totally  out  of  work, 
and  165,000  others  only  partially  employed.  In  the  same 
month,  234,000  persons,  or  24  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu^ 

49 


COTTON  FAMINE. 

lation  of  the  districts  affected,  were  in  receipt  of  charitable 
relief.  Vast  sums  were  sent  from  various  parts  of  the  world 
to  be  spent  in  winter-clothing  only,  and  prodigious  stores  of 
second-hand  clothing  were  contributed  by  private  families. 
As  the  money  relief  seldom  exceeded  26'.  or  2^.  Qd.  ,per 
week  per  applicant,  to  purchase  clothing  out  of  this  w^as 
of  course  impracticable.  The  small  shopkeepers  also 
suffered  greatly;  for  there  was  only  one-third  the  amount 
of  wages  received  by  their  customers  per  week  that  had 
been  received  two  years  before.  Emigration  schemes  were 
much  discussed,  but  were  not  carried  on  very  largely, 
because  Lancashire  men  felt  convinced  that  trade  would 
revive  after  a  time.  Meanwhile,  the  r^ate  of  wages  was  not 
lowered;  few  mill-owners  proposed  it,  and  the  operatives 
were  immovably  against  it;  however  small  the  quantity 
of  work,  it  was  paid  for  at  the  old  rate.  In  1863,  the 
average  number  of  persons  out  of  w^ork  was  189,000,  and 
that  of  those  only  partially  employed,  129,000;  in  1864, 
the  ligures  were  134,000  and  97,000  respectively;  and  those 
for  the  first  live  months  of  1865,  107,000  and  68,000. 

No  date  can  be  named  for  the  actual  cessation  of  the 
distress;  it  died  out  by  degrees.  The  first  relief  came  from 
the  source  of  the  distress,  the  United  States.  During  the 
autumn  and  early  winter  of  1862  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  though  with  hearts  and  hands  full  with  the 
agonies  and  necessities  of  war,  contributed  sufficient  food 
and  clothing  to  load  three  vessels,  the  George  Oriswoldy 
Achilles,  and  Hope,  which  hastened  to  the  relief  of  their 
suffering  cousins,  and  reached  Liverpool,  1863,  Feb. 
When  the  manufacturers  had  sold  off  their  old  stocks, 
they  recommenced  buying  more  to  spin  and  weave; 
because,  though  the  price  of  raw  cotton  was  enormously 
high  (2s.  M.  for  Middling  Orleans  in  1863,  May),  the  sell- 
ing price  for  calicoes  and  muslins  was  now  proportionably 
high,  and  therefore  they  could  manufacture  at  a  profit 
In  1863,  June,  a  *  Public  Works  Act'  was  passed,  to  enable 
the  government  to  advance  £1,200,000  for  public  works  in 
the  cotton  districts — partly  to  make  good  drainage,  roads, 
water  supply,  etc.,  and  partly  to  yield  £600,000  or  £700,000 
as  wages  to  the  unemployed  cotton-hands  in  doing  so  much 
of  the  work  as  they  could  manage.  The  money  (to  be 
repaid  by  parish  rates  at  subsequent  dates)  was  to  be  ad- 
vanced by  the  Exchequer  Loan  Commissioners  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Poor-law  Board,  and  a  government 
engineer  was  to  examine  and  sanction  the  several  works  to 
be  executed.  All  these  operations  w^ere  to  be  confined 
strictly  to  the  cotton  districts,  where  the  distress  existed. 
Mr.  R.  A.  Arnold,  the  resident  govt,  inspector  of  these 
public  works,  states  in  his  History  of  the  Cotton  Famine, 
that  by  1865,  June,  there  had  been  works  planned,  and  in 
great  part  executed,  under  the  clauses  of  this  and  a  supple- 
mentary bill,  to  the  amount  of  £1,846,000.  They  com- 
prised the  making  or  improving  of  276  m.  of  street  and 
highway,  304  m.  of  main  sewxr,  reservoirs  for  1,500,000,000 
gallons  of  water,  several  parks  and  cemeteries,  and  a 
large  area  of  land-drainage.    Nearly  30,000  persons  had 

50 


COTTON  GRASS-COTTUS. 

bceu  fed  by  the  wages  paid  the  cotton  operatives  on  these 
works.  The  subscriptions  to  meet  the  distress  reached 
£2,U00,000;  while  the  out-door  poor  relief  was  about 
ill, (-'00, 000  more  than  in  an  equal  period  of  average 
limes 

COTTON  GRASS,  {Erio- 
jphorum)'.  genus  of  plants  of 
the  nat.  ord.  Cyperacece,  hav- 
ing the  fruit  accompanied  with 
long  silky  hairs  which  spring 
from  the  base  of  the  ovary. 
The  species  are  not  very  nu- 
merous; they  are  natives  of 
the  colder  regions  of  the  n. 
hemisphere,  and  their  white 
cottony  fruit -bearing  spikes 
are  seen  in  moors  and  bogs. 
The  cottony  substance  has 
been  used  for  stulnng  pillows, 
making  candle  -  wicks,  etc. 
Mr.  Helliwell  has  shown  that 
a  lirm  and  beautiful  cloth  can 
be  made  of  it;  and,  according 
to  him,  it  might  be  gathered 
in  some  places,  without  culti- 
vation, at  a  cost  of  twopence 
or  threepence  per  pound.  The 
stems  of  a  Himalayan  species, 
E.  cannahinum,  called  Bhahhur, 
yield  a  very  strong  fibre,  and 
are  much  employed  for  making  cordage,  being  simply 
twisted  into  cables,  of  which  rope-bridges  are  usually  made; 
but  they  are  not  durable,  and  require  much  repairing 
every  year. — C.  G.  is  said  to  be  valuable  for  sheep  pas- 
tre.  Its  leaves  w^ere  formerly  employed  as  a  remedy  for 
diarrhoea,  and  the  spongy  pith  of  the  stem  to  expel  tape- 
worms. 

COT  TONWOOD:  see  Poplar. 
'  COTTON-WORM:  caterpillar  of  the  tribe  of  noctua 
moth,  genus  helioihes.  There  are  two  kinds,  each  with 
16  legs.  The  hrst^  of  a  general  green  color  striped  with 
yellow  and  dotted  on  the  back  with  black,  has  a  rapid  un- 
dulating motion,  attains  a  length  of  1^  inches,  deposits  10- 
15  eggs  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and  dies  soon 
afterward.  The  eggs  are  hatched  in  6-15  days,  and  the 
young  begin  to  eat  the  leaves  almost  immediately.  The 
second  is  of  a  general  j^ellow  color,  though  sometimes 
brown  or  green,  with  black  spots  and  short  hairs,  has  a 
slow,  even  motion,  is  capable  of  laying  500  eggs,  has  three 
broods  a  year,  and  deposits  its  eggs  singly  in  each  flower, 
whence  the  worm  eats  its  w^ay  into  the  boll  and  feeds  till 
the  boll  is  about  to  fall,  then  goes  to  another.  Both  varie- 
ties are  believed  to  have  originated  in  s.  America. 

COTTUS,  kot  tns:  genus  of  acanthopterygious  fishes,  of 
the  Mailed  CJieek  family  or  Sclerogenidce,  having  a  large  de- 


Cotton  Grass  (Eriophorum). 


COTULA-COTYLEDON. 

pressed  head,  more  or  less  armed  with  spines  or  tubercles, 
a  tapering  body  destitute  of  scales,  and  two  dorsal  tins. 
Some  of  the  species  are  marine,  others  inhabit  freshwater. 
Of  the  latter,  the  bull-head  (q.v.)  is  an  example.  The 
marine  species  are  found  mostly  in  northern  seas.  The 
Sea  Scorpion  {G.  Scorpius)  and  the  Father  Lasher  {G.  Buba- 
lis),  are  often  left  by  the  receding  tide  in  rock-pools  and 
among  sea-weeds.  The  greatest  size  to  which  they  attain 
on  the  British  coasts  is  only  abotit  10  inches,  but  in  more 
northerly  seas,  they  become  much  larger.  They  form  a 
principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  Greenlanders.  Notwith- 
standing their  large  gill-openings,  they  live  long  out  of 
water. 

COTULA,  n.  kot'u-la:  genus  of  composite  plants,  type 
of  the  tribe  Gotulece,  tribe  Semcionidem. 
COTUR  NIX:  see  Quail. 

COTYLA,  n.  kot'i-ld,  or  Cot'yle  [Gr.  kotiiU,  a  cup  or 
socket]:  in  aiiat.,  the  socket  or  hollow  that  receives  the  end 
of  another  bone.  Cot  yloid,  a.  -loyd  [Gr.  eidoSy  shape] : 
resembling  the  socket  of  a  joint. 

COTYLEDON,  n.  kbt'i-le'don  [Gr.  kotuUdon,  a  cup-like 
hollow — from  koiule,2i  hollow,  a  small  cup]:  in  hot.,  a  seed- 
lobe,  or  seed-leaf;  a  principal  part  of  the  embryo  in  phan- 
erogamous or  flowering-plants.  Cryptogamous  plants  are 
acotyledonous  (q.v. ):  their  seeds  or  spores  have  no  cotyledons. 
Phanerogamous  plants  are  divided  according  to  their  seeds 
into  monocotyledonous  (q.  v.),  having  only  one  C. ,  and  dicotyle- 
donous (q.v.),  having  two  cotyledons.  With  the  latter  are 
ranked  some  Goniferm  remarkable  for  having  more  than 
two  cotyledons,  which  form  a  sort  of  whorl.  The  cotyle- 
dons enclose  the  plumule  or  gemmule\  and  in  germination 
they  usually  come  above  groimd  as  the  first  leaves  (seed- 
leaves)  of  the  young  plant — the  plumule,  in  dicotyledonous 
plants,  appearing  between  them — and  they  become  at  the 
same  time  more  leaf -like;  but  in  some  plants,  which  have 
thick  fleshy  cotyledons,  they  remain  undergound.  In 
either  case,  they  contain  a  store  of  nourishment,  by  w-hich 
the  young  plant  is  sustained  on  its  first  germination.  In- 
stances of  cotyledons  remaining  under  ground,  may  be 
seen  in  the  common  pea  and  bean;  and  instances  of 
cotyledons  coming  above  ground,  in  the  kidney-bean  and 
scarlet  runner,  plants  of  the  same  nat.  order.  Cotyledons 
are  sometimes  very  thick,  sometimes  very  thin  and  deli- 
cate; those  of  the  same  seed  are  generally  equal,  but  not 
always;  they  are  frequently  undivided,  but  sometimes  cut 
and  lobed.  The  cotyledons  of  dicotyledonous  plants  are 
often  simply  applied  face  to  face;  when,  if  the  radicle  is 
folded  along  their  edges,  they  are  said  to  be  accumbent\  if 
it  is  folded  on  their  back,  they  ars  incumbent.  Sometimes 
the  two  cotyledons  of  a  seed  are  condupUcate,  or  laterally 
folded;  sometimes  they  are  reclinate,  or  folded  from  apex 
to  base;  sometimes  conwlute,  or  laterally  rolled  up;  some- 
times circinate,  or  spirally  rolled  up  with  the  apex  inner- 
•  most.  These  terms  are  of  importance  in  descriptive 
botany,  as  characters  of  high  value  are  often  furnished  by 


COUCH— COUCY. 


the  seed. — C.  in  anatomy,  is  applied  to  the  portions  of 
which  the  placentae  of  some  animals  are  formed,  as  in  the 
ruminants:  Cot'yle'donous,  a.  -le'do  nus,  pertaining  to; 
having  a  seed-lobe. 

COUCH,  n.  kowch  [F.  couclier,  to  lay  down— from  OF. 
colclier,  or  It.  colcare,  to  lay  down — from  L.  collbcare,  to  lay 
or  place  dow^n — from  L.  con,  locdre,  to  lay]:  a  place  for 
rest  or  sleep;  a  bed;  a  sofa;  in  making  malt,  a  layer  or 
stratum  of  barley  spread  on  the  malt-floor;  a  layer  or 
stratum  of  color,  size,  etc. :  Y .  to  lie  down,  as  on  a  bed  or 
place  of  repose;  to  lay  down  in  a  bed  or  stratum;  to  conceal 
or  express  in  words  obscurely;  to  include  or 
y     comprise;  to  recline  on  the  knees,  as  a  beast; 
I'&v^  to  crouch;  to  fix  a  spear  in  the  posture  for 
^_Jv  ^       ^  attack;  to  depress  or  remove  the  film  that 
^^^^^'^^'^'^-^-^  overspreads  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  called  a 
Couchant.     cataract  (q.v.);  in  OE.,  to  plate  or  lay  over, 
as  scales.    Couch  ing,  imp.    Couched,  pp. 
kowcht.  Couch  EK,  n.  one  who  couches  cataracts.  Couch'- 
LESS,  a.    Couchant,  a.  kowch' ant  [F.]:  in  heraldry,  a  beast 
lying  down  with  the  head  raised  up;  squatting:  if  the  head 
also  is  down  the  beast  is  dormant. 

COUCH  GRASS  {Triticum  repens),  called  also  Wheat 
Grass,  Dog  Grass,  Quickens,  and  Squitch  or 
Quitch:  a  grass  which,  though  of  the  same 
genus  with  wheat,  is  known  chiefly  as  a 
troublesome  weed.  It  is  common  in  most 
parts  of  Europe  and  N.  America.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  1^-3  ft.,  and  has  two-rowed 
spikes  and  flat  spikelets,  the  side  of  which  is 
applied  to  the  rachis.  It  is  perennial,  and  its 
creeping  roots  render  it  extremely  difficult  of 
extirpation;  they  are  carefully  gathered  out 
of  land  under  cultivation,  but  they  make  the 
plant  very  useful  in  fixing  loose  sandy  soils, 
so  as  to  form  pasture.  It  is  not,  how^ever, 
esteemed  a  very  nutritious  grass.  The  roots 
are  sweet  and  mucilaginous,  and  are  collected 
at  Naples  for  feeding  horses;  they  have  also 
been  dried  and  ground  into  meal,  to  make 
bread  in  times  of  scarcity.  A  kind  of  beer  is 
made  from  them,  and  in  some  countries  they 
are  much  used  in  domestic  medicine.  They 
are  diaphoretic  and  aperient. — The  popular 
name,  Squitch,  or  Quitch,  is  given  also  to  some 
other  perennial  grasses. 

COUCY,  ko-se' ,  Renaud,  Castellan  of, 
court-poet,  belonging  to  the  north  of  France: 
probably  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  c.  The 
love-songs  ascribed  to  him  are  distinguished 
above  all  similar  productions  of  the  same 
epoch  by  great  warmth  of  passion.  They  are  ^^^^^^  ^^^ss 
addressed,  of  course,  to  a  mistress,  whose 
name,  in  accordance  with  the  fashion  of  the  time,  is  not 
mentioned.    From  their  contents,  we  can  gather  little  or 

53 


COUEPIA— COUGH. 

nothing  of  the  circumstances  of  C.  's  life,  except  that  he 
had  become  a  crusader,  and  had  separated  himself  very 
reluctantly  from  the  object  of  his  adoration.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  he  accompanied  Philippe  Auguste  and  Kichard 
Coeur  de  Lion  to  the  Holy  Land,  probably  in  the  service  of 
Raoul,  Sieur  de  Coucy,  with  whom,  indeed,  he  is  often 
confounded.  Like  Tristan  and  Isolde,  C.  and  his  mistress 
soon  became  patterns  of  true  but  unfortunate  lovers.  As 
early  as  the  first  half  of  the  13th  c,  the  Uoman  d'Aventure 
gives  a  very  prolix  and  incredible  account  of  both.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Chansons  du  Chdtelain  de  G.  was  b} 
Frang.  Michel  (Paris  1830). 

COUEPIA,  n.  ko-ep'l-a:  genus  of  plants,  ord.  CJirysobala 
nacece.  The  wood  of  C.  guianensis,  a  large  tree  60  ft.  high 
is  durable  and  heavy.  The  Indians  use  its  bark  in  the 
manufacture  of  their  pottery. 

COUGAR,  D.  ko'gdr  [S.  Amer.  word:  F.  couguar]:  the 
American  panther:  see  Puma. 

COUGH,  V.  kof[sin  imitative  word:  Dut.  kuch,  a  cough; 
kuchen,  to  breathe  with  difficulty]:  to  expel  the  air  from 
the  lungs  with  considerable  force  and  noise;  to  expecto- 
rate: N.  an  effort  of  the  lungs  to  throw  off  offending  mat- 
ter, as  phlegm  from  the  air-passages,  accompanied  with 
considerable  noise:  Coughing,  imp.:  Coughed,  pp.,  koft. 
—  Coughing,  considered  physiologically,  consists,  1st,  in  a 
long  inspiration,  which  fills  the  lungs  to  a  greater  extent 
than  usual;  2d,  in  the  closure  of  the  glottis,  or  narrow 
opening  in  the  organ  of  voice  (see  Larynx),  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  act  of  expiration;  and,  3d,  in  the  sudden 
forcing  open  of  the  glottis  by  the  violence  of  the  expiratory 
movement.  In  this  way,  a  blast  of  air  is  driven  upward 
from  the  lungs  through  the  mouth,  which  carries  with  it 
any  sources  of  irritation  that  may  have  been  present  in  the 
air-passages.  C.  may  occur  from  irritation  in  the  back  of 
the  throat,  in  the  larynx,  trachea,  or  bronchial  tubes,  and 
may  be  excited  by  acrid  vapors,  by  irritant  gases,  or  by 
articles  of  food  or  drink— such  as  even  a  drop  of  water  or 
a  crumb  of  bread — making  their  way  into  the  air-passages, 
instead  of  into  the  pharynx,  or  by  excessive  or  morbid 
secretion  from  the  walls  of  the  air-tubes,  or  even  by  the 
entrance  of  cold  air,  when  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
air-passages  is  abnormally  irritable. 

It  is  not  easy  to  explain*  to  the  non-professional  reader 
how  cough  is  produced.  From  the  medulla  oblongata,  or 
uppermost  part  of  the  spinal  cord  (lying  within  the  cavity 
of  the  cranium),  there  is  given  off  a  very  important  nerve, 
called,  from  its  distribution  to  the  lungs  and  stomach,  the 
pneumogastric  nerve  (q.v.),  which  contains  both  sensory 
and  motor  filaments.  The  sensory  filaments  are  distributed 
to  the  mucous  lining  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  etc.  Any 
such  irritating  substances  as  have  been  mentioned  may 
produce  an  impression  upon  these  sensory  filaments,  which, 
being  conveyed  to  the  medulla  oblongata,  gives  rise, 
through  the  motor  filaments,  to  the  transmission  of  motor 
imjDulses  to  the  various  muscles  concerned  in  the  act  of 

54 


COULD— COUMARINE. 

coughing.  Other  motor  nerves,  especially  those  supplying 
tlie  intercostal  muscles  and  the  diaphragm,  co  operate 
powerfull}^  with  the  motor  filaments  of  the  pneumogastric. 

The  object  of  C.  in  the  animal  economy  is  unquestion- 
ably to  guard  against  the  danger  of  the  entrance  of  me- 
chanical and  chemical  irritants  into  the  air  passages;  and 
accordingly,  the  mucous  membrane,  especially  of  their 
upper  part,  is  endowed  with  a  most  exi^uisite  sensibility, 
which,  when  aroused  by  irritation  or  by  a  state  of  disease, 
provokes  incessant  coughing  until  the  irritation  be  allayed 
or  removed.  Cough  is  an  exceedingly  common  symptom 
of  all  diseases  of  the  respiration:  see  Pneumonia:  Con- 
sumption: Bronchitis  :  Catarrh:  etc. 

Cough  occurs  among  the  lower  animals  under  similar 
conditions.  From  continued  breathing  of  a  close  foul 
atmosphere,  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane  becomes 
unduly  irritable;  hence  the  prevalence  of  chronic  cough 
among  the  cows  in  overcrowded  town  dairies.  Chronic 
cough  also  occurs  in  horses,  usually  as  a  sequel  to  repeated 
attacks  of  bronchitis.  It  constitutes  unsoundness,  is  best 
treated  by  repeated  doses  of  belladonna  and  camphor,  but 
often  requires  for  its  entire  removal  a  run  at  grass. 

COULD,  V.  kud  [AS.  cuthe,  was  able]:  past  tense  of  can; 
had  sufficient  power,  moral  or  physical;  had  sufficient 
capacity:  see  Can  2. 

COULEES,  n.  plu.  kit-lez  [F.  coulee — from  couler,  to 
flow  as  melted  metals— from  L.  coldre,  to  filter,  to  run]:  in 
geol.,  streams  of  lava,  whether  flowing  or  become  solid. 

COULOMB,  ko-lbiig'y  Charles  Augustin  db:  1736 — 
1806,  Aug.  23;  b.  Augouleme,  France:  inventor  of  an  in- 
strument— the  Torsion  Balance  (q.v.) — to  measure  the  force 
of  magnetic  and  electrical  attraction.  In  early  life,  he 
entered  the  engineers.  In  1777,  he  gained  a  prize  by  an 
essay  on  the  construction  of  magnetic  needles  [Sur  les  Ai- 
giiilks  Aimantees).  In  1779,  his  Theorie  des  Machines 
simples  gained  the  prize  ofl'ered  by  the  Acad.;  and,  in  1781, 
he  was  a  third  time  successful,  in  an  essay  on  the  friction 
and  resistance  of  cordage,  etc.,  used  in  machines.  In  the 
same  year,  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Acad.,  and  his 
services  were  employed  on  all  the  most  difficult  problems 
in  mechanics.  Having  offended  certain  influential  persons 
by  reporting  unfavorably  on  their  project  of  a  navigable 
canal  in  Bretagne,  C.  was  for  some  time  imprisoned,  but 
received  from  the  States  of  Bretagne  a  present  of  a  sec- 
onds' watch,  as  a  reward  of  his  firm  opposition  to  an  ex- 
pensive and  unprofitable  scheme.  C.  lived  in  retirement 
during  the  Revolution,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, 1804. 

COULTER,  n.  kdl'ter  [OF.  coultre—iYom  L.  culter,  a 
plowshare,  a  knife:  F.  coutre,  a  coulter]:  the  sharp  iron  of 
the  plow  in  front  of  the  share  which  cuts  off  the  furrow- 
slice  from  the  fast  land;  also  Col  ter:  see  Plow.  Coul- 
terneb,  n.  kdl'ter-neh,  a  sea-bird,  so  named  from  the  blade- 
like shape  of  its  neb  or  bill;  the  puffin. 

COUMARINE,  or  Coumarin,  n.  ko'ma-rm,  known 


C0UM0UND0UR08— COUKCIL. 

also  as  Tonka  Steakopten  (see  Steahopten):  odoriferous 
substance,  which  gives  agreeable  fragrance  to  the  well- 
known  Tonka  Bean  {q.v.){I)ipterlx  odorata),  used  for  flavor- 
ing snuft" ;  the  Woodruff  {Asperula  odorata) ;  the  Melilot 
{MelUotus  officinalis) ;  a  number  of  grasses,  as  the  sweet- 
scented  Vernal  Grass  {Anthomnthum  odoratum)\  and  the 
Faam  or  Fahani  leaves  {Angraicu7n  fragrans),  much  prized 
among  the  Asiatics  for  their  vanilla-like  scent;  and  is 
probably  the  cause  of  similar  fragrance  in  many  other 
plants.  C.  may  be  procured  from  Tonka  beans  by  digestion 
in  ether.  It  crystallizes  in  small  prisms,  is  colorless,  has 
the  smell  of  the  bean,  and  is  scarcely  soluble  in  cold 
water,  but  dissolves  in  boiling  water.  A  beverage  well 
known  in  Germany  as  May  Brink,  made  of  wine  and 
woodruif,  derives  its  flavor  from  coumarin. 

COUMOUNDOUROS,  ko^mdn'dij  ros,  Alexander:  1818 
-1883,  Mar.  10;  b.  Athens:  Greek  statesman.  He  entered 
the  Greek  chamber  of  deputies  1850,  became  pres  of  that 
body,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  a  minister  of  state 
with  charge  of  the  dept.  of  finance.  His  first  ofticial  step 
was  to  propose  to  the  chamber  a  bill  for  the  recognition  of 
the  Greek  debts  of  1814  and  25  contracted  in  the  struggle 
for  freedom.  The  measure  at  first  failed,  but  he  clung  to 
its  moral  and  political  necessity,  and  succeeded  in  securing 
its  adoption,  1879.  He  was  frequently  prime  minister  of 
Greece,  and  held  the  otfice  longer  than  any  contemporary 
Greek  statesman.  His  popularity  was  very  great  through 
the  country,  and  he  was  often  called  the  Cavour  of  Greece. 

COUNCIL,  n.  kown'sil  [F.  concile,  an  assembly — from 
L.  concilliim,  an  assembly:  It.  concilio\.  an  assembly  met 
for  consultation,  or  convened  to  give  advice;  a  meeting  of 
delegates  from  churches,  in  some  denominations,  with  only 
advisory  or  moral  power,  in  others,  of  high  authority,  e.g. 
provincial,  national,  and  ecumenical  councils:  see  Council, 
or  Synod:  a  municipal  body:  see  Town  council.  Coun'- 
ciLOR,  n.  -Ut,  a  member  of  a  council.  Coun  cilorship,  n. 
the  office.  Common  council,  in  the  city  of  London,  and 
other  cities,  the  body  which  represents  the  citizens. 
Ecumenical  council,  ek'u-meri'i-kdl-,  in  eccles.  hist,,  a 
general  council  or  assembly  of  a  select  number  of  ecclesias- 
tics of  various  ranks  representing  the  whole  church.  Privy 
council  (q. v.),  a  select  number  of  persons  for  advising  a 
sovereign  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs.  Council- 
board,  the  table  around  which  councilors  sit  in  consulta- 
tion.—Syn.  of  *  councir:  meeting;  congress;  diet;  convoca- 
tion; convention. 

COUN  CIL,  or  Syn  od,  in  Eccles.  Hist.:  assembly  of  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries,  for  regulating  the  doctrine  or  discip- 
line of  the  church  over  a  provincial  or  larger  area.  In 
modern  usage,  C.  has  a  different  application,  denoting  an 
assembly  gathered  from  any  wide  area,  usually  a  representa- 
tive but  not  authoritative  body,  embracing  several  affiliated 
sects,  and  meeting  for  free  and  helpful  conference  on  mat- 
ters of  common  concern,  but  with  no  legislative  function; 
e.g.,  the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council. 


COUNCIL. 

As  early  as  the  2d  c.,  church  councils  were  convened,  in 
which  only  one  or  two  provinces  took  part,  the  bishops  and 
presbyters  binding  themselves  to  carry  out  the  decisions  ar- 
rived at,  in  their  own  communities.  These  assemblies  were 
commonly  held  in  the  chief  town  or  metropolis  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  the  bishops  of  such  capitals — who  after  the  8d  c, 
bore  the  title  of  metropolitan — were  wont  to  preside  over 
the  meetings,  and  to  consider  questions  of  doctrine  and  dis- 
cipline which  had  arisen  within  the  territory.  Over  these 
metropolitan  councils  were  established,  at  a  later  period,  the 
provincial  synods,  exercising  authority  over  several  united 
provinces,  and  finally,  the  national  councils.  After  the  4th 
c,  when  the  Christian  religion  was  established  in  the  Roman 
empire,  we  read  of  ecumenical,  i.e.,  universal  councils,  so 
called  because  all  the  bishops  of  Christendom  were  invited 
or  summoned  by  the  emperor.  In  some  early  synods, 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  others,  took  part  in  the  deliber- 
ations; but  after  the  opening  of  the  4th  c,  only  the  bishops 
were  convened.  According  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Rom. 
Cath.  Church,  the  pope  alone,  or,  by  way  of  exception 
in  some  cases,  the  college  of  cardinals  had  the  power  of 
convening  ecumenical  councils,  which,  in  the  Rom. 
Cath.  view,  represent  the  universal  church  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Questions  were  determined 
by  the  majority  of  votes,  and  the  pope  or  his  proxy  pre- 
sided and  confirmed  the  resolutions  carried  in  the  synod. 
In  matters  of  faith,  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  traditions 
of  the  church  were  the  guide;  while  in  lighter  matters,  hu- 
man reason  aud  expediency  were  consulted.  In  matters  of 
faith,  ecumenical  councils  are  held  +0  be  infallible;  but  in 
other  matters  of  discipline,  etc.,  the  latest  synod  decide  ques- 
tions. The  question  of  the  pope's  subordination  to  the  decrees 
of  the  ecumenical  councils  was  long  and  warmly  debated, but 
the  recent  Vatican  council  may  be  said  to  have  set  the  ques- 
tion at  rest.  Twenty  ecumenical  councils  are  recognized  in 
the  Rom.  Cath.  Cnurch — 9  eastern  and  11  western. 

1.  The  synod  of  apostles  in  Jerusalem,  wherein  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Christian  doctrine  to  the  Mosaic  law  was  deter- 
mined. (Acts,  XV.)  2.  The  first  C.  of  Nice,  325,  to  assert 
the  Cath.  doctrine  respecting  the  Son  of  God  in  opposition 
to  the  opinions  of  Arius:  see  Nice  (or  Nic^a),  Councils 
OF.  3.  The  first  C.  of  Constantinople,  convoked  under  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  the  Great  (381),  to  determine  the  Cath. 
doctrine  regarding  the  Holy  Spirit:  see  CoNSTANTmoPLB, 
Councils  of.  4.  The  first  C.  of  Ephesus,  convened  under 
Theodosius  the  Younger  (431),  to  condemn  the  Nestorian 
heresy  :  see  Ephesus,  Council  of.  5.  The  C.  of  Chalce- 
don,  under  the  emperor  Marcian  (451),  which  asserted  the 
doctrine  of  the  union  of  the  divine  with  the  human  nature 
in  Christ,  and  condemned  the  heresies  of  Eutyches  and  the 
Monophysites-  see  Chalcedon,  Council  of.  6.  The  sec- 
ond C.  of  Constantinople,  under  Justinian  (553),  which  con- 
demned the  doctrines  of  Origen,  Arius,  Macedonius,  and 
others.  7.  The  third  C.  of  Constantinople,  convoked  under 
the  Emperor  Constantine  Y.,  Pogouatus  (681),  for  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Monothelite  heresy.    8.  The  second  C.  of 

51 


COUNCIL. 

Kice,  in  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Irene  and  her  son  Con- 
stantine  (787),  to  establish  the  worship  of  images.  9.  The 
fourth  C.  of  Constantinople,  under  Basilius  and  Adrian 
(869),  the  principal  business  of  which  was  the  peace  of  the 
eastern  and  western  churches,  and  the  deposition  of  Pho- 
tius,  who  had  intruded  himself  into  the  see  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  restoration  of  Ignatius,  who  had  been  un- 
justly expelled. — The  ecumenical  councils,  to  this  point,  may 
be  said  to  have  been  acknowledged  generally  as  authorita- 
tive in  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  churches,  though 
there  were  some  large  local  exceptions.  After  this,  the 
councils  called  ecumenical  were  so  only  in  name,  the  schism 
between  the  two  churches  having  now  become  complete. 
The  remainder  of  the  list  are  not  acknowledged  by  the  Greek 
Church. — 10.  The  lirst  Lateran  C,  in  Rome  under  the  Em- 
peror Henry  y.,  and  convoked  by  the  pope,  Calixtus  II 
(1123),  to  settle  the  dispute  on  investiture  (q.v.):  see  La.tbr- 
AN  Councils.  11.  The  second  Lateran  C,  under  the  Em- 
peror Conrad  III.  and  Pope  Innocent  II.  (1139),  condemned 
the  errors  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  and  others.  12.  The  third 
Lateran  C,  convened  by  Pope  Alexander  HI.  (1179),  in  the 
reign  of  Frederick  I.  of  Grermany,  condemned  the  'errors  and 
impieties '  of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses  13.  The 
fourth  Lateran  C  ,  held  under  Innocent  III.  (1215),  among 
other  matters  asserted  and  conflrmad  the  dogma  of  transub- 
stantiation,  and  necessity  for  the  reformation  of  abuses  and 
the  extirpation  of  heresy.  14.  The  tirst  ecumenical  synod 
of  Lyon,  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  IV.  (1245),  had 
for  its  object  the  promotion  of  the  Crusades,  the  restoration 
of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  etc.  15.  The  second  ecum- 
enical synod  of  Lyon,  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  X. 
(1274):  its  principal  object  was  the  re  union  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches.  16.  The  Synod  of  Yienne  in  Gaul, 
under  Clemens  V".  (1311),  convoked  to  Suppress  the  Knights 
Templars,  etc.  17.  The  C.  of  Constance,  convoked  at  the 
request  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  1414:  it  sat  for  4  years, 
asserted  the  authority  of  an  ecumenical  C.  over  the  pope, 
and  condemned  the  doctrines  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague:  see  Constance,  Council,  of.  18.  The  C.  of 
Basel,  convoked  by  Pope  Martin  Y.,  1430,  sat  for  nearly 
10  years,  and  purposed  to  introduce  a  reformation  in  the 
discipline,  and  even  the  constitution  of  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church:  all  acts  passed  in  thisC,  after  it  had  been  formally 
dissolved  by  the  pope,  are  regarded  by  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church  as  null  and  void:  see  Basel,  Council  of.  19.  The 
celebrated  C.  of  Trent,  1545—63;  opened  by  Paul  III.,  and 
brought  to  a  close  under  the  pontificate  of  Paul  lY. :  sea 
Trent,  Council  of.  The  Yatican  C.  above  mentioned, 
1870,  decreed  the  infallibilit}^  of  the  pope:  see  Yatican, 
Council  of. 

Among  the  provincial  or  local  synods  convened  after  the 
division  of  the  church  into  east  and  west,  was  that  of  Cler- 
mont (1096),  when  the  first  crusade  was  proposed,  and  that 
of  Pisa  (q.v.)  1409,  when  three  popes  were  contending  for 
the  see  of  Rome.  Among  Protestants  no  general  C.  has 
ever  been  convened ;  but  several  particular  synods  have  de- 

58 


COUJ^CIL. 

cided  various  questions.  Of  these  synods  one  of  the  more 
remarkable  was  that  of  Dort,  1618,  when  Calvin's  creed  was 
asserted  against  the  Arminians:  see  Arminius. 

The  decrees  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  councils  were  edited  by 
Mansi  (31  vols.  1759-98).  See  Hefele's  Conciliengeschichte 
(7  vols.  1855-74). 

COUNCIL,  IN  Congregational  Church  usage:  as- 
sembly of  delegates  directly  representative  of  churches, 
called  for  some  special  purpose  or  occasion  of  fellowship 
between  churches,  and  dissolved  when  the  business  is  fin- 
ished. A  C.  is  called  usually  by  a  church  which,  newly 
organized,  seeks  recognition  as  in  fellowship  with  other 
churches;  also  by  a  church  in  the  settlement  or  dismissal  of 
a  pastor,  or  whenever  it  sees  its  special  need  of  the  aid  or 
advice  of  other  churches.  It  may  be  called  also  by  an  indi- 
vidual member  for  ad\ice  as  to  bis  course  in  reference  to  an 
action  by  bis  church  whicb  he  deems  a  grievance.  The  de- 
cisions of  councils  have  no  authoriiy  as  law;  but  being  ex- 
pressive of  christian  sentiment  in  any  given  case,  they 
bring  to  bear  a  strong  moral  pressure,  which,  as  matter  of 
fact,  is  very  seldom  disregarded.  Councils  consist  of  any 
rersonable  number  of  churches.  The  selection  and  calling 
of  them  is  done  by  the  cliarch  (or  in  rare  cases  the  individ- 
ual) directly  interested,  issuing  to  such  churches  as  are  de- 
sired a  fornial  invitation  to  a  C.  to  be  held  at  a  specified 
place  and  time,  for  a  clearly  stated  purpose,  and  to  be  com- 
posed of  designated  churches.  All  these  churches  receive 
an  identical  invitation,  or  Letter  Missive,  and  each  may 
accept  or  decline  it  according  to  its  own  judgment.  Each 
church  accepting  the  letter  missive  is  represented  in  the  C, 
usually  by  its  pastor  and  one  other  delegate.  Only  the  busi- 
ness indicated  in  the  letter  missive  can  be  considered  in  the 
C.  A  council  has  no  function  outside  of  or  beyond  the  let- 
ter missive  which  is  its  charter;  nor  has  it  power  to  change 
that  letter,  or  to  make  any  change  in  the  constituency  which 
that  letter  indicates.  The  Congl.  Churches  of  the  United 
States  have  held  several  general  C.'s,  to  consider  matters  of 
common  denominational  importance;  and,  1871,  at  Oberlin, 
O.,  they  organized  a  national  C,  meeting  once  in  three 
years;  this  body  is  not  a  council  or  assembly  of  churches, 
but  rather  a  bod}^  of  delegates  from  state  or  district  asso- 
ciations or  similar  bodies,  meeting  in  conference  for  the  gen- 
eral furtherance  of  Christian  work.  Thus  it  is  without  the 
functions  of  the  councils  of  churches  above  noted,  and 
gives  no  advice  in  questions  of  christian  fellowship  between 
churches.  It  is  precluded,  as  are  also  the  regular  councils, 
from  exercising  any  legislative  or  judicial  authority.  Its 
moral  influence  has  been  considered  helpful  in  various 
ways. 

COUNCIL,  IN  THE  Reformed  Episcopal  Crurch:  as- 
sembly of  ministers  and  laymen,  created  by  the  provisional 
constitution  of  the  church,  adopted  1873,  Dec.  2.  The  gen- 
eral C.  consists  of  all  the  bps.  and  presbyters  of  the  church, 
with  lay  representatives  who  must  be  communicants  and 
members  of  the  congregations  which  they  represent.  The 
5» 


COUNCIL  BLUFFS— COUNCIL  OF  WAR. 


lay  represeutuliou  consists  of  one  deputy  for  each  50  com 
municauts  in  each  congregation,  and  every  congregation 
is  entitled  to  at  least  one  deputy.  The  bps.  do  not  consti- 
tute a  separate  house  nor  exercise  a  veto  power,  but  vote 
with  the  presbyters  when  a  vote  is  taken  by  orders.  The 
pres.  is  chosen  by  ballot  from  among  the  bps.,  serves  a 
term  of  one  year,  and  during  it  is  the  presiding  bp.  of  the 
church.  Six  or  more  adjoining  congregetions  with  6  or 
more  presbyters  may  associate  themselves  in  a  synod,  imder 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  bp.,  and  the  body  shall  embrace  all 
the  ministers  of  the  church  within  the  limit,  and  such  a 
number  of  lay  deputies  from  each  congregation  as  the 
synod  determines.  Each  congregation  has  its  own  individ- 
ual C.  which  co-operates  with  the  minister  in  all  matters 
beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  vestry. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS:  city,  cap.  of  Pottawattamie  co., 
Iowa,  at  the  base  of  a  picturesque  range  of  a  high  bluffs;  3  m. 
e.  of  the  Missouri  river,  4  m.  e.  by  n.  of  Omaha,  Neb.,  141 
m.  w.s.w.  of  Des  Moines  by  rail,  817  m.  w.  of  Davenport, 
and  1,000  m.  n.  of  St.  Louis;  on  the  Kansas  City  St.  Jos- 
eph and  C.  B.  ;  Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  Burling- 
ton and  Missouri  River,  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and 
Union  Pacific  railroads;  area  24  sq.  m.  An  iron  bridge 
over  the  Missouri  rivei*,  nearly  a  m.  long,  connects  it  with 
Omaha  and  provides  transit  for  passenger  and  freight  trains 
and  street  cars,  and  its  extremities  are  connected  by  a  horse 
railroad.  Its  public  buildings  include  a  state  deaf  and 
dumb  institution  founded  1842,  a  commodious  co.  court- 
house built  1867  at  a  cost  of  $50,000,  a  city  hall,  2  public 
halls,  a  library,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  hall  and  reading  room. 
The  educational  buildings  embrace  a  very  pretty  high- 
school  that  cost  $50,000,  6  ward  schools  and  a  grammar 
school,  a  Rom.  Cath.  seminary  for  girls,  and  a  school  for 
boys.  There  are  9  churches,  2  Meth.  Episc,  and  one 
each  Bap.,  Congl..  Lutheran,  Presb.,  Rom.  Cath.,  Uni- 
tarian, and  United  Brethren;  2  national  banks  with  a 
capital  of  $150,000,  2  savings  banks,  2  daily  and  4 
weekly  newspapers,  3  breweries,  2  flour  mills,  iron  works 
and  machine  shops,  and  manufactories  of  steam  engines, 
agricultural  implements,  carriages  and  wagons,  furniture, 
brooms,  and  cigars.  C.  B.  derived  its  name  from  a  council 
held  on  the  biufi's  with  the  Indians  by  Messrs.  Lewis  and 
Clark,  1804,  was  occupied  by  a  community  of  Mormons,  who 
named  it  Kanesville,  1846,  and  v/as  incorported  under  the 
name  of  C.  B.  1853.  Pop.  (1870)  10,020;  (1880)  18,063; 
(1885)  21,557. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAR:  conference  of  officers  in  military 
or  naval  warfare,  on  some  matter  in  which  the  commander 
wishes  to  fortify  his  judgment  by  an  appeal  to  that  of 
others.  The  French  make  a  special  provision  for  a  Coun- 
cil of  Defence  in  a  garrison.  The  governor  or  command- 
ant may  summon  the  heads  of  departments  to  meet  him  in 
consultat'on  whenever  he  may  think  such  a  step  desirable; 
and  the  opinions  expressed  at  such  meetings  are  placed  upon 
record.    The  commandant  of  a  garrison  generally  solicits 

60 


COUKSEL— COUNT. 

the  opiniou  of  a  C.  of  W.  before  surrendering  to  besiegers. 
The  English  military  code  leaves  these  matters  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  commander.  In  the  navy,  a  C.  of  W.  con- 
sists usually  of  tlag-officers  only;  but  officers  of  lower  rank 
occasionally  assist. 

COUNSEL,  n,  kown'sel  [F.  conseil — from  L.  consilium, 
deliberation]:  advice;  opinion  or  advice  given  for  the  in- 
struction or  guidance  of  another;  consultation;  secret  opin- 
ions; design;  purpose;  will;  one  who  advises  in  matters  of 
law;  an  advocate;  a  barrister:  see  Advocate:  Attorney: 
Barrister:  V.  to  advise;  to  give  advice  or  a  deliberate 
opinion  to  another  for  his  guidance;  to  warn;  to  admonish. 
Coun  selling,  imp.  Coun  selled,  pp.  -seld.  Coun- 
selor, n.  -lei\  one  who  advises  another;  an  advocate;  a 
barrister.  Coun'selorship,  n.  the  office  of  a  counsellor. 
To  keep  counsel,  to  keep  any  design  or  purpose  secret. 
— Syn.  of  'counsel,  v.':  to  admonish;  instruct;  recom- 
mend. 

COUNT,  V.  kownt,  formerly  spelled  compt,  as  in  accompt 
[F.  compter  or  conter,  to  count,  to  reckon — from  L.  compu- 
tdre,  to  sum  up— from  con,  putdre,  to  clear  up,  to  arrange: 
It.  computare]:  to  number;  to  sum  up;  to  reckon;  to  esteem 
or  consider;  to  ascribe  to;  to  rely  on:  N.  number;  act  of 
numbering;  total  amount;  in  law,  a  particular  charge  in  an 
indictment.  Count  ing,  imp.  Count  ed,  pp.  Count  er, 
n.  one  who;  that  which  is  used  in  reckoning  numbers;  a 
table  on  which  money  is  counted  or  goods  laid;  an  imitation 
of  a  piece  of  money.  Count  able,  a.  -d-bl,  that  may  be 
numbered.  Countless,  a.  that  cannot  be  numbered; 
innumerable.  Count-out,  an  adjournment  of  the  house 
of  commons  when  fewer  than  forty  members  are  present — 
only  made,  however,  when  the  attention  of  the  Speaker  is 
called  to  that  fact  by  a  member.  Count  for  Account,  in 
,  a  question  in  arithmetic.  Count-wheel,  the  wheel 
that  regulates  the  number  of  blows  that  a  clock  is  to  strike 
at  the  end  of  each  hour.— Syn.  of  'count,  v.':  to  cal- 
culate; reckon;  compute;  estimate;  enumerate;  rate;  judge; 
think. 

COUNT,  n.  kotmt  [OF.  conte;  F.  co7nte — from  L.  comi- 
iem,  an  associate:  It.  conte]:  name  given  to  the  great  offi- 
cers of  state  under  the  Frankish  kings;  a  foreign  title  of 
nobility  answering  to  English  earl:  Countess,  n.  kowntes 
[F.  comtesse],  the  wife  of  a  count  or  an  earl.  In  classical 
writers,  down  to  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  the  meanings  at- 
tached to  the  word  co7nes  (Lat.  form  of  Count)  were  com- 
paratively few  and  simple.  At  first  it  signified  merely  an 
attendant,  and  differed  from  socius  chiefly  in  expressing  a 
less  intimate  and  equal  relation  to  the  person  accompanied. 
Suetonius  uses  it  for  an  attendant  on  a  magistrate.  A  little 
later,  in  Horace's  time,  it  was  applied  to  those  young  men 
of  family  whom  it  had  become  customary  to  send  out  as 
pupils  under  the  eye  of  the  governor  of  a  province,  or  the 
commander  of  an  army.  Very  soon,  the  fashion  of  having 
similar  attendants  at  home  was  introduced,  and  Horace 
speaks  of  this  necessity  as  one  of  the  miseries  of  a  high 


COUNT  AND  RECKONING-COUNTENANCE. 

position.  The  emperor,  of  course,  had  many  comites  (Lat. 
plu.  of  comes)  in  this  sense;  and  to  these,  as  he  gradually 
became  the  centre  of  power,  he  transferred  the  various 
offices  of  his  household,  and  even  of  the  state.  Around 
his  person  these  comites  formed  a  sort  of  council  of  state, 
resembling  that  instituted  by  the  first  Napoleon.  The  ex- 
ample of  the  emperors  of  the  west  was  followed  by  the  em- 
perors of  the  east,  though  at  Byzantium  the  title  attached 
less  to  the  office  than  to  the  individual.  Most  of  the  titles 
of  British  court  officials  are  translations  of  those  belonging 
to  similar  officers  in  the  lower  empire.  The  comes  sacrarum 
largitionum  was  the  grand  almoner;  the  comes  curm,  the 
grand-master  of  ceremonies;  the  comes  wsiiarms,  the  grand- 
master of  the  wardrobe;  comes  equorum  regiorum,  the  grand 
equerry,  etc.  The  comes  marcarum,  or  count  of  the 
marches,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  was  the  original  of  the 
marquis  of  later  times.  In  France,  the  C.  of  the  palace 
{comes  palatii  nostri)  was  the  highest  dignitary  in  the  state 
after  the  maire  of  the  palace;  and,  in  the  11th  c,  he  had 
already  acquired  a  rank  apart  from  that  of  the  other  counts. 
He  presided  in  the  court  of  the  sovereign  in  his  absence, 
and  possessed  sovereign  jurisdiction.  The  habit  of  insti- 
tuting counts-palatine  was  adopted  by  Sijain  and  England. 
Those  counts  who,  at  a  later  period,  as  rulers  of  provinces, 
assumed  something  approaching  to  sovereign  power,  arro- 
gated to  themselves  the  right  of  appointing  counts-palatine 
under  them — e.  g.,  the  Counts  of  Chartres,  of  Champagne, 
of  Blois,  Toulouse,  etc. ;  and  the  ancient  houses  of  Chartres 
and  of  Blois  continued  to  claim  in  perpetuity  the  title  of 
C. -palatine  as  that  of  their  eldest  sons.  Counts  of  this 
sovereign  class  owed  their  origin  to  the  feebleness  of  the 
later  Carlo vingian  kings,  under  whom  they  contrived  grad- 
ually to  convert  the  provinces  and  towns  which  they  had 
governed  as  royal  officers  into  principalities  hereditary  in 
their  families.  It  was  then  that  the  counts  came  to  be 
known  by  the  names  of  their  counties.  Since  the  great 
revolution,  the  title  of  C.  in  France  has  been  purely  hon- 
orary, and  has  been  used  with  a  license  which  has  almost 
deprived  it  of  even  that  character.  The  title  was  never 
used  in  England,  though  its  Latin  equivalent  has  always 
been  the  common  translation  for  earl  (q.v.),  and  the  wife 
of  an  earl,  from  a  very  early  period,  has  been  styled  coun- 
tess. For  the  history  of  the  office  in  Germany,  where  it  was 
of  great  importance,  see  Graf. 

COUNT  AND  RECK'ONING,  in  the  law  of  Scotland: 
form  of  process,  by  which  one  party  compels  another  to 
account  judicially,  and  to  pay  the  balance  which  may  be 
found  due. 

COUNTENANCE,  n.  kown'te-ndns  [F.  contenance,  capac- 
ity, looks— from  mid.  L.  continen'tid,  gesture,  demeanor 
— from  L.  continere,  to  hold  together,  to  preserve — from 
con,  tenere,  to  hold]:  the  whole  external  features  of  the 
body;  the  appearance  of  the  features  of  the  human  face; 
look;  favor;  goodwill;  support;  superficial  appearance; 
show:  y.  to  show  favor;  to  support;  to  encourage;  to  aid; 


COUNTER— COUNTER-CHANGED, 
fn  OE.,  to  make  a  show  of;  to  act  suitably  to.  Coun'te- 

NANCING,  imp.     COUN  TENANCED,  pp.   -ndnst.     COUN  TE- 

NANCER,  n.  -ser,  odg  who.  In  countenance,  in  favor; 
pleased.  To  keep  in  countenance,  to  support;  to  aid  by 
favor;  to  please  by  giving  assurance  to;  to  keep  from  de- 
jection or  dismay.  To  put  in  countenance,  to  encourage; 
to  make  cheerful  by  support;  to  bring  into  favor.  Out  of 
countenance,  annoyed  and  vexed;  abashed;  dismayed. 
To  PUT  OUT  OF  countenance,  to  annoy  and  vex;  to  dis- 
concert; to  abash. 

COUNTER,  n.  kowu'Ur  [see  Count  1]:  a  false  or  spuri- 
ous piece  of  money,  as  that  used  in  reckoning  in  games; 
money  in  contempt ;  a  table  for  receiving  goods,  or  laying 
down  money  on. 

COUNTER,  ad.  koicnter  [F.  contre — from  L.  contray 
against]:  contrary;  in  opposition;  the  wrong  way:  another 
form  of  prefix  Contka,  opposition  or  contrariety:  see  list - 
of  prefixes. 

COUNTER,  n.  kown'ter,  or  Coun'ter-ten'or,  -ten'er, 
[L.  contra,  in  opposition  to]:  m  music,  the  part  immediately 
below  the  treble,  sung  by  the  highest  adult  male  voice  and 
the  lowest  female  voice— formerly  an  under  part  serving  as 
a  contiusl  to  a  principal  part. 

COUNTERACT,  v.  koicn'ter  akt'  [F.  contre-irom  L. 
contra,  against,  and  actus,  done]:  to  act  in  opposition  to; 
to  hinder;  to  defeat;  to  frustrate.  Coun  terac  ting,  imp. 
Coun'terac  TED,  pp.  COUN  TERAC  TIVE,  a.  -dk'tiv,  tend- 
ing to  counteract.  Coun  terac  tion,  n.  -dk'shun,  hin- 
drance; action  in  opposition.  Counter-agent,  be  who  or 
that  which  acts  in  opposition  to. 

COUNTER-APPROACH,  u.  koicn'ter-dp-prdch'  [F.  con- 
tre — from  Lat.  contra,  against]:  in  military  engineering,  a 
trench  or  passage  cut  by  the  defenders  of  a  fortified  po.^t 
from  some  of  the  outworks  towards  the  besiegers,  and  lead- 
ing to  a  battery  in  a  small  work.  Its  object  is  to  enable 
the  defenders  to  foil  the  appi'oaches  of  the  besiegers,  by 
carrying  the  fight  further  away  from  the  body  of  the  place, 
and  enabling  the  besieged  to  enfilade  the  besiegers'  batter^ 
ijs  and  approaches. 

COUNTER- ARCH:  a  vertical  arch  connecting  the  top 
of  buttresses  or  pillars. 

COUNTER- ATTRACTIVE,  a.  korm  ter-dt-trdk' iw  [coun- 
ter, and  attractive\.  attracting  in  a  different  or  in  an  op- 
posite direction.  Coun  ter-attrac  tion,  n.  opposite  at- 
traction. 

COUNTERBALANCE,  v.  koicnter-bdl  dns  [counter,  and 
balance]:  to  weigh  against  with  an  equal  w^qightj  to  act 
against  with  an  equal  power  or  effect;  to  neutralize:  N. 
equal  weight  or  power. 

COUNTER-BUFF,  v.  kow7i' ter-hiif  [counter,  and  huff\. 
to  repel;  to  strike  back:  N.  a  blow^  in  a  contrary  direction. 

COUN'TER-CHANGED,  or,  Con'ter-changed,  in  Her- 
aldry: when  several  metals  and  colors  are  intermixed,  one 
being  set  against  the  other. 

63 


COUNTER-CHARGE— COUNTER-GUARD. 

COUNTER-CHARGE,  n.  kown'Ur-cMrj  [counter,  and 
charge]',  an  opposite  charge.  Counter-charm,  n.  -charm 
[counter,  and  charm] :  that  by  which  a  charm  is  dissolved 
or  destroyed:  Y.  to  destroy  the  effect  of  enchantment. 
Counter- CHECK,  n.  -cMk  [counter,  and  check]:  check  in 
opposition  to  another;  hindrance:  Y.  to  oppose  or  stop  by 
some  obstacle.  Counter-cur  rent,  n.  -kur'rhit  [counter, 
and  current]',  a  current  in  an  opposite  direction:  Adj. 
running  in  an  opposite  direction. 

COUNTER-DRAIN,  n.  koicn' ter-dran  [counter,  and 
dram]',  a  drain  runing  parallel  to  a  canal  or  artificial 
water-course  to  collect  the  leakage-water.  Counter- 
draw,  V.  draw  [counter,  and  draw]:  to  copy  a  design  or 
painting  by  means  of  fine  linen  cloth,  oiled  paper,  or  any 
similar  transparent  substance  spread  over  it,  through  which 
the  strokes  appearing  are  traced  with  a  pencil. 

COUNTER-EYIDENCE,  n.  kown'ter-ev'i-dens  [counter, 
and  evidence] :  evidence  or  testimony  opposing  some  other 
evidence. 

COUNTERFEIT,  v.  koicn'ter-fU  [F.  contrefait,  de- 
formed— from  contre,  against;  faire,  to  make — from  L. 
contra,  against;  facere^  to  make]:  to  copy  or  imitate  with- 
out authority  or  right;  to  forge;  to  imitate  with  a  view  to 
deceive;  to  feign;  to  dissemble:  Adj.  false;  forged;  made  in 
imitation  of  something  else;  not  genuine:  N.  a  cheat  or  im- 
postor; one  who  pretends  to  be  what  he  is  not;  that  which 
is  made  in  imitation  of  something  else:  in  OE.,  a  likeness; 
a  copy.  Coun  terfeit  ing,  imp. :  N.  the  act  of  one  who 
counterfeits;  the  process:  see  Coining.  Coun  terfeit'ed, 
pp.  Coun  terfeit  er,  one  who. — Syn.  of  *  counterfeit,  a.': 
spurious;  fictitious;  suppositious;  adulterated;  sophisticated; 
fabricated;  hypocritical. 

COUNTERFESANCE,  n.  koim' ter-fez' dns  [OF.  contre- 
faisance—hom  contrefaire,  to  counterfeit] :  in  OE. ,  a  coun- 
terfeiting; a  forgery. 

COUNTERFOIL,  n.  hoion'ter-foyl  [counter,  and  L.  folU 
um,  a  leaf]:  the  corresponding  leaf;  the  corresponding  part 
of  a  tally  or  check.  Counter-gauge,  n.  -gaj  [counter  and 
gauge]:  in  carpentry,  a  method  of  measuring  joints. 

COUNTERFORT,  in  Fortification:  mass  of  stone  or 
brickwork  added  to  the  revetment  of  a  rampart,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  a  buttress  for  resisting  the  pressure  of  the 
mass  of  earth.  Counterforts  occur  at  intervals  of  about  20 
ft. ,  and  assist  in  preventing  the  earth  from  pushing  down 
the  revetment-wall  into  the  ditch. 

COUNTER-GUARD,  n.  kown'ter-gdrd  [counter,  and 
guard]:  in  rail.,  an  outwork  designed  to  defend  the  two 
faces  of  a  bastion  or  ravelin  from  a  direct  fire,  so  as  to  re- 
tard a  breach  being  made:  it  consists  of  two  lines  of  ram- 
part parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  bastion  or  ravelin,  and 
separated  from  them  by  a  narrow  ditch.  The  crest  of  the 
C.  must  be  some  three  ft.  lower  than  that  of  tlie  w^orks  it 
covers,  in  order  not  to  obstruct  the  defense.  Lest  the 
enemy  should  establish  a  battery  on  the  C,  the  terre- 

64 


COUXTER-IRRITANT— COUNTERMINE. 

plein,  or  flat  space  beliind  its  parapet,  is  made  very  nar- 
row. 

COUXTER-IRRITAXT,  hncn'ter-ir'i-Phit  [counter, 
and  irritant]:  in  med.,  substance  employed  to  produce  an 
artiticial  disease,  or  secondary  irritation,  for  tlie  relief  of 
the  original  one.  Sucli  substances  are  applied  to  the  skin 
so  as  to  redden  (rubefacients),  to  vesicate  (blisters  or  vesica- 
tories),  or  to  produce  pustules,  purulent  issues,  or  even 
sloughs  of  skin  and  of  the  subcutaneous  textures.  The 
milder  are  mustard  (see  Cataplasm),  turpentine  applied 
on  warm  cloths,  and  spirit  or  acetic  acid  in  lotion.  The 
stronger  are  blisters  of  cantharides  (q.v.)  or  of  ammonia; 
croton-oil  (q  v.)  or  tartar  emetic  (q.v.),  in  ointment;  setons, 
caustic  or  pea-issues,  and  the  moxa;  and  above  all,  the  ac- 
tual cautery  (q.v.)  or  hot  iron.  None  of  the  stronger  C. 
should  be  used  without  careful  consideration  and  medical 
advice;  great  mischief  is  often  done  by  their  careless  or 
improper  use.  C.  relieve  internal  pain,  and  tend  to  pro- 
mote the  absorption  of  morbid  effusions. 

Amoug  horses,  C.  are  much  used  for  strains  and  diseases 
of  the  joints,  but  should  never  be  applied  in  recent  cases, 
or  while  the  part  is  hot  or  intiamed.  Cantharidine  prepara- 
tions, or  ointment  of  biuiodide  of  mercury,  are  the  most 
convenient.  For  cows,  use  hot  fomentations,  followed  by 
the  smart  infriction  of  mustard-paste;  for  dogs,  soap-lini- 
ment, strengthened,  if  required,  by  ammonia  or  turpen- 
tine. 

COUNTERMAND,  v.  kown  Ur-mdnd'  [F.  contremander 
— from  L.  cordra,  against;  mand'tre,  to  command]:  to  give 
an  order  contrary  to  one  given  before;  to  annul  or  forbid 
the  execution  of  a  former  command:  N.  a  contrary  order. 

COUN  TERMAXD  ING,  imp.     COUN  TERMAND  ED,  pp. 

COUNTERMARCH,  v.  koicn  ter-mdrcli  [counter,  and 
march]:  to  march  back:  N.  a  marching  back;  a  change  of 
measures;  in  mil.,  to  move  a  body  of  troops  to  the  rear 
without  any  change  of  their  original  order — that  is,  to  move 
them  backward.  "Coux  terafarch  ixg,  imp. :  see  March- 
ing.    COUX  TYRMARCHED,  pp.  mdrcht. 

COUNTER-MARK,  n.  koicn  ter-mdrk  [counter,  and 
mark]:  mark  or  token  added  in  order  to  afford  security  or 
give  proof  of  quality;  stamp  seen  on  some  ancient  coins  or 
medals,  supposed  to  denote  that  the  coin  was  captured  from 
an  enemy;  artiticial  cavity  made  in  the  teeth  of  horses  to 
disguise  their  age:  Y.  to  add  a  mark  as  a  test  of  quality, 
etc. ;  to  make  an  artificial  canity  in  the  teeth  of  a  horse. 

COUNTERMINE,  n.  kown  ter-min  [counter,  find  mine]: 
a  gallery  sunk  in  the  earth  in  the  attack  or  defense  of  a 
fortified  place  in  order  to  blow  up  the  works  of  an  enemy 
is  called  a  mine — one  dug  to  destroy  a  mine  is  called  a 
countermine;  a  secret  project  to  frustrate  any  contrivance: 
Y.  to  mine  in  opposition,  or  to  search  for  an  enemy's  mine; 
to  frustrate  by  secret  measures:  coux  termi'xixg,  imp.: 
coux  TERMiXED,  pp.  -miTid. — Countermine,  in  military  en- 
gineering, is  a  gallery  or  chamber  excavated  under  the  gla- 
cis or  some  other  part  of  a  defence-work  of  a  fortress.  Its 

65 


COUNTER-MOTION— COUNTERPOINT. 

purpose  is  to  foil  a  besieger.  In  a  fortress  on  a  large  scale, 
there  are  envelope  galleries,  coanter-scarf  galleries,  listen- 
ing galleries,  galleries  of  communication,  and  other  sub- 
terranean passages,  under  various  parts  of  the  outworks, 
all  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  defenders  in  discov- 
ering and  frustrating  plans  laid  by  the  besiegers.  List- 
ening galleries  are  sometimes  pushed  forward  even  to 
the  foot  of  the  glacis.  In  such  places,  selected  men  put 
their  ear  to  the  ground,  and  listen  for  the  approach  of  an 
enemy,  as  denoted  by  the  sound  of  tools  used  in  driving  a 
mine  or  gallery  of  attack.  The  sound  of  a  pickaxe  so  em 
ployed  can  be  heard  through  the  ground  at  a  distance  of 
60  feet.  As  there  are  no  openings  above,  these  galleries 
cannot  be  driven  beyond  a  certain  distance,  as  the  sappers 
w^ould  be  stilled  for  want  of  air.  If  a  mine  be  driven  to 
blow  up  the  defense  works,  a  C.  is  driven  to  blow  up  the 
besiegers;  and  sometimes  the  two  parties  carry  their  works 
so  far  as  to  meet  in  the  subterranean  passages,  and  there 
fight.  If  there  be  only  a  thin  wall  of  earth  left  between 
them,  they  will  fire  pistols  through  bored  holes,  or  drive 
in  cartridges  or  smoke-balls.  This  work  is  carried  on  mostly 
by  sappers  and  miners. 

COUNTER-MOTION,  n.  kown' ter-mo  shim  [counter,  and 
motion]:  an  opposite  motion.  Coun'ter-move'ment,  n. 
'Tnov'ment  [counter,  and  movement]',  a  movement  in  opposi- 
tion to  another. 

COUNTERPANE,  n.  kown' ter-pan  [F.  courte-pointe,  a 
counterpane,  corrupted  into  contre-yointe — from  OF.  coulte- 
pointe— from  L.  culcita  puncta,  a  stitched  cushion]:  the 
upper  covering  of  a  bed,  having  the  stitches  arranged  in 
patterns  for  ornament;  a  quilt  or  coverlet. 

COUNTERPANE,  n.  koicn'ter-pdn  [OF.  contrepan,  a 
pledge,  a  pawn— from  contre,  against;  pan,  a  pawn  or 
gage] :  in  OE.,  the  counterpart  of  a  deed  or  writing. 

COUNTERPART,  n.  koim'ter-pdrt  [counter,  and  part]: 
the  part  that  answers  to  another;  the  key  of  a  cipher;  in 
music,  the  part  to  be  applied  to  another,  as  the  bass  is  the 
counterpart  to  the  treble. 

COUNTER-PASSANT,  kown' ter -pas' sant,  in  Heraldry: 
when  two  beasts  are  passing  each  other  the  contrary  way. 

COUNTER-PLEA,  n.  koicn'ter-ple  [counter,  and  plea]-. 
in  Icm,  in  an  incidental  pleading,  the  plaintiff's  reply  to  the 
defendant's  plea.  Coun  ter-plead,  v.  -pled,  to  plead  the 
contrary  of;  to  deny.  Coijnter-plot,  n.  [counter,  and 
plot]',  artifice  opposed  to  an  artifice:  V.  to  oppose  one 
machination  by  another.  CouN  TER-PLOT  TmG,  n.  act  of 
plotting  against  a  plot. 

COUNTERPOINT,  n.  kbwnter-poynt  [F.  contrepoint, 
counterpoint — lit.,  point  against  point — from  L.  contra- 
punctus:  It.  contrappunto]:  an  opposite  point;  in  music,  the 
placing  of  notes  so  as  to  indicate  the  harmony  of  parts; 
the  art  of  combining  and  modulating  sounds  in  several  dis- 
tinct parts.  In  the  early  age  of  musical  science,  notation 
was  represented  by  mere  points  on  the  lines.    The  setting 

66 


COUNTERPOIKT 


of  parts  to  a  melody  already  represented  by  a  row  of  dots 
or  points  was  therefore  called  punctum  contrapuncium.  In 
this  respect  C.  is  nothing  else  but  the  uniting  of  various 
harmonious  parts.  In  a  more  circumscribed  sense,  it  is 
the  art  or  manner  of  accompanying  a  given  melody  with 
other  parts.  Simple  C.  is  a  musical  combination  where  the 
melody  of  the  parts  is  not  mixed  or  changed,  and  may  be 
either  all  in  notes  of  the  same  length  or  of  different  lengths, 
as  for  example: 

^^^^ 

If  the  parts  be  constructed  in  regard  to  one  another  so  that 


COUNTERPOISE-COUNTER  SECURE. 

they  can  be  changed,  or  transposed  over  or  under  each 
other,  without  alteration  in  the  movement,  or  injury  to  the 
harmony,  it  is  then  called  double  C,  as  in  Fig.  2.  As 
double  C.  consists  of  the  changing  or  transposing  of  one 
part  over  or  under  another,  it  follows  that  there  must 
be  as  many  different  kinds  of  it  as  there  are  dilferent  in- 
tervals in  the  scale.  We  have,  therefore,  double  C.  of  the 
octave  as  in  Fig.  1,  of  the  twelfth,  tenth,  ninth,  etc. 
That  of  the  octave,  is,  however,  the  most  useful,  as  it  is 
more  free  in  movement,  and  easier  to  recognize.  Fig.  2 
admits  of  dilferent  transpositions. 

The  first  indication  of  contrapunctal  writing  is  to  be  found 
in  the  12th  c.  by  Adam  de  la  Hale,  who  received  a  genuine 
artistic  education  in  the  Netherlands,  but  was  far  in  ad- 
vance of  his  time;  for  his  style  of  music  was  forbidden  to 
be  performed  in  the  church  by  a  bull  of  the  pope,  w^ho  gave 
Palestrina  an  order  to  replace  it  with  a  more  simple  music. 
The  best  masters  for  C.  have  been  Kirnberger  and  Al- 
brechtsberger  in  former  times;  and,  in  modern  times, 
Schneider,  Hauptmann,  and  Dehn. 

COUNTERPOISE,  n.  koion'ter-poyz  [F.  contre-peser,  to 
counterpoise — from  L.  cordra,  against;  pensdre,  to  weigh: 
F.  poids;  OF.  pois,  a  weight] :  a  weight  against  a  given 
weight;  an  equal  weight;  a  weight  sufficient  to  balance  an- 
other in  the  opposite  scale;  a  force  or  power  sufficient  to 
balance  another  force  or  power:  V.  to  weigh  against  with 
an  equal  weight;  to  act  against  with  equal  power  and 
effect.  CouN  TERPOis'iNG,"  imp.  Coun  terpoised,  pp. 
'poyzd. 

COUNTER- POISON,  n.  kown' ter-poy' zn  [counter,  and 
poi8on\:  a  medicine  which  destroys  the  effects  of  a  poison; 
an  antidote. 

COUNTER-PROJECT,  n.  kown'Ur-prbj'ekt  [counter,  and 
project] :  a  scheme  or  proposal  given  in  opposition  to  an- 
other. Coun'ter-proof,  n.  -prof,  in  engramng,  a  print 
taken  off  from  another  just  printed,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining the  state  of  the  plate. 

COUN  TER-PROOF:  impression  obtained  from  afresh- 
ly-printed  proof  of  an  engraving,  by  laying  it,  before  the 
ink  is  dry,  upon  plain  paper,  and  passing  it  through  the 
press.  By  this  means  the  ink  is  transferred  from  the  wet 
proof  to  the  plain  paper,  and  a  reversed  impression  is  ob- 
tained, often  of  use  in  enabling  the  engraver  to  judge  of 
the  success  of  his  w^ork. 

COUNTERSCARP,  n.  koim' ter-skdrp  [L.  contra,  against; 
It.  Scarpa;  F.  escarpe,  the  slope  of  a  wall,  or  the  steep  front 
of  a  fortification]:  in  a  fortified  place,  the  slope  or  nearly 
vertical  side  of  the  ditch  next  the  enemy,  often  the  whole 
covered  way  w^hich  surmounts  it, — the  interior  slope  is 
called  the  scarp  or  escarp. 

COUNTER-SECURE,  v.  kown'ter-se-kur'  [counter,  and 
secure] .  to  render  more  secure  by  corresponding  means,  or 
by  means  to  match.  Cotjn'ter-secu'rity,  n.  secur- 
ity given  to  one  who  has  become  surety  for  another. 

68 


COUNTERSIGN— COUNTLESS. 
COUNTERSIGN,  n.  laown' Ur-sln  [F.  contresigner ,  to 
countersign — from  L.  contra,  against;  signum,  a  mark]:  a 
private  signal,  word,  or  phrase  given  to  sentinels  on  guard, 
inspectors,  etc.,  to  enable  them  to  distinguish  friends;  it  is 
usually  a  simple  word  secret  except  to  tuose  immediately 
concerned,  and  is  changed  often  as  requisite  for  security;  a 
w^atchword:  V.  to  sign  a  document  in  addition  to  another 
to  attest  its  authenticity.  Coun'tersign'ing,  imp.  Coun  - 
tersigned, pp.  -slnd.  CouN  ter-sig'nal,  n.  -sig  nal,  a 
signal  to  answer  or  correspond  to  another.  Coun'tersig  - 
NATURE,  n.  the  signature  of  a  secretary,  or  of  a  subordinate, 
added  to  the  signature  of  a  superior. 

COUNTERSINK,  v.  Icoicn'ter-sink  [counter,  and  8ink\. 
to  drill  a  conical  depression  in  wood  or  metal  to  receive  the 
head  of  a  scre^ 

COUNTER-SLOPING,  koicn'ter -sloping  [counter,  and 
slope]:  in  mil.,  a  surface  w^hich  slopes  inward  instead  of 
outward,  as  is  usual  in  fortifications — usually  applied  to 
glaces  and  revetments. 

COUNTERTENOR,  koKn'ter-ten'er  [F.  contreteneur: 
It.  contratenare — from  tenore,  a  tenor]:  see  Cotjnter  3. 

COUNTERVAIL,  v.  kown'ter-ml  [OF.  contremloir,  to 
avail  against — from  L.  contra,  valere,  to  be  stong]:  to  act 
against  with  equal  force  or  power;  to  equal;  to  balance. 
Coun  tervail  ing,  imp.    Coun'tervaileu',  pp.  -vdld'. 

COUN'TER-VAIR,  kown'ter-mr:  a  heraldic  fur.  It  dif- 
fers from  Vair  by  having  its  cups  or  bells  of  the  same 
tinctures  placed  base  against  base,  and  point  against  point. 
The  tinctures  are  Or  and  Azure. 

COUN'TERVALLA'TION,  in  Military  Engineering: 
chain  of  posts  constructed  by  the  besiegers  of  a  fortified 
place;  it  completely  surrounds  the  place  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance, and  is  intended  to  prevent  sorties  of  the  besieged. 
The  posts  are  generally  small  redoubts,  either  isolated  or 
connected  by  a  line  of  earthw^orks.  It  is  only  during  very 
protracted  sieges  that  countervallations  are  constructed. 
They  bear  a  certain  relation  to  circumvallation  (q.v.). 

COUNTER- VIEW,  n.  koicn'ter-vu  [counter,  and  view]: 
an  opposite  view;  a  posture  in  w^hich  two  persons  front 
each  other;  contrast.  Coun  ter  vote,  v.  -vot,  to  vote  in 
opposition  to;  to  outvote. 

COUNTER  -  WEIGH,  v.  kow?itf  r-wd  [counter,  and 
weigh]:  to  weigh  against;  to  counterbalance.  Coun'ter- 
WHEEL,  V.  -hwH,  to  move  backward  and  forward  in  oppo- 
sition to  other  movements.  Coun  ter-work,  v.  -werk,  to 
hinder  by  contrary  operations;  to  counteract. 

COUNTESS,  n.  koimt'es  [F.  comtesse,  fem.  of  comte — 
see  Count  2] :  the  wife  of  an  earl  or  count. 

COUNTING,  n.  kownt'tng  [see  Count  1]:  reckoning; 
computing.  Counting-house  or  -room,  the  room  or  house 
appropriated  by  a  trader,  manufacturer,  or  merchant,  for 
keeping  their  business-books,  accounts,  etc. 

COUNTLESS,  r.:  ?^ee  under  Count  L 

^mERsm  Of 


COUNTRY-COUNTY  CORPORATE. 

COUNTRY,  n.  kitn'tn  [F.  contree,  country— from  It. 
contrada,  the  district  lying  opposite  you— from  mid.  L. 
contrdtti,  the  country  lying  before  or  opposite — from  L. 
contra,  over  against— land  seen  before  you,  as  by 
mariners  from  the  sea]:  the  laud  or  territory  occupied  by  a 
people  or  nation;  rural  districts;  a  kingdom  or  state;  any 
tract  of  land;  one's  residence  or  native  soil:  Adj.  pertain- 
ing to  the  districts  beyond  a  town;  rural;  rustic;  untaught; 
rude.  Country  seat,  a  residence  at  a  distance  from  a 
town  or  city.  Countryman,  a  rustic;  one  not  a  native  of 
town;  one  born  in  the  same  country.  Countrify,  v.  kan- 
tri-fl,  to  make  or  alter  so  as  to  have  a  rural  or  countrified 
appearance;  to  make  to  have  the  manners  or  habits  of  the 
country.  Countrified,  a.  fid,  having  the  an-  and  mien 
of  a  rustic— Syn.  of  '  coiintry,  n.':  land;  globe;  world; 
territory;  region;  earth; — of  '  countryman  ':  peasant;  clown; 
hind;  swain;  husbandman. 

COUNTRY  DANCE  [improperly  used  for  Contra 
DANCE,  Fr.  contre-danse,  of  which  the  English  term  is  a  cor- 
ruption] :  dance  in  which  as  many  couples  can  take  part 
as  there  is  space  to  accommodate  them;  at  the  commence- 
ment, the  gentlemen  being  ranged  on  one  side,  and  the 
ladies  on  the  opposite.  In  its  figure,  the  dancers  are  con- 
stantly changing  places,  leading  one  another  forward  and 
back,  up  and  down,  parting  and  uniting  again.  The  nu- 
merous different  figures,  which  give  an  interest  to  this 
dance,  are  generally  designated  with  a  particular  name. 
The  music  is  sometimes  in  f  time,  and  sometimes  in  f  time, 
and  the  step  is  more  smooth  than  springing:  see  Dancing. 

COUNTY,  n.  koicn'ti  [Norm.  F.  counte;  F.  comte;  It. 
contea,  a  county  —  from  L.  comltem,  a  companion  (see 
Count  2)]:  originally  an  earldom  or  district  under  a  count; 
a  particular  division  or  district  of  a  state  or  kingdom;  a 
shire.  The  terms  county  and  shire  are  applied  on  no  uni- 
form principle.  In  England  and  Scotland,  the  shires  are 
also  called  counties;  but  in  Ireland,  the  term  C.  seems  to 
be  exclusively  employed.  Such,  likewise,  appears  to  be 
the  case  in  the  British  colonies  and  United  States:  see  Shire. 
— In  the  United  States,  county  is  the  political  division  of  a 
'  state,  except  in  La.  where  the  counties  are  called  parishes. 
There  are  nearly  4,000  counties  in  the  U.  S.  Each  county 
lias  a  court  and  a  prison,  sometimes  more  than  one  of  these. 
The  supervisors  of  the  various  townships  in  a  county  are  a 
board  of  administration  for  financial  and  other  affairs  ©f  the 
county.  They  are  elected  by  popular  vote.  In  some  cities, 
wards  correspond  to  townships,  and  the  common  council 
acts  as  the  administrative  county  board.  County -town, 
the  chief  town  of  a  county  where  the  district  courts  and 
markets  are  held. 

COUNTY,  n.  kown'ti:  in  OE.,  for  Count,  frequently 
found  in  Shakespeare. 

COUN  TY  COR  PORATE,  in  England:  one  of  certain 
cities  and  towns,  some  having  territory  annexed  to  them, 
some  scarcely  any,  w^hich  possess  the  privilege  of  being 
governed  by  their  own  sheriffs  and  other  magistrates  alto- 

•JQ 


COUNTY  COURTS. 

gether  independently  of  the  counties  in  which  they  are 
situated.  The  act  3  Geo.  i.  c.  5,  for  regulating  the  office 
of  sheriff,  enumerates  twelve  cities  and  live  towns  in  this 
position.  The  cities  are  London,  Chester,  Bristol,  Coven- 
try, Canterbury,  Exeter,  Gloucester,  Lichfield,  Lincoln, 
Norwich,  Worcester,  and  York.  The  towns  are  Kingston- 
upon-Hull,  Nottingham,  Newcastle  upon-Tyne,  Poole, 
Southampton.  Coventry  ceased  to  be  a  county  corporate 
1842;  and  Berwick-on-Tvveed  is  now  one  of  the  eighteen. 
There  is  one  similar  county  corporate  in  Scotland  (Edin- 
burgh); and  in  Ireland,  eight  (as  Dublin  and  Limerick). 
See  Local  Government. 

COUN'TY  COURTS:  Courts  having  jurisdiction  in 
counties.  According  to  Blackstone,  the  Sciremote or  ancient 
county  court  was  established  in  Enghuid  by  Alfred  the 
Great  about  870;  the  suitors  themselves  being  the  judges. 
Henry  II.  appointed  justices  of  assize  courts,  1176,  and  thus 
the  C.  C.  became  superseded  for  judicial  purposes.  There 
is  still  a  remnant  of  jurisdiction  left  in  these  ancient  courts, 
unconnected,  however,  with  the  recovery  of  debts;  out- 
lawries of  absconding  offenders  are  here  proclaimed,  and 
certain  proceedings  connected  with  the  election  of  coron- 
ers, knights  of  the  shire,  etc.  take  place  in  the  old  county 
court. 

The  modern  C  C.  were  established  in  all  the  cities  and 
large  towns  of  England  and  Wales,  1846,  chieliyby  the  ef- 
forts of  Lord  Brougham;  and  the  courts  commenced  busi- 
ness, 1847,  March.  In  1865  an  equity  jurisdiction  was  confer- 
red on  the  C.  C.  to  £500,  and  the  judges  have  all  the  power 
and  authority  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  in  equitable  suits. 

The  C.  C.  are  courts  of  record.  In  England  and  Wales 
there  are  499  courts,  divided  into  55  circuits,  presided  over 
by  56  judges.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  or,  where  the  whole  district  is  in  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster,  by  the  chancellor  of  that  duchy.  Their  salaries, 
owing  to  extended  jurisdiction,  are  now  nearly  all  £1,500, 
and  have,  with  slight  variations,  been  made  uniform 
throughout  the  country.  Judges  resigning  from  perma- 
nent disability  are  allowed  a  retiring  pension  not  exceed- 
ing two-thirds  of  their  aimual  salary.  Each  court  has  a 
registrar,  appointed  by  the  judge.  In  certain  classes  of 
cases  a  jury  may  be  demanded.  The  number  of  jurymen 
to  try  a  cause  in  C.  C.  is  live.  There  were  only  993  causes 
tried  by  a  jury  in  1878,  out  of  616,490  causes  tried.  The 
plaintiff  obtained  a  verdict  in  599,883  cases,  and  the  de- 
fendants obtained  verdicts  or  non-suits  in  16,607  cases. 
There  is  a  right  of  appeal  in  all  cases  where  more  than  £20 
is  claimed,  and  by  leave  of  judge  in  all  other  cases.  There 
were  only  87  appeals  in  1878. 

There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  judicial  systems  of  the 
states  in  the  American  Union,  either  in  the  number,  name, 
character,  or  jurisdiction  of  C.  C,  the  mode  of  selecting 
judges,  or  their  tenure  of  office.  In  the  majority  of  popu- 
lous COS.  there  are  at  least  four  courts,  the  sessions,  oyer 
and  terminer,  common  pleas,  and  orphans'.  In  some,  the 
fciessions'  courts  are  divided  into  quarter,  geueral,  and  spe^ 
n 


COUNTY  PALATINE— COUP. 

cial,  each  with  a  separate  judge.  The  surrogate  of  the  co. 
of  New  York  has  an  iudepeudent  court  of  original  juris- 
diction. In  other  states  and  cos.,  the  probate  of  wills,  set- 
tlement of  estates,  and  protection  of  widows  and  orphans, 
may  be  conducted  before  any  judge  having  jurisdiction  in 
thfe  CO.,  the  surrogate  merely  acting  as  clei-k.  Again,  in 
some  states,  judges  have  only  jurisdiction  in  the  co.,  dis- 
trict, or  circuit  to  which  they  are  elected  or  appointed  and 
assigned,  or  in  a  single  designated  court;  while  in  other 
states,  N.  J.  for  example,  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  is 
competent  to  preside  over  any  court  in  the  state.  Judges 
are  now  elected  by  popular  vote  in  24  states,  for  terms 
ranging  from  2  to  21  years.  In  Mass.,  N.  H.,  Conn.,  Vt., 
11.  L,  and  N.  J.,  they — as  are  also  the  co.  prosecutors — are 
appointed  by  the  gov.  and  confirmed  by  the  senate  for 
terms  that  vary,  but  average  7  years,  and  reappointments 
are  frequent.  The  custom  of  selection  by  appointment  is 
becoming  more  general,  with  tenures  extendins:  through 
good  behavior.    8ee  Judiciary  in  the  United  States. 

COUNTY  palatine":  in  England,  a  county  formerly 
possessing  peculiar  privileges.  The  name,  derived  from 
palatium,  palace,  was  applied  because  the  earls  who  owned 
the  counties  had  grand  palaces  and  maintained  themselves 
in  almost  regal  state.  Within  their  jurisdictions,  these 
owners  enjoyed  such  royal  powers  as  the  pardoning  of 
crime  and  issue  of  various  writs.  The  courts  of  the  C.  P. 
had  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  law  and  equity  of  all  cases 
arising  within  the  limits  of  their  respective  counties,  the 
judges  who  held  them  sat  by  special  commission  from  tne 
owners  of  the  several  franchises  and  under  their  seal,  and 
all  process  was  taken  in  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the 
franchise,  though  subsequently  to  the  27  Hen.  YIII.  c.  24 
it  ran  in  the  king's  name.  These  counties  have  either 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  crown,  or  have  lost  their  pecul- 
iar privileges  to  a  great  degree. 

COUNTY  RATE:  local  tax  in  England  and  Wales,  for 
defraying  the  expenses  to  which  counties  are  liable;  such 
as  the  maintenance  of  bridges,  jails,  lunatic  asylums,  prose- 
cutions and  costs  incident  thereto,  coroners,  etc.  It  is 
levied  on  all  property  liable  to  be  assessed  for  the  relief  of 
the  poor.  Rogue-money  in  Scotland,  and  the  grand  jury 
cess  in  Ireland,  are  the  taxes  most  nearly  resembling  the 
English  county  rate. 

COUP,  n.  ko  [F.  coup — from  OF.  colp— from  It.  colpo — 
from  mid.  L.  colpus,  a  stroke]:  a  blow;  a  stroke.  Coup- 
de-grace,  n.  kode-grds  [F.  stroke  of  mercy]:  finishing* 
stroke;  death-stroke.  Coup-de-main,  n.  kude-mang  [F. 
stroke  of  hand] :  in  mil. ,  a  sudden  and  vigorous  attack  to 
capture  a  position.  Coup-de-soleil,  n.  kode-sbl-el'  [F.  a 
stroke  of  the  sun] :  a  disease  produced  by  exposure  of  the 
head  to  the  rays  of  the  sun;  sunstroke  (q.v.).  Coup-d'etat, 
kodd  td  [F.  a  stroke  of  statcl:  a  sudden  and  decisive  blow; 
arbitrary  encroachment  suddenly  effected  by  any  of  the 
governing  authorities  on  the  constitution  of  the  state,  alter- 
ing or  setting  aside  the  prerogatives  of  other  parts  of  the 

T2 


COUP— COUPLES. 

body  politic:  in  politics,  a  stroke  of  policy.  Coup-d'ceil, 
n.  kO-ddl'  [F.  a  stroke  or  glance  of  the  eye]:  a  general 
view  of  anything,  comprehending  in  one  survey  all  the  re- 
lations of  a  complicated  affair:  in  art,  the  general  effect  of 
a  picture  or  group  at  first  sight.  Coup  de  theatre,  a 
trick  of  the  stage  to  produce  an  effect  by  surprise;  thence, 
any  analogous  proceeding. 

COUP,  V.  kowp  [Icel.  kaup,  a  bargain,  a  sale;  kaupa,  to 
bargain,  to  sell]:  in  Scot.,  to  bargain;  to  barter;  to  over- 
turn: N.  a  bargain:  see  Cope  3. 

COUPE,  n.  ko-pd'  [F.  coupe,  cut,  broken:  connected  with 
CoupJ:  the  front  division  of  a  stage  coach  or  diligence. 

COUPED,  kopd  [Fr.  coups'],  in  Heraldry:  head,  or  any 
limb  of  an  animal  cut  off"  from  the  trunk,  and  smooth.  It  is 
distinguished  from  erased,  i.e.,  forcibly  torn  off,  and 
therefore  ragged  and  uneven.  A  distinction  is  made  also 
between  coulped  and  couped  close,  the  latter  signifying  that 
the  head  or  limb  is  cut  off'  close,  leaving  no  part  of  the 
neck  or  trunk  attached  to  it.  When  crosses,  bars,  bends, 
and  the  like,  are  cut  so  as  not  to  touch  the  sides  of  the 
escutcheon,  they  also  are  said  to  be  couped. 

COUPLE,  n.  ktip'l  [F.  couple — from  L.  copula,  a  band 
or  tie]:  the  chain  or  tie  that  holds  dogs  together;  two  or  a 
pair;  the  male  and  female;  a  man  and  his  wife;  two  of  the 
same  species  or  kind  taken  together;  a  brace;  in  math.,  a 
pair  of  forces  acting  on  a  body  on  each  side  of  a  fixed  point, 
so  as  to  turn  the  body  round  this  fixed  point:  V.  to  link, 
chain,  or  unite  one  thing  to  another;  to  fasten  toiJ^ether;  to 
unite  as  man  and  wife;  to  marry.  Coupling,  imp.  kup'- 
ling:  N.  that  which  couples  or  connects,  as  the  coupling  of 
two  railway  carriages;  in  an  organ,  a  register  (handle  or 
knob  controlling  action)  by  which  two  or  more  rows  of  keys 
can  be  connected  by  a  mechanism  so  that  they  can  be  played 
together.  Coupled,  pp.  kup'ld.  Couplet,  n.  kup'let  [F.] : 
any  two  lines  which  rhyme;  a  distich;  but  the  term  is  more 
frequently  used  by  critics  to  denote  two  lines  which  contain 
the  complete  expression  of  an  idea,  therefore  to  a  certain 
extent  independent  of  what  precedes  or  follows.  The  poetic 
wits  of  the  age  of  Queen  Anne  excelled  in  this  kind  of 
aphoristic  versification.  Pope,  it  has  been  said,  reasons  la 
couplets:  for  example: 

'  'Tis  with  our  judgment  as  our  watches,  none 
Go  just  alike,  j-et  each  believes  his  own.' 

Couples,  n.  plu.  kup'ls,  a  pair  of  opposite  rafters  in  a  roof 
nailed  at  the  top 'where  they  meet,  and  united  by  a  beam 
of  wood  at  the  bottom.  Coup'lings,  n.  plu.  sliding 
boxes  or  nuts  that  connect  the  ends  of  a  tube,  or  one  tube 
or  shaft  to  another.  Couplement,  n.  kup'lment,  in  OE., 
a  pair;  two  or  more  together.  Coupling -pin,  a  bolt  used 
for  connecting  railway  carriages,  and  for  certain  parts  of 
machinery. 

COUP  LES,  in  Statics:  pairs  of  equal  parallel  forces  act- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  and  at  different  points  of  a  body. 
When  two  parallel  forces  act  in  opposite  directions  on  a 

13 


COUPLES. 

body,  they  may  be  replaced  by  one  equal  to  their  differ- 
ence acting  parallel  to  them  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest, 
at  a  point  not  between  but  beyond  the  points  where  they 
are  applied;  and  which  point  recedes  the  further  from  their 
points  of  application  the  nearer  they  approach  equality, 
receding  to  an  intiuite  distance  when  they  become  equal, 
and  when  their  resultant  accordingly  is  zero:  (see  Parallel 
Forces).  In  this  limiting  case,  the  forces  constitute  a 
couple;  they  have  no  tendency  to  traiislate  the  body;  their 
action  goes  wholly  to  make  it  rotate  about  an  axis  passing 
through  its  centre  of  gravity,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
in  which  the  couple  acts.  Such  being  the  case,  a  couple 
cannot  be  replaced  or  counteracted  by  any  single  force, 
for  such  a  force  would  produce  translation;  it  can  only  be 
replaced  or  balanced  by  other  couples.  The  length  of  the 
straight  line  which  meets  the  lines  of  action  of  the  forces 
at  right  angles  is  called  the  '  arm '  of  a  couple,  and  the 
product  of  the  force  into  its  arm  is  called  its  *  moment. ' 

Most  of  the  leading  propositions  in  the  theory  of  C.  are 
readily  seen  to  be  true,  as  soon  as  stated.  For  instance,  as 
the  axis  round  which  a  couple  tends  to  make  a  body  rotate 
passes  through  the  body's  centre  of  gravity  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  plane  of  the  couple,  it  does  not  matter  what 
position  the  couple  occupies  in  its  own  plane.  Also,  sup- 
posing the  body  to  be  rigid,  the  couple  may  be  moved  into 
any  plane  parallel  to  its  own,  provided  its  new  position  be 
rigidly  connected  with  the  original  position.  It  is  obvious 
also,  on  the  principle  of  the  lever,  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
couple  depends  on  its  moment  simply,  so  that  its  arm  may 
be  shortened  or  lengthened  at  pleasure,  provided  the  force 
be  increased  or  diminished  as  the  case  may  require,  so  as 
always  to  make  the  product  of  the  force  and  arm  the  same. 
Suppose  ropes  fastened  at  the  bow  and  stern  of  a  ship  pull- 
ing with  equal  force  in  opposite  directions;  they  will  make 
the  ship  turn  round  an  axis  through  its  centre  of  gravity, 
at  a  rate  depending  on  the  force  applied  to  the  ropes.  If 
the  ropes  be  fastened  to  opposite  points  of  the  vessel  nearer 
midships,  it  will  turn  round  at  the  same  rate,  only  provided 
the  force  applied  to  the  ropes  be  increased;  and,  on  experi- 
ment, it  would  be  found  tliat  the  force  must  be  increased 
so  as  that  its  product  into  the  distance  between  the  ropes 
shall  equal  the  product  of  the  force 
in  the  first  case  into  the  length  of  the 
ship.  Through  this  we  can  compoimd 
C.  acting  in  the  same  plane,  for  we  can 
turn  them  round  till  their  arms  coin- 
cide, and  then  give  them  a  common 
arm;  their  forces  will  then  act  in  the 
same  lines,  when  their  resultant  into  | 
the  arm  will  be  the  new  couple.  So 
two  C.  situated  in  planes  inclined  at 
any  angle  to  each  other  may  be 
replaced  by  a  single  couple  (see  fig). 
Suppose  the  C.  both  to  be  moved  in 
their  respective  planes  till  their  arms 
coincide  with  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  planes,  CD 

74 


COUPON-COURAKT. 

Briag  them  then  to  a  common  arm  in  this  line,  AB.  At 
each  end  of  this  arm  we  shall  have  a  pair  of  forces,  say  P 
and  Q,  inclined  to  one  another  at  the  angle  of  inclina- 
tion of  the  planes.  Their  resultant,  by  the  composition 
of  forces,  will  be  a  force  R,  acting  in  a  line  between 
the  planes.  We  shall  have  then  forces  R  acting  at  each 
end  of  the  arm,  and  evidently  in  directions  parallel 
and  opposite.  R  X  arm,  AB,  then,  is  moment  of  the  re- 
sultant couple.  Having  seen  how  to  compound  C.  whose 
planes  are  inclined  to  one  another,  the  theory  of  the  com- 
position of  C.  may  be  said  to  be  complete,  for  if  they  are 
in  parallel  planes,  we  know  we  can  bring  them  into  the 
same  plane  and  to  a  common  arm,  and  so  into  a  common 
couple.  In  statical  theory,  any  number  of  forces  acting  on 
a  body,  and  not  in  equilibrium,  may  be  reduced  to  a  single 
force,  a  single  couple,  or  a  single  force  and  a  single  couple. 
We  have  shown  that  the  C.  may  all  be  reduced  to  one,  as 
well  as  those  forces  which  do  not  produce  couples.  If  the 
single  force  do  not  act  perpendicularly  to  the  plane  of  the 
couple,  it  can  always  be  compounded  with  the  forces  of  the 
couple,  so  as  to  reduce  the  whole  to  a  single  force;  if  it  act 
perpendicularly,  then  it  cannot  be  compounded  with  the 
couple,  and  the  body  will  have  at  once  a  motion  Of  trans- 
lation and  motion  of  rotation. 

COUPON,  n.  Mpong  [F.  coupon— ixom  couper,  to  cut 
or  cut  off  J:  warrant  or  note  or  check,  billet,  certificate,  etc., 
attached  as  a  counterpart  to  transferable  bonds:  coupons 
are  successively  cut  off  to  be  presented  for  payment  of 
dividends  as  they  fall  due:  the  term  is  applied  chiefly  to  a 
dividend  or  interest  warrant,  to  be  presented  for  payment 
by  holders  of  debentures  such  as  government  bonds. 

COUPURE,  D.  kopur  [F.  couper,  to  cut]:  in  mil.,  an  in- 
trenchment  of  any  kind  formed  behind  a  breach,  whose  ob- 
jects is  to  enable  the  besieged  to  prolong  the  defense;  a 
ditch  and  parapet  made  through  the  rampart  as  far  as 
the  revetment. 

COURAGE,  n.  kur'dj  [F.  courage — from  OF.  corage — 
from  mid.  L.  coratlcum — from  F.  coeur,  heart,  courage— 
from  L.  cor,  the  heart:  comp.  Gael,  curaidh,  a  hero;  curaisd, 
courage]:  strength  of  mind;  bravery;  fearlessness;  valor; 
resolution;  that  quality  of  mind  which  enables  men  to  en- 
counter dangers  and  difficulties  with  firmness  and  without 
fear.  Coura'geous,  a.  -a jus,  brave;  fearless;  daring;  en 
do  wed  with  firmness;  without  fear.  Coura'geously, 
ad.  -li,  in  a  courageous  manner;  stoutly;  boldly.  Coura'- 
GEOUSNESS,  n.  -jus-nes,  the  quality  of  being  courageous;  bra- 
very.— Syn.  of  'courage':  intrepidity;  daring;  gallantry: 
heroism;  hardihood;  firmness;  boldness;  resolution;  au- 
dacity;— of  '  courageous ':  bold;  intrepid;  undaunted;  val- 
iant; gallant;  heroic;  valorous;  hardy;  enterprising;  adven- 
turous. 

COURANT,  n.  ku-rdnt'  [F.  courant,  running — from  F. 
courir,  to  run — from  L.  curro,  I  run]:  that  which  spreads 
news  very  quicklj;  a  newspaper:  in  heraldry,  a.,  running. 
CouRANTO,  n.  ku-ran  to,  a  piece  of  music  in  triple  time, 


COURB-COURIER. 

COURB,  V.  korh  [F.  courher,  to  bend,  to  bow— from 
courhe,  a  curve — from  L.  curms,  crooked,  curved]:  in 
OE.,  to  bend  or  bow;  to  stoop  as  a  suppliant.  Courb  - 
ING,  imp.    CouRBED,  pp.  korbd. 

COURBET,  k<}r-ha',  Gustave:  1819,  June  10—1877, 
Dec.  31;  b.  Ornans,  France:  painter.  He  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  study  law  1839,  but  soon  changed  his  mind,  took 
lessons  in  art,  studied  the  works  of  famous  Florentine, 
Venetian,  and  Flemish  artists,  and  began  exhibiting  1844. 
His  works  comprised,  portraits,  landscapes,  and  genre 
pieces,  and  he  soon  became  noted  for  studies  of  the  nude 
female  form.  In  1855,  dissatisfied  with  the  places  assigned 
some  of  his  paintings  in  the  Salon  exhibition  and  the  re- 
jection of  others,  he  withdrew  all  his  works,  erected  a 
building  near  the  Salon,  and  there  exhibited  40  paintings 
at  a  small  admission  fee.  In  1860,  the  jury  of  the  Munich 
exhibition  assigned  him  an  entire  room.  He  held  extreme 
views  in  art,  religion,  and  politics,  was  an  early  adherent 
of  the  commune,  directed  the  overthrow  of  the  Yendome 
column,  was  prohibited  exhibiting  1872,  and  was  con- 
demned to  pay  the  cost  of  a  new  column  on  the  Place 
Vendome  1873,  for  which  his  property  was  confiscated  and 
sold. 

COURBEYOIE,  kor-heJi-mm' :  town  of  France,  dept.  of 
Seine,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Seine,  about  5  m.  n.w. 
of  Paris.  C.  has  well-built  houses,  mostly  supplied  with 
gardens,  and  large  barracks  erected  by  Louis  XV.  Its 
principal  manufactures  are  white-lead  and  brandy,  and  it 
has  some  commerce  by  the  Seine.    Pop.  (1881)  15,010. 

COURGNE,  k6i  m-ya:  market-town  of  Piedmont,  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  on  the  w.  side  of  the  Orca,  12  m.  w.s.w.  of 
Ivrea.    It  has  several  convents.    Pop.  5,600. 

COURIER,  n.  kur'l-er  [F.  courrier;  OF.  courier — from 
L.  currOy  I  run]:  a  runner;  a  special  messenger  with  let- 
ters or  dispatches  from  a  distance;  a  travelling  servant  at- 
tached to  a  family. — There  are  two  distinct  classes  of 
couriers,  Government  and  Primte.  The  first  are  employed 
by  government  to  carry,  securely  and  expeditiously,  im- 
portant dispatches  to  and  from  ambassadors  at  foreign 
courts.  Active,  and  accustomed  to  travel,  speaking  several 
languages,  and  with  a  sutticient  idea  of  their  own  conse- 
quence, they  will  set  out  at  a  moment's  notice,  pursue  theii 
way  by  steamer,  by  rail,  by  hired  voiture,  or  on  horse- 
back, with  little  intermission  by  night  and  by  day,  until 
they  reach  their  destination.  Acquainted  with  routes, 
ofiicials,  and  methods  of  clearing  the  way,  and  provided 
with  all  proper  credentials,  including  a  requisite  supply 
of  cash,  nothing  interrupts  them  in  their  eager  course. 

Primte  Couriers. — These  have  similar  accomplishments 
to  the  first  class,  but  are  in  the  service  of  private  parties. 
They  are  usuall}^  persons  of  middle  age,  natives  of  Switz- 
erland, France,  or  Germany,  who  have  either  been  at 
some  time  gentlemen's  familiar  servants,  or  been  long  em- 
ployed as  attendants  on  families  travelling.  In  some  in- 
stances, they  are  of  English  origin,  and  have  travelled 


COURIER. 

again  and  again  through  Europe  with  emplo^'Crs  who  relish 
the  dignity  of  having  a  man-servant,  and  dislike  personal 
responsibility  and  trouble.  Of  whatever  nativity,  the 
courier  has  settled  down  into  a  perfectly  cosmopolitan 
character.  With  equal  fluency,  he  speaks  English,  French, 
Italian,  and  German,  with  perhaps  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  Russian;  he  is  acquainted  with  processes  of  getting 
passports  and  vises;  knows  the  best  routes,  the  best  hotels, 
and  w^here  anything  notable  or  curious  is  to  be  seen.  Act- 
ing for  the  time  as  a  servant,  he  is  not  intrusive.  Whether 
by  railway  or  steam-boat,  he  knows  his  place,  and  makes 
his  appearance  only  when  he  is  wanted.  Ko  doubt,  the 
courier  is  an  expensive  luxury;  his  usual  wages  being 
from  $40  to  |50  a  month,  independently  of  travelling- 
fares.  His  keep  at  inns,  though  nominally  paid  by  him- 
self, practically  weighs  with  the  hotel-keeper  in  making 
out  the  bill.  '  A  courier,  however,  though  an  expensive 
luxury,  is  one  which  conduces  much  to  the  ease  and  pleas- 
ure of  travelling,  and  few  w^ho  can  afford  one  wall  forego 
the  advantage  of  his  services.  He  relieves  his  master  from 
much  fatigue  of  body  and  perplexity  of  mind,  in  unravel- 
ling the  dithculties  of  long  bills  and  foreign  moneys, 
sparing  his  temper  the  trials  it  is  likely  to  endure  from  dis- 
putes with  innkeepers,  postmasters,  and  the  like.  If  clever 
and  experienced,  and  disposed  to  consult  the  comfort  of 
his  employer,  he  is  a  most  useful  person.  His  duties  con- 
sist in  preceding  the  carriage  at  each  stage,  to  secure  relays 
of  post-horses;  he  must  make  arrangements  for  his  employ- 
er's reception  at  inns  where  he  intends  to  pass  the  night; 
must  secure  comfortable  rooms,  clean  and  well-aired  beds, 
and  order  meals  prepared  and  fires  lighted,  taking  care 
that  his  master  is  called  and  the  post  horses  ordered  at  the 
right  hour.  He  ought  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
everything  that  relates  to  a  carriage;  he  should  examine  it 
at  the  end  of  each  day's  journey,  to  ascertain  whether  it 
requires  any  repairs,  which  should  be  executed  before  set- 
ting out.  He  should  superintend  the  packing  and  unpack- 
ing of  the  luggage,  etc.  It  falls  to  the  courier  to  pay  inn- 
keepers and  post-boys;  and  he  ought  to  take  care  that  his 
master  is  not  overcharged.  Besides  this,  he  performs  all 
the  services  of  waiting  and  attendance,  cleaning  and  brush- 
ing clothes;  and  he  is  not  perfectly  accomplished  unless  he 
has  a  smattering  of  the  art  of  cookery '  (Murray's  Hand- 
hook  for  Travelers  on  the  Continent).  As  among  ordinary 
domestics,  there  are  honest  and'  dishonest  C,  and  it  is  of 
importance  that  travellers  should  not  hire  them  without 
proper  recommendations  as  to  character.  For  places  at 
which  C.  are  to  be  heard  of,  see  the  work  above  quoted: 
also  Bradshaw's  Continental  Railway  Guide.  In  Paris,  in- 
formation respecting  them  may  be  obtained  at  Meurice's 
Hotel. 

COURIER,  k6-re-d\  Paul  Louis:  1772,  Jan.  4—1825, 
Apr.  10;  b.  Paris:  French  political  writer.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  army,  but,  without  neglecting  military  studies, 
he  showed  special  predilection  for  ancient  literature.  In 
1793  he  became  lieut.  of  artillery,  served  in  the  Italian 

T7 


COURLAN—COURLAND. 

campaign  1798-9,  and  in  1803  was  appointed  chef-d'escadron. 
After  the  battle  of  Wagram,  he  tendered  his  resignation, 
which  was  accepted.  He  went  to  Switzerland  and  Italy, 
returning  to  his  native  country  1812.  Before  this  he  had 
been  known  publicly  only  by  his  translations  from  the 
classics.  In  1816  he  appeared  for  the  first  time  as  a  politi- 
cal pamphleteer,  and  rapidly  obtained  a  brilliant  reputa- 
,  tion.  The  piece  in  which  he  made  his  debut  was  the  Pe- 
tition aux  Deux  Ghamhres.  In  1819-20,  he  published  in  a 
journal,  called  Le  Censeur,  a  series  of  letters  containing  an 
exposition  of  his  political  ideas,  which  were  those  of  an  ar- 
dent constitutional  reformer.  These  letters,  for  keenness, 
wit,  and  eloquence,  have  been  compared  to  those  of  Pascal. 
His  Simple  Discours  (1821)  was  directed  against  the  project 
then  entertained  of  purchasing  Chambord  for  the  Due  de 
Bordeaux  in  the  name  of  the  nation.  It  is  exceedingly  vig- 
orous, clever,  and  sensible,  and  had  great  success.  For 
his  audacity,  he  was  tried  and  condemned  to  one  month's 
imprisonment.  In  1823  he  published  his  Liw^ety  a  kind  of 
memorandum -book;  and  in  1824  his  Pamphlet  des  Pam- 
phlets, finely  called  by  Armand  Carrel  Le  Chant  du  Cygne 
(the  Swan's  Death-song).  His  death  was  by  assassination 
near  his  own  house  at  Veretz,  dept.  of  Indre-et-Loire,  a 
little  before  sunset  the  murderer  was  never  detected.  C. 
was  the  pamphleteer  of  the  middle  class.  Manly  earnest- 
ness, pleasant  wit,  cutting  irony,  and  admirable  sense  are 
his  characteristics.  Time,  which  generally  dims  the  lus- 
tre of  a  pamphleteer's  reputation,  has  not  touched  that  of 
C,  which  is  still  as  bright  as  ever. 

COURLAN,  kor'lan:  bird  of  the  genus  aramus,  some- 
times classified  with  the  rail  family,  generally  chocolate- 
brown  in  color,  with  white-streaked  feathers,  toes  cleft  to 
the  base,  and  broad  rounded  wings  13  inches  long.  It  is 
a  wading  bird,  the  only  one  of  its  family,  has  a  peculiar 
cackling  cry,  attains  a  length  of  27i  inches  in  Fla.  and  the 
W.  Indies,  but  is  much  larger  and  less  streaked  with  white 
in  S.  America,  and  is  a  rapid  runner  and  short  flyer. 

COURLAND  or  Kurland,  kor'land:  Russian  govern- 
ment, a  province  of  what  are  called  the  Baltic  provinces; 
lat.56° — 58°  n.,  long.  21° — 27°  e.  It  was  formerly  an  inde- 
pendent duchy — properly,  indeed,  two  duchies,  Courland 
and  Semgall — and  belonged,  with  Livonia,  to  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  The  difficulty  of  resisting  the  Russians  led  to  the 
acknowledgment,  1561,  of  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  Po- 
land; and  the  last  grand-master,  Gotthard  Kettler,  secured 
the  duchies  of  Courland  and  Semgall  for  his  family.  The 
country  was  long  distracted  by  the  contentions  of  two  par- 
ties, one  Russian  and  the  other  Polish;  and  after  being  for 
some  time  completely  under  Russian  influence,  and  the 
scene  of  many  Russian  intrigues,  it  was  finally  united  to 
Russia,  1795.  It  has  about  10,500  sq.  m. ;  is  generally  level, 
with  ranges  of  low  hills,  and  contains  man}^  lakes,  bogs, 
forests,  and  downs,  but  some  parts  have  a  very  fertile  soil. 
The  proprietors  of  land  are  mostly  German;  the  peasantrj^, 
of  Lettish  or  Esthonian  extraction,  are  engaged  chiefly  m 


COURSE— COURSING. 


husbandry;  there  is  little  manufacturing  industry  or  com- 
merce. The  capital  is  Mitau,  but  the  most  flourishing 
town  is  Libau.— Pop.  of  C.  (1880)  682,000,  mostly  Protes- 
tants. 

COURSE,  n.  kors  [F.  cours—ivom  L.  cursus,  a  course,  a 
journey — imm  curro,  I  run:  It.  corso']:  a  swift  journey;  a 
career;  a  race;  the  ground  on  which  the  race  is  run;  gen- 
erally a  passing,  moving,  or  motion  forward  within  limits; 
the  progress  of  anything;  ueual  manner;  order  of  procedure; 
way  of  life  or  conduct;  natural  bent;  the  dishes  set  on  table 
at  one  time;  elements  of  an  art  or  science  exhibited  and  ex- 
plained in  a  series  of  lessons  or  lectures,  as  a  course  of 
chemistry;  a  continued  range  of  stones  or  bricks  in  the  wall 
of  a  building,  of  approximately  uniform  thickness;  the 
track  of  a  ship:  V  to  run  through  or  over;  to  hunt;  to 
chase;  to  move  with  speed.  Cour  sing,  imp.:  N.  the  sport 
of  chasing  and  hunting  hares  with  grayhounds.  Coursed, 
pp.  kdrst.  Cour  ser,  n.  -stir,  a  swift  horse;  a  war  horse; 
a  very  swift  running  bird  inhabiting  s.  Europe  and  n.  Af- 
rica. Cour  ses,  n.  plu.  -sis,  in  a  sJiipy  the  principal  sails, 
the  lower  sails — comprising  main  sail,  fore  sail,  main  stay- 
sail, fore-staysail,  and  mizzen-staysail:  above  the  courses  is 
the  group  of  top  sails,  and  the  highest  of  all  the  group  of 
top-gallant  sails:  in  geol ,  thin  regular  strata,  from  their 
being  superimposed  upon  one  another  like  the  hewn  courses 
of  a  building;  the  menses.  Of  course,  by  consequence; 
that  naturally  follows,  as,  a  matter  of  coarse.  In  the 
course  of,  at  some  time  during. — Syn.  of  *  course,  n.': 
road;  way;  passage;  route;  race;  manner;  method;  suc- 
cession; mode;  series;  progress;  advance;  track;  direction; 
procedure;  sequence;  conduct;  behavior;  regularity. 

COURS  ING:  method  of  hunting  hares  by  greyhounds, 
in  which  the  dogs  follow  the  game  by  sight,  instead  of  by 
scent.  C.  is  of  very  ancient  date,  having  been  practiced  by 
the  Greeks.  Within  the  last  20  years,  its  popularity  as  a  sport 
has  greatly  increased,  and  the  breed  of  the  greyhound  is 
now  studied  in  England  with  almost  as  much  care  and 
zest  as  that  of  the  race-horse.    The  method  is  as  follows: 

Meetings  are  held  in  open  districts,  well  frequented  by 
hares,  where  the  greyhounds — technically  called  '  dogs,'  as 
foxhounds  are  technically  called  *  hounds  '—are  entered 
by  their  owners  for  a  variety  of  stakes,  which  are  to  be 
competed  for — C,  in  this  respect,  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  a  race  between  horses.  The  first  thing  done  is  to  select 
a  judge  to  decide  upon  the  merits  of  the  be?^t  dogs;  second, 
a  *  slipper  '  is  appointed  to  hold  the  dogs  in  leash,  and  start 
them  at  the  hare;  and,  third,  a  flag-steward  is  chosen,  who 
remains  near  the  judge  and  announces  the  color  of  the  vic- 
torious dog  by  means  of  a  red  or  white  flag,  according  as 
the  competitors  are  arranged.  The  next  thing  done  is  to 
*  beat '  the  field  for  a  hare.  When  one  is  found,  the  judge 
usually  allows  it  80  or  100  yards  '  law  '  before  he  cries  to 
the  '  slipper '  to  let  the  dogs  '  go. '  Upon  the  word  *  go, ' 
the  '  slipper  '  liberates  the  animals  by  a  spring  attached  to 
the  '  slips  '—i.e.;  the  long  strong  cprd  held  by  the  '  slipper ' 

7f 


COURT. 

and  communicatiDg  with  the  leathern  collars  fixed  round 
the  necks  of  the  dogs.  The  judge's  duties  now  begin  in 
earnest.  He  follows  the  dogs  wherever  they  go,  calcula- 
ting carefully  the  number  of  'points'  made  by  each— a 
'  point '  being  any  meritorious  achievement  on  the  part  of 
the  dogs  (as  when  the  one  outstrips  the  other  at  any  time, 
or  turns  the  hare,  i.e.,  causes  it  to  '  double');  and  at  last 
he  adjudges  the  victory,  not  necessarily  to  the  dog  which 
has  killed  the  hare,  but  to  the  one  which  has  made  the  most 
points  during  the  course,  i.e.,  which  has  exhibited  the 
hnest  qualities  of  speed,  sagacity,  endurance,  etc. 

COURT,  n.  hurt  [F.  cour—ivom  OF.  court;  It.  carte — 
L.  cohortem,  a  cattle-yard,  an  inclosed  place:  comp.  Gael. 
coir,  a  circle  or  inclosure  where  justice  was  administered; 
allied  to  Polish  grod,  city;  Sw.  gard;  Eng.  yard  and  garden]'. 
an  open  space  of  ground  attached  to  a  house  inclosed  by 
a  wall  or  fence;  a  small  paved  square  or  space  surrounded 
by  houses;  the  palace  of  a  king,  also  the  persons  attached  to 
his  person  as  attendants,  council,  etc. ;  a  place  of  justice, 
likewise  the  judges  and  officers  engaged  there;  civility;  flat- 
tery; the  art  of  pleasing:  Y.  to  endeavor  to  please;  to  woo 
or  pay  addresses  to  a  woman;  to  solicit;  to  seek.  Court'- 
ING,  imp.  Courted,  pp.  kort'ed.  Court  ship,  n.  the  act 
of  soliciting  favor;  paying  addresses  or  making  love  to  a 
woman.  Court  ier,  n.  -yer,  a  man  who  attends  at  the 
courts  of  princes  seeking  for  favors  or  advancement;  one 
who  flatters  to  please.  Courteous,  a.  kert'yus  [OF.  cor- 
tois]:  affable;  polite;  civil;  obliging;  of  elegant  manners. 
Court  eously,  ad.  -II.  Court'eousness,  n.  Courtly, 
a.  kortliy  elegant;  refined;  worthy  of  a  court:  Ad.  in  the 
manner  of  a  court.  Court  liness,  n.  -nh.  Courtesan, 
n.  ker'te-zdn  [Sp.  cortesana — from  corte,  court]:  a  woman 
of  loose  virtue.  Court-martial,  n.,  a  court  of  justice 
composed  of  military  or  naval  officers  for  the  trial  of 
offenses  committed  in  the  army  or  navy.  Court-plaster, 
a  black  sticking-plaster — formerly  used  in  patches  on 
the  face  by  ladies  as  ornaments  or  beauty-spots.  Court- 
yard, an  inclosed  space  before  a  house:  see  Farm 
Buildings.  Court-cards  [a  corruption  of  coat  or  coated 
card\.  pictured  cards;  in  card-playing,  king,  queen,  and 
knave  of  a  suit.  Court-day,  a  day  on  which  a  court  sits 
to  administer  justice.  Court-dress,  a  dress  suitable  for 
appearing  at  court,  or  a  levee.  Court-leet,  -let  [Dut.  laet, 
a  peasant  tenant]:  the  court  of  the  copyhold  tenants,  as  op- 
posed to  the  CouRT-BARON  for  the  freeholders  of  the  baron; 
a  court  of  record  held  within  a  lordship  or  manor  for  the 
disposal  of  minor  offences:  see  Common  Law,  Courts  of. 
— Court  of  Common  Pleas:  see  Common  Law,  Courts 
OF. — Syn.  of  'courteous':  condescending;  accessible;  ob- 
liging; well-bred;  complaisant. 

COURT:  originally,  the  square  or  space  inclosed  by 
the  buildings  of  a  feudal  castle;  hence,  the  persons  im- 
mediately surrounding  a  feudal  chief  or  superior.  In  this 
application  it  now  denotes  the  residence  and  surroundings 
of  sovereign  piinces.  In  England,  and  other  free  countries 
"so 


COURT. 

'  the  court '  means  little  more  than  the  family  and  attend- 
ants of  the  sovereign,  viewed  not  in  a  private  but  a  public 
capacity.  The  bishops  and  nobles,  the  ministers  of  the 
Queen  for  the  time  being,  andjother  persons  entitled  to  pre- 
cedence, either  on  hereditary,  official,  or  personal  grounds, 
are  those  who  habitually  encircle  the  sovereign;  *  the  court 
circle,'  consequently,  means  those  persons  of  distinction 
and  their  families,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  approaching  the 
Queen,  and  of  associating  with  the  other  members  of 
the  royal  famil}^  But  this  circle  is  one  the  circumference 
of  w^hich  is  marked  by  no  absolute  line,  like  that  w^hich  in 
France,  under  the  old  monarchy,  divided  the  C.  from  the 
city. 

COURT,  in  law:  see  Courts  of  Justice  (References). 

COURT,  kor,  Antoine:  1696,  May  17— 1760,  June  15; 
b.  Villeneuve  de  Berg,  France:  Prot.  minister.  His  pa- 
rents, humble  peasants  and  stanch  adherents  of  the  perse- 
cuted Reformed  Church,  were  unable  to  give  him  even  an 
ordinary  education,  but  brought  him  up  to  fear  God  and 
to  study  the  Scriptures.  When  he  was  8  3^ears  old  the 
Camesard  revolt  was  suppressed,  and  when  17  he  began  at- 
tending the  secret  meetings  of  the  Protestants  and  exhort- 
ing the  devoted  congregations  Two  years  later,  Louis 
XIV  issued  a  decree  declaring  that  all  who  professed  the 
Reformed  faith  should  be  punished  as  relapsed  heretics. 
This  proclamation,  added  to  the  long  course  of  persecution 
by  the  govt. ,  determined  him  to  attempt  to  deliver  the 
Protestants  and  build  up  their  church.  He  began  his  la- 
bors by  insisting  upon  the  holding  of  regular  meetings  for 
religious  instruction  and  worship;  the  suppression  of  the 
fanaticism  of  *  inspired  teachers '  and  the  disorders  that  it 
created;  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  through 
the  establishment  of  consistories,  conferences,  and  synods; 
and  the  systematic  education  of  pastors.  He  formed  con- 
gregations at  Languedoc,  Dauphine,  and  Provence,  organ- 
ized the  Church  of  the  Desert,  and,  when  a  price  w  as  set 
on  his  head,  tied  from  France  to  Lausuanne,  1780,  wdiere  he 
founded  a  theological  seminary  of  which  he  was  pres.  till 
his  death. 

COURT,  Presentation  at:  personal  introduction  into 
the  presence  of  a  sovereign,  with  the  ceremonial  accom- 
panying. This  honor,  obtained  only  by  persons  of  re- 
spectable position,  is  sought  not  only  for  the  eclat  of  the 
ceremonial,  but  as  giving  a  certain  stamp  of  character;  for, 
having  been  received  by  the  sovereign,  a  person  may  with 
justice  expect  to  be  received  anywhere.  Valuable  so  far 
as  a  credential,  a  reception  at  C.  is  carefully  guarded  from 
abuse.  At  the  C.  of  Queen  Victoria,  there  is  scrupulous  ex- 
clusion of  all  men  or  women  of  damaged  reputation.  Those 
who  aim  at  the  distinction  of  being  presented  at  C.  belong 
chiefly  to  what  are  called  the  higher  circles — nobility  and 
landed  gentry;  officers  in  the  army,  navy,  and  higher  de- 
partments of  the  civil  service;  judges,  magistrates,  church- 
dignitaries,  members  of  the  learn'ed  professions;  and  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  these  respective  classes.    Men  of 


COURTALLUM. 

scientific,  literary,  or  artistic  attainments  do  not  generally 
attempt  to  appear  at  C;  neither  do  the  classes  engaged  in 
trade.  It  is  usual  to  be  presented  on  taking  office,  or  on 
attaining  some  personal  dignity,  or  on  arriving  from  an 
important  and  distant  expedition.  Young  ladies  of  good 
family  are  said  'to  come  out,'  on  being  presented  at  court. 
What  perhaps  contributes  more  than  anything  else  to  se- 
cure selectness,  is  the  obligation  of  appearing  in  '  court- 
dress,'  an  expensive  and  fantastic  costume  of  old  date; 
from  which  only  those  who  assume  professional  uniforms 
are  exempted.  As  is  well  known,  the  court- dresses  of 
ladies  are  superb.  Some  of  the  usual  notions  among  for- 
eigners arriving  in  England — those  from  the  United  States 
in  particular — as  to  the  practicability  of  indiscriminate 
presentation  at  C,  are  erroneous.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  lord 
chamberlain  at  St.  James's  to  furnish  information  regard- 
ing the  steps  to  be  adopted  by  those  who  desire  to  be  pre- 
S3nted  at  C,  either  at  levees,  which  are  restricted  to  gen- 
tlemen, or  at  drawing-rooms,  which  are  chiefly,  though 
not  exclusively,  for  ladies.  The  days  on  which  these  re- 
ceptions take  place  are  advertised  in  the  newspapers  some 
days  before,  with  necessary  directions  for  preventing  con- 
fusion. Her  majesty's  birthday  is  the  occasion  on  which 
the  greatest  reception  of  the  year  takes  place,  but  there 
are  no  new  presentations  on  that  day.  Any  British  subject 
who  has  been  presented  at  C.  in  England,  can  claim  to  be 
presented  by  the  British  ambassador  at  any  foreign  court. 
Those  who  wish  to  be  mere  spectators  can  obtain  tickets 
to  the  corridor,  where  they  see  the  company  passing  in  and 
out,  by  applying  to  the  lord  chamberlain.  For  this  pur- 
pose, however,  an  introduction  is  required.  It  is  indis- 
pensable that  the  names  of  gentlemen  desiring  to  be  pre- 
sented, and  of  the  nobleman  or  gentleman  who  is  to  pre- 
sent them,  be  sent  to  the  lord  chamberlain's  ofl&ce  several 
days  previously,  in  order  that  they  may  be  submitted  for 
the  queen's  approbation.  Gentlemen  are  also  requested  to 
bring  with  them  two  large  cards,  with  their  names  clearly 
written  upon  them,  one  of  which  is  left  with  the  queen's 
page  in  the  presence-chamber,  and  the  other  is  delivered 
to  the  lord  chamberlain,  who  announces  the  name  to  her 
majesty.  The  same  rules  apply  to  ladies.  Lists  of  pres- 
entations appear  next  day  in  the  principal  London  news- 
papers. 

COURTALLUM,  Jcor-tdl-lum' :  town  of  the  dist.  of  Tin- 
nevelly,  presidency  of  Madras;  lat.  8°  56'  n.,  and  long. 
77°  20'  e.,  near  the  junction  of  the  eastern  and  western 
Ghauts.  Open  toward  the  e.,  at  a  height  of  700  ft.  above 
the  sea,  it  is  elsewhere  embosomed  in  hills,  having,  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood,  a  deep  glen  which  affords  easy 
communication  between  the  opposite  shores  of  Hindustan. 
The  place  is  a  favorite  retreat  for  invalids,  deservedly  en- 
joying a  reputation  for  salubrity  of  air,  richness  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  beauty  of  scenery.  The  indigenous  flora  com- 
prises 2,000  species;  and  many  exotics,  such  as  the  nutmeg, 
clove,  and  cinnamon,  have  been  introduced  with  success. 

82 


COURTESAN—COURTESY  TITLES. 
COURTESAN,  n. :  see  under  Court. 

COURTESY,  n.  ker'te-si  [from  court:  F.  courtiser,  to 
pay  court  to,  to  flatter;  courtoisie,  civility]:  tlie  polish  and 
polite  manners  of  the  court;  politeness  of  manners  com- 
bined with  kindness;  civility;  an  act  of  civility  or  respect; 
favor  not  by  right.  Courtesy,  n.  k'^rt'si,  an  act  of  re- 
spect or  reverence  paid  by  a  woman:  Y.  to  perform  an  act 
of  respect,  etc.,  as  a  woman.  CouRTESYmo,  imp.  or  kert'- 
si-ing.  CouRTESiED,  pp.  kert'sid. — Syn.  of  *  courtesy  = 
ker'te-si':'  politeness;  urbanity;  complaisance;  civility; 
elegance,  etc. 

COUR  TESY,  or  Curtesy,  in  Law:  life  interest  which, 
in  England  and  Scotland;  the  surviving  husband  has  in  the 
real  or  heritable  estate  of  the  wife.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
both  in  England  and  in  Scotland,  this  customary  right 
should  be  regarded  as  a  national  peculiarity— that  in  Eng- 
land it  should  be  called  the  C.  of  England,  and  in  Scot- 
land the  C.  of  Scotland — vvhereas  it  is  well  known  to  be 
peculiar  to  neither  of  them.  Traces  of  it  are  to  be  found 
in  a  constitution  of  the  emperor  Constanstine  (Code  6,  60, 
1);  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  found  a  place, 
with  all  the  peculiarities  which  now  belong  to  it,  in  the 
couiume  of  Normandy.  The  four  circumstances  w^hich  are 
requisite  to  make  a  tenancy  by  C.  in  England  are — mar- 
riage, seizin  of  the  wife,  living  issue  (living  at  time  of 
birth),  and  the  wife's  death.  In  both  countries,  the  child 
must  be  the  mother's  heir;  and  it  is  consequently  said  that 
C.  is  due  to  the  surviving  husband  rather  as  the  father  of 
an  heir  than  as  the  widower  of  an  heiress.  *  See  Settled 
Estate,  for  English  law^  on  one  point;  for  Scottish  law, 
see  Hunter  on  Landlord  and  Tenant,  i.  p.  119. 

COUR  TESY  TITLES:  titles  assumed  by  or  given  to 
individuals,  and  which  have  no  validity  in  law,  not  hav- 
ing been  imparted  by  the  sovereign  or  other  competent 
authority.  The  term  C.  T.  is  best  known  in  connection 
with  the  titles  given  by  popular  consent  to  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  certain  English  peers.  C.  T.  are  to  foreign- 
^  ers  a  perplexing  part  of  the  highly  artificial  social  system 
wiiicli  prevails  in  Britain.  English  dukes,  marquises, 
earls,  and  viscounts  have  several  titles,  accumulated  by 
distinct  patents  in  their  progressive  steps  in  the  peerage. 
Thus,  a  duke  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  marquis,  an  earl, 
a  baron,  and  a  baronet;  a  marquis  may  be  also  an  earl, 
etc.;  and  an  earl  is  almost  always  a  baron.  In  ordinary 
parlance,  they  respectively  take  only  their  highest  title. 
One  of  the  inferior  titles  so  set  aside  is  permitted,  as  a 
matter  of  social  dignity,  to  be  assumed  by  the  eldest  son. 
For  example,  the  JDuke  of  Bedford  being  also  Marquis  of 
Tavistock,  his  eldest  son  takes  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Tavi- 
stock; and  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  and  Queensberry  being 
also  Earl  of  Dalkeith,  his  eldest  son  takes  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Dalkeith:  such  titles  are  of  the  class  called  courtes}^ 
titles.  When  it  happens  that  the  inferior  title  is  of  the 
same  name  as  the  first,  there  is  a  somewhat  different 
usage.    For  example,  the  Earl  of  Gosford  being  also  Yis 

83 


COURT-FOOL, 


count  Gosford,  his  eldest  son,  to  prevent  confusion,  takes 
only  the  family  surname,  Acheson,  with  the  prefix  Lord- 
Lord  Acheson.  The  youngest  sous  of  dukes  and  mar- 
quises have  the  courtesy  title  of  Lord  prefixed  to  their 
Christian  and  surname:  as,  for  example,  lord  Fred- 
erick Charles  Cavendish,  a  younger  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire;  or  Lord  Archibald  Campbell,  a  younger  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Argyll.  The  eldest  son  of  an  earl,  w^hen 
not  a  viscount,  takes  his  father's  second  title  of  lord:  as, 
for  example,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Wemyss  is  styled 
Lord  Elcho.  It  is  to  be  kept  in  mind,  that  titles  by 
courtesy  do  not  raise  their  bearers  above  the  rank  of  com- 
moners; that,  consequently,  they  are  eligible  for  election 
as  representatives  to  the  house  of  commons.  Very  many 
of  the  peers,  indeed,  begin  their  political  career  as  county 
or  borough  representatives  under  their  C.  T. ,  serving  in 
this  w^ay  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  as  statesmen  before 
they  are  advanced,  by  the  decease  of  their  fathers,  to  the 
house  of  lords. 

Ihe  daughters  of  dukes,  marquises,  and  earls  have  the 
title  Lady  prefixed  to  their  Christian  and  surname;  and  in 
the  event  of  their  marrying  a  person  of  inferior  rank,  they 
retain  the  title  Lady  with  their  Christian  name,  adding  the 
surname  of  their  husband.  Yet,  these  are  but  courtesy 
titles.  The  only  valid  title  that  they  can  claim  in  virtue 
of  their  birth,  is  the  prefix  Honorable,  which  is  applicable 
alike  to  the  sons  and  daughters  of  peers.  The  wives  of 
baronets  receive  the  courtesy  title  of  Lady ;  their  lawful 
designation  betog  Dame.  Ladies  who  have  had  a  title  by 
a  first  marriage,  retain  it  as  a  matter  of  courtesy  when 
they  are  married  a  second  time,  though  the  alliance  be 
with  a  person  without  a  title — a  circumstance  sometimes 
leading  to  awkwardness  in  designation.  In  Scotland,  the 
eldest  son  of  a  baron  has  the  courtesy  title  of  Master.  For 
example,  the  eldest  son  of  Lord  Elibank  is  styled  Master  of 
Elibank. 

The  title  Eight  Honorable  is  given  in  some  few  instances 
by  courtesy  to  officials,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Lord  Advo- 
cate for  Scotland.  The  judges  of  the  court  of  session  in 
Scotland,  on  first  taking  their  seat  on  the  bench,  assume 
the  courtesy  title  of  Lord  with  their  ow^n  surname  or  a  ter- 
ritorial title.  But  such  titles  are  used  only  senatorially. 
In  writing,  the  real  name  is  subscribed.  The  titles  of  Mr. 
or  Master  and  Esquire  (q.  v.),  are  now  given  by  courtesy 
to  nearly  all  classes  of  persons.  For  an  exact  definition  of 
titles  by  courtesy  of  members  of  the  peerage,  see  the 
Handbook  to  the  Desk,  or  any  good  Letter -lor iter . 

COURT'-FOOL  :  jester  formerly  kept  for  entertainment 
in  courts  of  sovereigns  and  houses  of  the  nobility.  From 
very  ancient  times  there  was  a  class  of  persons  w^hosc  busi- 
ness it  was  to  while  aw^ay  the  time  of  the  noble  and  w^ealthy, 
particularly  at  table,  by  all  manner  of  jests  and  witty  say- 
ings. Alexander  the  Great,  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  Augus- 
tus and  his  successors,  maintained  such  jesters.    It  w^as, 


repulsive  vocation  became  fully  developed,  and  that  the 


however,  during  the  middle 


COURT  FOOL. 

oiiice  of  jester  or  fool  became  a  regular  and  iudispeiisa. 
ble  court  office.  The  symbols  of  such  a  personage  were — 
tlie  shaven  head  ;  the  fool's  cap  of  gay  colors,  with  asses' 
ears  and  cock's  comb  ;  the  fool's  sceptre,  w^hich  was  vari- 
ously formed  ;  the  bells,  w^hich  w^ere  mostly  attached  to 
tlie  cap,  but  likewise  to  other  parts  of  the  dress  ;  and  a 
large  collar.  The  rest  of  the  costume  w^as  regulated  by 
the  taste  of  the  master.  Of  these  professional  fools  some 
obtained  a  historical  reputation,  as  Triboulet,  jester  to 
King  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  his  successor,  Brusquet  ; 
Klaus  Narr,  at  the  court  of  the  elector  Frederic  the  Wise 
of  Prussia,  whose  jests  have  been  repeatedly  printed  ;  and 
Scogan,  court-fool  to  Edw^ard  IV.  of  England.  The  kings 
and  regents  in  Scotland  had  their  jesters,  as  was  usual  in 
their  time  ;  and  the  sarcastic  sayings  of  some  of  these 
privileged  personages — such  as  those  of  Patrick  Bonny, 
jester  to  Regent  Morton— are  still  remembered  among  the 
national  facetim.  English  court  jesters  died  out  with  the 
Stuarts ;  one  of  the  last  of  the  race  being  the  famous 


Court-fool  and  Buffoon. 
From  Harleian  MS.  fourteen  century. 


Archie  Armstrong,  whose  death,  1646,  took  place  charac- 
teristically, on  April  1.  Besides  the  regular  fools  recog- 
nized and  dressed  as  such,  there  was  a  higher  class,  called 
merry  councilors,  generally  men  of  talent,  who  availed 
themselves  of  the  privilege  of  free  speech,  to  ridicule  in 
the  most  merciless  fashion  the  follies  and  vices  of  their 
contemporaries.  Of  these,  Kunz  von  der  Rosen,  jester  to 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  ;  John  Heywood,  a  prolific 

85 


COURT-HAND— COURT-MARTIAL. 

dramatic  poet  and  epigrammatist  at  the  court  of  Henry 
VIII.;  and  Augely,  a  French  courtier,  were  particularly 
distinguished  for  talent  and  wit.  In  all  times  there  existed 
at  courts  persons  who,  without  becoming  jesters  by  pro- 
fession, were  allowed  the  privilege  of  castigating  the  com- 
pany by  their  witty  and  satirical  attacks,  or  who  served  as 
the  general  butts.  Among  these  were,  on  the  one  hand, 
tlie  Baxon  general  Kyau,  celebrated  for  his  blunt  jests  ; 
and  on  the  other,  the  learned  Jacob  Paul,  Baron  Gund- 
ling,  whom  Frederic  William  1.  of  Prussia,  to  show  his 
contempt  for  science  and  the  artihcial  court  system,  loaded 
with  titles.  Flogel's  and  Nick's  German  treatises  on  this 
subject,  and  Dr.  Doran's  History  of  Court  Fools,  are  inter- 
esting works.  Such  a  history  forms  a  kind  of  barometer 
of  the  manners  and  morals  of  courts  at  different  times.  At 
a  later  period,  imbecile  or  w^eak-minded  persons  were  kept 
for  the  entertainment  of  the  company.  Even  ordinary 
noblemen  considered  such  an  attendant  indispensable;  and 
thus  the  system  reached  its  last  stage,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  was  finally  abol- 
ished. It  survived  longest  in  Russia,  where  Peter  the 
Great  had  so  many  fools  that  he  divided  them  into  distinct 
classes. 

COURT'-HAND:  name  given  in  England  to  the  old 
Gothic  or  Saxon  handwriting, as  distinguished  from  the 
modern  or  Italian  handwriting.  The  old  way  of  writing 
continued  in  the  law-courts  after  it  had  been  superseded 
elsewhere,  and  hence  its  name  of  Court-hand. 

COURT-MAR  TIAL:  court  for  the  trial  of  any  one  be 
longing  to  the  army  or  navy,  for  some  breach  of  military 
or  naval  law.  The  members  of  the  court  fill  the  functions 
both  of  judge  and  jury.  Courts-martial  are  general,  district 
or  garrison,  and  regimental.  The  first  is  the  only  one  of 
the  three  empowered  to  award  death  as  a  punishment.  In 
the  U.  S.  army  it  consists  of  not  less  than  13  commissioned 
otticers  of  proper  rank;  and  a  deputy  judge-advocate  is 
specially  appointed  to  conduct  the  prosecution:  it  can  be 
convened  only  by  order  of  the  president,  or  the  general  of 
the  army,  or  an  officer  in  command  of  a  department.  A 
non-commissioned  officer,  or  a  private,  may  be  tried  b}^ 
any  one  of  the  three  kinds  of  court;  but  a  commissioned 
officer  only  by  a  general  court-martial.  A  district  ox  garin- 
son  C.  may  be  convened  by  a  field-officer  commanding, 
and  consists  of  not  less  than  three  commissioned  officers, 
with  an  officer  not  lower  than  a  captain  to  act  as  judge- 
advocate:  it  tries  lower  officers  (non-commissioned,  etc.) 
and  the  rank  and  file.  A  regimental  C.  may  be  convened 
by  the  commanding  officer  of  a  regiment  or  detachment; 
it  consists  of  not  less  than  three  commissioned  officers;  it 
treats  of  minor  ofl:enses,  and  can  award  only  minor  punish- 
ments. 

In  all  these  kinds  of  C.  the  members  are  sworn  in;  the 
court  is  an  open  or  public  one;  the  vote  or  sentence  is  de- 
cided by  majority,  the  junior  members  voting  first;  but 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  number,  in  a  general  C.  are  uecef?- 

fc6 


COURT  OF  LOVE— COURT  OF  SESSIOX. 

sary  to  give  validity  to  a  sentence  of  death.  Before  exe- 
cution, the  sentence  of  every  military  court-martial  has 
to  be  approved  and  contirmed  by  the  convening  authority. 

Sometimes  Courts  of  Inquiry  are  held  instead  of  a  C, 
not  to  try  or  to  punish,  but  to  make  an  investigation;  the 
members  not  being  on  oath.  Such  a  court  occasionally 
precedes  a  court-martial. 

Naval  courts-martial  consist  of  higher  officers,  and  can 
be  convened  only  on  the  order  of  the  president,  or  the  sec. 
of  the  navy,  or  the  commander  of  a  tleet,— -or,  if  outside  of 
U.  S.  jurisdiction,  by  the  commander  of  a  squadron.  The 
C.  is  open  to  all  the  crew  and  others  as  spectators. 

COURT  OF  LOVE,  in  the  age  of  chivalry:  assembly  of 
high-born  women,  in  the  age  of  chivalry,  w^ho  decided 
questions  of  courtesy,  etiquette,  or  love  according  to  a 
rigid  code  of  31  articles.  It  was  established  in  Provence, 
France,  in  the  best  days  of  the  troubadours;  and  after  its 
dissolution,  Rene,  king  of  Anjou,  and  Cardinal  Richelieu 
attempted  in  vain  to  restore  it  Among  the  celebrated  wo- 
men who  presided  over  it  were  Countess  de  Die  and  Laura 
de  Sade.  The  following  specimen  of  the  questions  sub- 
mitted to  it  for  decision  has  been  preserved:  A  lady  listen- 
ed to  one  admirer,  squeezed  the  hand  of  another,  and 
touched  with  her  toe  the  foot  of  a  third.  Query,  which  of 
the  three  was  the  favored  suitor  ? 

COURT  OF  SES  SION:  highest  civil  tribunal  in  Scot- 
land: instituted  in  the  reign  of  King  James  Y.,  by  statute, 
1532,  May  17.  The  object  of  its  institution  was  to  dis- 
charge the  judicial  functions  which  originally  belonged 
to  the  king  and  his  council,  and  which,  since  1425,  had  in 
a  great  measure  devolved  on  a  committee  of  parliament, 
as  the  great  council  of  the  nation.  The  C.  of  S.  consisted 
at  first  of  14  ordinar}^  j^idges  and  a  president  One-half  of 
these  judges  and  the  president  were  churchmen,  and  the 
practice  of  appointing  ecclesiastics  to  the  bench  did  not 
cease  for  some  time,  even  after  the  Reformation.  In  1830, 
the  number  of  judges  was  reduced  to  13,  and  that  is  still 
the  full  number,  though  since  1877  there  have  actually 
been  but  12  judges.  Of  the  five  lords  ordinary,  jimior  " 
judges  appointed  to  sit  as  an  outer  house,  four  only  sit 
daily.  The  judgments  of  the  outer  house,  with  a  few 
statutory  exceptions,  are  appealable  to  the  Inner  House. 
The  youngest  judge,  or  junior  lord  ordinary,  officiates  in 
a  separate  department  of  the  outer  house,  called  the  bill 
chamber  (q.v.),  where  summary  petitions,  and  other 
branches  of  busines  speculiarly  requiring  dispatch,  are  dis- 
posed of.  In  cases  of  great  difficulty,  the  lords  ordinary 
are  called  in,  and  a  hearing  before  the  whole  court,  or  in 
presence,  as  it  is  called,  takes  place,  with  the  lord  president 
presiding.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
hold  their  offices  for  life.  With  few  exceptions,  the  judg- 
ments of  the  inferior  courts  of  Scotland  are  reviewable  by 
the  C.  of  S.,  but  this  rule  does  not  apply  to  the  small-debt 
courts.  The  judgments  of  the  C.  of  S.  may  be  appealed 
to  the  house  of  lords  within  two  years. 


COURTR  AI— C  0  U  SIN. 

COURTRAI,  kor-tra:  (Flemish  Kortryk):  town  of  Bel- 
gium, province  of  West  Fianders,  about  30  m.  s.  of  Bruges; 
lat.  50''  49'  n.,  long.  3^  18  e.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the 
Lj^s,  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  has  a  castle,  a  citadel,  a 
fine  old  bridge  Hanked  with  Flemish  towers,  a  noble  town 
hall,  and  a  beautiful  Gothic  church,  founded  1238  by  Bald- 
win, Count  of  Flanders.  Though  a  busy  manufacturing 
place,  C.  is  very  clean.  Table  damask  and  other  linen  are 
principal  articles  of  manufacture.  There  are  extensive 
bleaching-grounds  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  neighboring 
plains  supply  fine  flax  in  large  quantities  to  many  European 
markets.  In  1302  the  Flemings,  citizens  of  Ghent  and  Bru- 
ges chiefly,  w^on  a  splendid  victory  over  the  chivalry  of 
France  beneath  the  walls  of  C,  more  than  700  gijt  spurs 
(worn  only  by  French  nobles)  being  afterwards  gathered 
from  the  dead  by  the  victors.  The  battle  was  hence  named 
'  The  Battle  of  the  Spurs.^   Pop.  (1880)  26,943. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE:  see  Judiciaky  in  the  United 
States:  Common  Law,  Coukts  of:  Admiralty  Court: 
Admiralty  Jurisdiction:  County  Courts:  Court  of 
Session:  Chancery,  Court  of:  Chancellor,  Lord: 
Equity:  Judge:  Attorney:  Advocate:  Barrister. 

COUS-COUS,  n.  kos'kos:  a  favorite  dish  in  western 
Africa,  composed  of  millet-flour,  flesh,  and  the  leaves  of 
the  baobab;  called  also  lalo. 

COUSEOUS,  or  Cuseus,  or  Spotted  Phalanger:  see 
Phalanger. 

COUSIN,  n.  kuz'n  [F.  cousin — from  OF.  cosin;  prov.  F. 
cusrin — from  mid.  L.  coslnus,  a  corruption  of  L.  consobrl- 
nus,  a  cousin-german] :  any  relation  more  distant  than  a 
brother  or  sister;  the  son  or  daughter  of  an  uncle  or  aunt; 
title  of  address  used  by  a  king  to  his  nobles.  Cous  inly, 
a.  -U,  having  the  relation  of  cousins:  Ad.  becoming  a  cousin. 
CousiNS-GERMAN,  the  children  of  brothers  or  sisters. 

COUSIN,  ko-zang' ,YiCTon:  1792,  Nov.  28—1867;  b.  Paris: 
founder  of  systematic  eclecticism  in  modern  philosophy. 
He  studied  with  brilliant  success  at  the  Lycee  Charlemagne. 
In  1812  he  was  appointed  Greek  tutor  in  the  Ecole  Nor  male, 
and  in  1814,  Examiner  in  Philosophy.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  assist. prof,  to  Royer-Collard  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  threw  himself  heartily  into  that  reaction  against 
the  sensualistic  philosophy  and  literature  of  the  18th  c.  then 
in  vogue.  Following  the  path  of  his  senior,  he  became  an 
exponent  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Scotch  metaphysicians,  but 
exhibited  far  more  brilliancy,  energy,  and  warmth  of  expres- 
sion than  the  original  authors  of  these  doctrines.  In  1817, 
C.  visited  Germany,  where  he  was  introduced  to  bolder  and 
more  speculative  systems  of  philosophy  than  any  that  he  had 
yet  knowm.  He  studied  successively,  or  at  the  same  time, 
Plato,  Kant,  Jacobi,  Fichte,  and  Schelling.  A  second  visit 
to  Germany,  1824-5,  also  had  important  consequences. 
Suspected  of  carbonarism,  he  was  arrested  at  Dresden  by 
the  police  and  sent  to  Berlin,  where  he  w^as  detained  six 
months.  He  took  advantage  of  his  compulsory  residence  in 
the  capital  of  Prussia  to  study  the  philosophy  of  Hegel, 

88 


COUSIX. 

which  exercised  considerable  influence  on^his  susceptible  in- 
tellect. On  bis  return  to  France,  he  took  a  decided  stand 
against  the  reactionary  policy  of  Charles  X.;  and  in  1827, 
when  the  comparatively  liberal  ministry  of  Martignac  came 
into  office,  C,  who  had  for  some  ^^ears  been  suspended  from 
his  professorial  functions,  was  reinstated  in  his  chair.  Mean- 
while, he  had  appeared  as  an  author.  During  1820-27,  he 
published  his  editions  of  Proclus  and  Descartes,  and  part  of 
his  celebrated  translation  of  Plato,  finished  1840,  in  18  vols. 
The  year  1828  witnessed  the  most  splendid  triumph  in  the 
career  of  C.  as  a  philosophic  teacher.  It  is  said  that  to  find 
an  audience  as  numerous,  and  as  passionately  interested  in 
the  topics  discussed,  as  gathered  round  C,  it  would  be  nec- 
essary to  go  back  to  the  days  of  Abelard  and  other  mediaeval 
teachers  of  philosophy.  C.  was  still  young,  simple,  and 
pure  in  his  habits;  his  doctrines  were  for  the  most  part  new 
to  his  hearers,  bold,  and  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the 
time.  The  finest  qualities  of  the  national  genius  appeared 
in  his  lectures,  a  Vvonderful  lucidity  of  exposition,  an  exqiu- 
site  beauty  of  style  such  as  no  modern  or  ancient  philosopher, 
except  Plato,  has  equalled;  a  brilliancy  of  generalization  and 
criticism  that  enchanted  every  one;  and  a  power  of  co-ordinat- 
ing the  facts  of  history  and  philosophy  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  each  illustrate  the  other  and  reveal  their  most  in- 
tricate relations.  At  this  period,  C.  was  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential leaders  of  opinion  among  the  educated  classes  in 
Paris;  and  consequentl}^  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  when 
his  friend  Guizot  became  prime-minister,  C.  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction;  in  1832,  a 
peer  of  France ;  and  latter  director  of  the  Ecole  Normale.  His 
efforts  for  the  organization  of  primary  instruction  are  seen 
in  those  valuable  reports  which  he  drew  up,  from  personal 
observation,  on  the  state  of  public  education  in  Germany  and 
Holland.  In  1840,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academic 
de8  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  and  in  the  same  year  be- 
came minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  cabinet  of  Thiers. 
The  revolution  of  1848  found  in  C.  a  friend  rather  than  an 
enemy.  He  aided  the  government  of  Cavaignac,  and 
published  an  anti-socialistic  brochure, called  Justice  et  Ghar- 
ite.    After  1849,  he  disappeared  from  public  life. 

It  is  more  easy  to  state  what  philosophical  doctrines  have 
received  exposition  at  the  hands  of  C.  than  to  determine 
precisely  what  are  his  own.  At  first  a  disciple  of  Royer- 
Collard  and  the  Scotch  school,  he  was  attached  to  the  psy- 
chological method  of  investigation;  afterward  a  keen  student 
of  the  German  school,  he  expounded  the  views  of  Schelling 
with  such  copious  enthusiasm,  that  he  might  legitimately 
enough  have  been  considered  a  thorough  pantheist.  Judg- 
ing from  such  a  book  as  Bu  Vrai,  Bu  Beau,  et  du  Bien, 
(1853),  he  seemed  more  disposed,  latterly,  to  regard  philo- 
sophy in  its  religious  and  aesthetic  relations:  see  Eclectic- 
ism. 

C.'s  chief  works  (besides  those  already  mentioned)  are 
Fragments  Philosophiques  (1826),  Cours  de  VHistoire  de  la 
PhilosopMe  (1827),, Ouvrafjes  inklites  d' Abelard  (1836),  Cours 
d'Histoire  de  la  Fhilosophie  Modervve  (1841),  Cours  d'ilistoire 

89 


COUSINS— COUTIION. 

de  la  PMlosophie  Morale  au  XVIII^  Steele  (1840-41),  Lemons 
de  PhilosopMe  sur  Kant  (1842),  Des  Pensees  de  Pascal  (1842), 
Etudes  sur  les  Femraes  et  la  Societe  du  XVIT^  Sitcle,  etc. 
(1853).  C.  also  contributed  a  great  variety  of  papers  to  the 
literary  and  philosophic  Reviews  of  France. 

COUS  INS,  First:  see  Marriage. 

COUSSINET,  n.  kos'si-iiet  [F.]:  the  impost  stone  on  the 
top  of  a  pier;  the  ornament  in  an  Ionic  column  between  the 
abacus  and  echinus. 

COUSTOU,  k<j8-t6\  Nicolas:  1658-1733;  b.  Lyons, 
France:  painter  and  sculptor.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wood- 
carver,  studied  in  Paris  with  Coysevox,  his  uncle  and  pres. 
of  the  Acad,  of  Painting  and  Sculpture;  gained  the  Colbert 
prize,  spent  four  years  in  the  French  Acad,  in  Rome,  and 
became  chancellor  of  the  Acad,  of  Painting  and  Sculpture. 
His  works  include  a  group  of  the  descent  from  the  cross,  in 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  two  colossal  statues  of 
the  junction  of  the  Seine  and  the  Marne  and  of  the  Berger 
chasseur,  in  the  Tuilleries  garden;  and  a  number  of  statues 
in  Versailles  and  Marly. 

€OUTANCES,  ko-tmgss' :  town  of  France;  dept.  of  La 
Manche,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Soulle  and  Bulsard.  It  is 
on  a  conical  hill,  a  few  miles  from  the  English  Channel,  and 
is  a  somewhat  lugubrious  place.  Its  cathedral,  however, 
is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in 
the  early  pointed  style  in  Normandy.  One  of  the  towers  of 
the  edifice  is  lighted  with  a  lantern  that  serves  as  a  bea- 
con for  ships  navigating  the  channel.  C.  has  manufactures 
of  druggets,  muslins,  etc.,  and  a  trade  in  corn.   Pop.  8,500. 

COUTHON,  ko-tong',  Georges:  1756-1794,  July  28;  b. 
Orsay,  near  Clermont,  in  Auvergne:  fanatic  of  the  French 
Revolution.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  en- 
gaged as  an  advocate,  and  in  1790  was  elected  pres.  of  the 
Tribunal  for  the  district  of  Clermont.  In  1791,  he  was  sent 
by  his  fellow-citizens  to  the  National  Convention,  where  he 
inade  himself  conspicuous  by  his  furious  hatred  of  the  court, 
the  priesthood,  and  the  monarchy.  In  spite  of  an  infirmity 
which  prevented  him  using  his  limbs,  C.  soon  gained  much 
influence  from  the  rabid  violence  of  his  sentiments.  He 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  without  delay  or  appeal  to 
the  country,  and  (after  a  brief  relapse  into  moderatism)  be- 
came a  devoted  and  bloodthirsty  partisan  of  Robespierre. 
In  July  1793,  he  w^as  appointed  a  member  of  the  Comite  de 
Salut  Public,  and  with  Chateauneuf-Randon  and  Maignet, 
was  sent  against  the  Lyonnese  insurgents.  After  some  op- 
position, the  city  was  taken,  when  a  multitude  of  the  citizens 
w^ere  put  to  death.  On  his  return  to  the  Convention,  he  be- 
came quite  maniacal,  demanding  the  '  impeachment '  of  all 
the  kings  of  the  earth,  and  voting  for  Pitt  being  declared 
*the  enemy  of  the  human  race,'  and  the  English  nation  a 
'  traitor  to  humanity.'  The  fall  of  Robespierre  brought  down 
C.  also.  Accused  by  Freron,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  de- 
livered by  the  mob  with  whom  he  was  popular,  recaptured 
by  the  soldiers  of  the  Convention,  and  put  to  death  with  St. 
Just  and  Robespierre. 

90 


COUTRAS-COVENANT. 

COUTRAS,  ko-tra:  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Gironde,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Dronne,  about  26  m.  n.  e.  of  Bordeaux. 
C.  has  a  considerable  trade  in  flour,  and  the  district  pro- 
duces red  wine;  but  the  place  is  known  principally  on  ac- 
count of  the  bloody  victory  gained  here  (1587)  by  Henry  of 
Navarre  over  the  forces  of  the  League.  In  this  battle  the 
Due  de  Joyeuse,  commander  of  the  Leaguers,  was  slain,  as 
well  as  many  other  great  noblemen  on  the  same  side.  Pop. 
2,500. 

COUTURE,  k6-tilr\  Thomas:  1815,  Dec.  21—1879,  Mar. 
31;  b.  Seulis,  France:  painter.  He  studied  under  Gros  and 
Delaroche,  developed  a  style  of  his  own,  distinguished  by 
unusual  richness  of  color  and  free  handling,  and  began  ex- 
hibiting 1840  with  Jeune  Venetien  apres  line  argie.  He  sub- 
sequently exhibited  L' Amour  d'or  (1844);  Romains  de  la 
decadence  (1847),  which  gained  him  a  first-class  medal  ai  \ 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor:  Trouvere;  Faucounier;  and 
the  military  pieces  Bet  urn  of  Troops  from  the  Crimea,  and 
Enrollment  of  Volunteers.  He  published  an  art  essay 
Entretiens  d'atelier  (1867). 

COUYRE-PIED,  n.  kyv'er-pe-d'  or  -pi-ed'  [F.,  a  coverlet 
— from  coiiiyrir,  to  cover;  pied,  a  foot] :  a  cover  for  the  feet 
when  lying  dow^n  on  a  couch  or  sofa.  Couvrette,  n.  kOv- 
ret' ,  little  covers  placed  on  the  backs  of  chairs  or  sofas. 

COVE,  n.  kod  [Icel  kofl,  a  hut:  AS.  cofa,  a  chamber: 
L.  cavus,  hollow:  Sp.  cueva,  a  cave:  Port,  cova,  a  hole,  a 
ditch):  a  small  inlet  or  recess  in  the  sea-shore  where  boats 
may  tind  shelter;  a  creek  or  small  bay;  a  nook:  V.  to  arch 
over.  Co  ving,  imp.  Coved,  pp.  koi^d:  Adj.  arched  over: 
see  Alcove. 

COVE,  n.  kov  [OE.  cofe:  Gael,  cmnh,  a  prefix  denoting 
equality  or  fellowship,  and  coe,  an  odd  old  fellow]:  in  slang, 
a  person ;  a  fellow. 

COVELLINE,  n.  ko-vel'lin,  or  Covel'lite,  n.  -lit: 
mineral  found  in  various  parts  of  the  European  continent 
and  North  and  South  America.  There  are  two  varieties, 
cantonite  and  alisonite. 

COVENANT,  n.  kav'e-ndnt  [F.  convenant,  a  contract: 
L.  conventura,  an  agreement — from  L.  con,  tenio,  I  come: 
comp.  Gael,  cumhuant  —  cuvndnt,  a  covenant]:  a  solemn 
league;  mutual  consent  or  agreement:  in  laio,  a  written 
agreement  between  parties  to  do  or  not  to  do  some  act  or 
thing;  a  stipulation: — it  may  be  in  a  variety  of  forms,  no 
particular  form  being  requisite  in  law,  and  may  refer  to  all 
kinds  of  agreements,  and  is  enforcible  at  law  in  a  variety  of 
ways;  it  may  even  be  implied:  see  Contract:  Consent: 
V.  to  enter  into  a  formal  agreement;  to  contract.  Cov'en ant- 
ing, imp.  Covenanted,  pp.:  Adj.  in  the  old  Indian 
Civil  Service,  denoting  the  covenant  or  engagement  entered 
into  between  an  individual  and  the  company  on  entering 
their  service,  as  opposed  to  the  uncovenanted  service— ih^X 
is,  the  service  not  subject  to  such  a  formal  engagement. 
Covenanter,  n.  kav  e-ndn-ter,  one  who  joined  in  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in  Scotland  in  the  reigns  of 

91 


COVENANT. 

Charles  I.  and  II. :  see  Covenants,  The:  Cameronians: 
Eeformed  Presbyterians. — Syn.  of  'covenant,  n.': 
agreement;  contract;  compact;  bargain;  stipulation;  ar- 
rangement. 

COVENANT,  in  Theology:  a  contract  between  God  and 
Man;  or  more  accurately  in  some  ot  the  cases  adduced,  a 
relation  constituted  by  God  between  Himself  and  men.  The 
term  is  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew 
berith  of  the  Old  Test,  and  the  Greek  diatheke  of  the  New. 
Applied  to  relations  established  between  God  and  men,  the 
term  C.  must  be  understood  with  a  certain  modification  of 
the  meaning  which  it  bears  when  employed  concerning  the 
relations  of  men  to  one  another,  when  two  independent 
parties  enter  into  a  C,  which  they  have  equal  right  to  make 
or  to  refuse  to  make:  thus,  it  is  sometimes  employed  as 
equivalent  to  dispensation,  and  the  Jewish  dispensation  is 
called  the  Old  C.  (or  testament,  by  another  translation  of 
diatheke),  in  contradistinction  to  the  Christian,  which  is 
called  the  NeiD.  God,  in  his  supremacy,  is  regarded  as  ap- 
pointing certain  conditions  for  his  creatures,  which  they 
cannot  but  accept,  yet  their  willing  consent  to  these  con- 
ditions gives  to  the  relation  established  the  nature  of  a  C; 
and  thus  God  is  commonly  said  to  have  made  two  covenants 
with  man:  the  first  C,  or  G.  of  Works,  with  Adam,  as  the 
representative  of  the  whole  human  race,  promising  life 
(with  perfect  happiness),  upon  condition  of  perfect  obe- 
dience, while  death  was  threatened  as  the  penalty  of  trans- 
gression; the  second  C,  or  C.  of  Grace,  being  that  on  which 
depend  the  whole  hope  and  salvation  of  man,  since  the  first 
C.  was  broken,  and  in  which  life  is  freely  offered  to  sinners, 
and  they  are  simply  required  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ  that 
they  may  be  saved.  This  C.  God  is  resrarded  as  having 
made  with  Christ,  as  the  representative  of  his  people,  and 
with  them  in  him.  The  older  theologians  often  speak  of 
the  0.  of  Redemption  between  God  and  Christ,  employing 
the  term  C.  of  Grace  rather  to  designate  the  whole  dealings 
of  God  with  men  in  giving  effect  to  the  C.  of  Redemption; 
but  the  term  G.  of  Grace  has  long  been  almost  universally 
employed  to  include  all  that  was  comprehended  under  both 
terms.  The  Abrahamic  G.  is  the  C.  of  Grace  as  declared  to 
Abraham,  in  its  particular  relation  to  him  and  his  seed. 
God  is  represented  in  Scripture  as  sustaining  a  G.  relation  to 
his  ofcn  people,  to  the  Jews  under  the  Old  C,  to  believers 
in  Christ  under  the  New;  and  doctrinal  theology  consists 
not  a  little  in  tracing  out  the  nature  of  this  relation,  and  the 
consequences  which  flow  from  it.  It  is  seriously  questioned 
by  many  devout  Christian  people  whether  philosophical 
subtlety  has  not  been  used  by  a  school  of  theologians  in 
pressing  the  doctrine  of  the  covenants  into  lines  and  to  an 
extent  not  warranted  in  Scripture— thus  giving  to  the  system 
of  Divine  grace  a  character  formal  and  mechanical  rather 
than  vital  and  spiritual.  Whatever  questions  of  this  sort 
may  arise  concerning  the  historic  reality  of  the  C.  of  works 
wdth  Adam  for  man,  or  the  C.  of  grace  between  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  it  may  be  said  that  at  least  the  Abrahamic  C. 
is  clearly  revealed  in  Scripture,  and  is  traceable  through 

93 


COYEKANTS. 

oil  subsequent  bistory,  auJ— as  transfigured  in  the  Gospel 
through  Christ— is  operative  even  to  the  present  day,  as  the 
constitutive  principle  of  the  whole  historic  church  in  the 
world.  As  the  people  of  God  collectively  sustain  a  C.  re- 
lation to  him,  so  do  believers  individually;  and  it  has  not 
been  an  uncommon  thing  for  pious  persons  to  endeavor  to 
reduce  to  writing  their  sense  of  this  '  C.  obligation,'  under 
the  notion  of  ^personal  coxenanthig  with  God;  and  of  bind- 
ing themselves  by  a  stronger  obligation  to  what  they  believed 
to  be  good  and  their  duty.  It  has  also  been  common  for 
men,  from  the  earliest  ages,  to  enter  into  covenants  with 
one  another  with  more  or  less  of  religious  solemnity;  and 
this  has  in  particular  been  done  among  those  who  have 
suffered  persecution,  or  have  been  engaged  in  contests  con- 
cerning matters  of  religion,  for  which  the  authority  of  cer- 
tain passages  of  the  Old  Testament  is  strongly  pleaded. 
Instances  occur  in  the  history  of  the  Waldenses,  and  of  some 
of  the  Reformed  churches,  particularly  in  the  history  of  the 
Reformation  in  Scotland.  But  the  most  memorable 
covenants  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical  history  belong  to  a  period 
subsequent  to  the  Reformation. 

COVENANTS,  The:  in  Scottish  history  and  tradition: 
chiefly  two— the  National  Covenant,  and  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant.  It  is  necessary  to  discriminate 
between  these. 

National  Covenant. — This  was  a  bond  of  union  or 
agreement,  drawn  up  at  Edinburgh,  1638,  by  the  leading 
Presb.  ministers,  and  subscribed  by  vast  numbers  of  persons 
of  all  ranks  of  life.  It  embodied  the  Confession  of  Faith 
of  1580  and  1581,  subscribed  by  James  YI.  in  his  youth, 
and  again  recognized  in  1590  and  '96;  and  was  binding  on 
all  who  signed  it  to  spare  nothing  which  might  save  their 
religion.  The  proximate  cause  of  this  extraordinary  mani- 
festation of  feeling  was  the  attempt  of  Charles  I.  to  enforce 
Episcopacy  and  the  use  of  the  Service-book  in  Scotland. 
The  subscribing  of  the  National  Covenant  began  1688,  Feb. 
28,  in  the  Greyfriars'  church  and  churchyard,  at  Edinburgh. 
Numerous  copies  also  were  circulated  through  the  country 
for  signature,  which  accounts  for  many  copies  being  still 
extant.  *  In  the  library  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  at 
Edinburgh  are  preserved  five  parchment  copies,  with  the 
original  signatures  of  Rothes,  Montrose,  Loudon,  and  many 
others  of  the  nobility,  gentry,  commissioners  of  counties 
and  burghs,  and  ministers,  though  only  one  of  these  five 
copies  is  apparently  connected  with  the  first  signing,  and 
the  other  four,  dated  1639,  were  subscribed  after  the  ratifi- 
cation by  the  General  Assembly.'  The  General  Assembly, 
which  met  at  Glasgow,  1638,  Nov.  21,  ratified  the  National 
Covenant  and  the  Confession  of  Faith  which  it  embraced, 
and  deposed  the  whole  of  the  hierarchy  which  had  been 
established  by  Charles  I.  The  National  Covenant  was  sub- 
sequently ratified  by  the  5th  act  of  the  second  parliament 
of  Charles  I.,  at  Edinburgh,  1640,  June  11,  and  subscribed 
by  Charles  II.  at  Spey,  1650,  June  23,  and  Scoon,  1651, 
Jan.  1.  The  document  is  in  the  volume  which  comprehends 
the  Wettmimter  Confession  of  Faith,  in  use  by  the  Church 

9S 


COVENANTS. 

of  Scotland.  (For  furtlier  information,  see  Assembly  of 
Divines:  Creeds  and  Confessions:  Scotland:  Scot- 
land, Church  of:  Charles  I.:  and  otlier  titles.)  Those 
who  subscribe  the  National  Covenant  promise  to  '  continue 
in  obedience  of  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  this  kirk.' 
They  also  give  assent  to  various  acts  of  parliament  in  the 
reign  of  James  VI.,  which,  besides  repudiating  the  juris- 
diction of  the  pope,  and  all  the  ceremonial  observances  and 
errors  of  the  Roman  Church,  ordain  '  all  sayers,  wilful 
hearers,  and  concealers  of  the  mass,  the  maintainers  and 
resettors  of  the  priests,  Jesuits,  trafficking  Papists,  to  be 
punished  without  any  exception  or  restriction.' 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant.— This  was  a  docu- 
ment of  date  four  to  five  years  later  than  the  National 
Covenant,  since  the  signing  of  which  Charles  I.  had  broken 
with  the  English  parliament,  set  up  his  standard  at  Not- 
tingham (1642,  Aug.),  and  from  his  various  successes  was 
thought  to  be  gathering  strength  finally  to  reinstate  Epis- 
copacy in  Scotland.  With  some  alarm  on  this  ground,  the 
Scotch  willingly  received  overtures  from  commissioners 
deputed  from  the  English  parliament.  Some  hopes  were 
held  out  to  the  Scottish  nation  that  in  the  event  of  success 
against  the  king,  the  Presbyterian  model  should  supersede 
the  Episcopalian  both  in  England  and  Ireland.  Approving 
of  a  measure  of  this  kind,  the  Scottish  Estates  entered  into 
what  was  called  a  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  with  the 
English  parliament.  One  of  the  provisions  of  the  bond  of 
agreement  was  that  the  Scotch  should  send  an  army  into 
England  against  the  king,  which  they  did,  1644,  January. 

The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  was  subscribed  by 
many  of  all  ranks  in  Scotland  and  England,  including  the 
assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  was  ratified  by  the 
generalassembly  at  Edinburgh,  1643,  Aug.  17,  and  the  Scot- 
tish parliament,  1644,  July  15,  and  subscribed  by  Charles 
II.  at  Spey,  1650,  and  Scoon,  1651.  Like  the  National  Con- 
venant,  it  has  till  the  present  day,  a  place  in  the  volume 
which  comprehends  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  While  the  National  Convenant 
refers  to  the  observance  of  the  Presb.  polity  within  Scot- 
land alone,  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  is  much  more 
comprehensive.  Those  who  subscribe  it,  setting  out  with 
a  profession  of  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Scotland,  are  to 
endeavor  to  bring  about  a  uniformity  in  religion  and 
church  discipline  in  the  three  kingdoms;  and  further — 
'  That  we  shall  in  like  manner,  without  respect  of  persons, 
endeavor  the  extirpation  of  popery,  prelacy  (that  is, 
church  government  by  archbishops,  bishops,  their  chan- 
cellors, and  commissaries,  deans,  deans  and  chapters,  arch- 
deacons, and  all  other  ecclesiastical  officers  depending  on 
that  hierarchy),  superstition,  heresy,  schism,  profaneness, 
and  whatsoever  shall  be  found  to  be  contrary  to  sound 
doctrine  and  the  power  of  godliness,  lest  we  partake  in 
other  men's  sins,  and  therel)y  be  in  danger  to  receive  of 
their  plagues;  and  that  the  Lord  may  be  one,  and  his  name 
one,  in  the  three  kingdoms.  ' 

Such  were  the  famous  covenants,  at  one  time  enforced 

H 


COVEXT  GARDEX— COVEXTRY. 
by  civil  penalties,  and  for  which  their  adherents,  under 
the  name  of  Covenanters,  fought  and  safiered  in  Scothmd, 
between  the  restoration  and  revolution,  maintaining  to  the 
last  that  both  covenants,  notwithstanding  certain  rescis- 
sory acts  of  parliament,  were  still  binding  on  the  whole 
nation.  At  the  revolution,  the  two  covenants  were  set 
aside,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  now  any  practical  effect 
in  any  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  As  above  stated,  they 
have  a  place  in  the  volume  which  comprehends  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith,  but  for  what  reason,  other  than 
one  of  historical  interest,  it  is  dithcult  to  say;  for  the 
Church  of  Scothind  does  not  make  adherence  to  them  ob- 
ligatory on  either  clerical  or  lay  members.  Certain  Scot- 
tish and  Irish  dissenters,  however,  still  profess  attachment 
to  the  covenants,  and  on  particular  occasions  renew  their 
subscription  of  them:  see  CAMERo^'IAXS.  The  obligations 
undertaken  by  the  sovereign,  and  the  modern  acts  of  parlia-  _ 
ment  abolishing  religious  tests  on  taking  civil  office,  and 
admitting  Rom.  Catholics,  Xonconformists,  and  Jews  to 
parliament,  not  to  speak  of  public  opinion,  are  totally  at 
variance  with  the  covenants.  It  is  customary  in  popular 
lectures  on  the  covenanters  to  overlook  the  fact,  in  com- 
passion for  their  sufferings,  that  they  contended  for  what 
is  now  quite  adverse  to  the  principles  of  religious  toleration. 
Yet,  so  far  as  the  manful  struggle  in  which  they  were  con- 
cerned helped  to  accelerate  the  revolution,  the  history  of 
the  covenanters  must  ever  be  associated  with  that  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty. 

COVEX^T  GARDEX,  kifv  ent  gar  den  (properly  Convent 
Garden,  orgiually  the  garden  of  AVestminster  Abbey):  a 
square  in  London  noted  for  its  great  market  of  fruit,  vege- 
tables, and  flowers.  In  the  17th  c,  C.  G.  was  a  very  fash- 
ionable quarter  of  the  town — the  residence  of  many  emi- 
nent persons.  The  scene  of  one  of  Dry  den's  plays  is  laid 
here,  and  frequent  allusions  are  made  to  the  place  in  plays 
of  Charles  II. 's  time.  The  market,  now  so  famous,  appears 
to  have  originated  about  1656  in  a  few  wooden  sheds  and 
stalls.  C.  G.  is  for  a  stranger  one  of  the  sights  of  London, 
and  is  seen  to  greatest  advantage  about  three  o'clock  on  a 
summer  morning;  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday  being 
the  principal  days. 

COYEXTRY,  kuv'en-trh'  town  of  C.  township,  Kent  co. 
R.  I.,  on  an  arm  of  the  Pawtuxet  river,  and  the  Xew  York 
and  Xew  England  railroad,  18  m.  s.w.  of  Providence.  Its 
industries  embrace  the  manufacture  of  calico  and  cotton 
prints,  muslin  de  laines,  and  a  variety  of  cotton  and  other 
machinery.    Pop.  (1870)  4,349;  (1880)  4,580. 

COYEXTRY  (convent  town):  city,  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough,  and  manufacturing  town  in  the  n.  of 
Warwickshire,  on  the  Sherbourne,  an  affluent  of  the  Avon, 
IS^ra.  e.s.e.  of  Birmingham.  Pop.  munic.  bor.  (1871) 
37,670;  (1881)  42,111.  It  stands  on  a  gentle  eminence  in  a 
valley,  with  a  ridge  of  hill  on  the  s.,  and  contains  many 
old  houses,  with  timbered  fronts,  projecting  into  narrow 
streets,  and  belonging  to  the  loth  and  16th  c.     The  mod- 

95 


COVENTRY. 

ern  part  of  C,  however,  is  well,  thought  not  regularly, 
built.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  churches,  with  impos- 
ing spires.  St.  Micbael's  church,  built  1318-95,  is  said  to 
be  the  largest  parish  church  in  England,  and  is  one  of  the 
noblest  of  the  lighter  Gothic  structures.  St.  Mary's  Hall, 
built  1450,  for  the  Guild,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
ornamental  work  in  England,  with  grotesque  carved  oak 
roof,  ancient  tapestry,  and  great  painted  window.  In  the 
market-place  formerly  stood  a  rich  hexagonal  Gothic  cross, 
57  ft.  high,  erected  in  the  16th  c,  in  three  stories,  with  ex- 
quisitely linished  pillars,  pinnacles,  and  niches,  with  stat- 
ues of  English  kings  and  saints.  Before  the  year  1760,  the 
cross  had  fallen  to  decay,  and  in  1771,  the  remains  of  it 
were  taken  down  and  removed.  The  ancient  walls,  three 
miles  in  circuit  round  C,  were  demolished  by  Charles  II. 
C.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  ribbons  and  watches.  There  are  large  silk- 
dying  works.  C.  is  nearl}^  in  the  centre,  between  the  four 
great  English  ports,  London,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  and  Hull, 
and  has  extensive  canal  communication  with  other  parts  of 
the  country.  It  is  a  very  ancient  place.  In  1 044,  Earl  Leo- 
fric  and  his  wife.  Lady  Godiva,  founded  here  a  magnificent 
Benedictine  monastery.  In  memory  of  Godiva  (q.  v.),  curi- 
ous and  splendid  processions  were  formerly  held  in  C.  In 
the  15th  c,  religious  mysteries  or  plays  were  often  acted 
here  by  the  Grey  Friars  before  kings.  Henry  VIII.  de- 
molished the  beautiful  cathedral  of  C.  Here  occurred  the 
famous  meeting  for  the  intended  trial  by  battle  between 
the  Dukes  of  Norfolk  and  Herefore,  immortalized  in 
Shakspeare's  Richard  11.  Two  memorable  parliaments 
were  also  held  in  the  monastery  of  C.  in  the  15th  c.  The 
one  contained  no  lawyers,  while  the  other  passed  attainders 
against  the  Duke  of  York,  etc.  In  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th 
c,  C.  was  famous  for  woolens,  broadcloths,  caps,  and  blue 
thread  bonnets.  The  Lammas  land  lying  around  C,  and 
comprising  about  1,100  acres,  was  not  long  ago  divided  be- 
tween the  proprietors  and  the  freemen,  numbering  about 
4,000,  in  the  proportion  of  about  two-thirds  to  the  former, 
and  one-third  to  the  latter,  C.  was  visited  by  the  plague 
six  times  between  1350  and  1625.  The  phrase,  '  to  send  to 
Coventry,' meaning  to  shut  out  from  social  intercourse, 
took  its  lise  probably  from  the  derivation  of  the  name  C, 
and  meant  'to  send  to  a  convent,'  i.e.,  to  shut  out  from 
society;  though  it  is  traced  by  some  to  the  ancient  dislike 
of  the  people  of  C.  to  soldiers  and  the  refusal  social  inter- 
course to  troops  sent  thither. 

COVENTRY,  km  en-ire,  Sir  John:  English  member 
of  parliament,  who,  1670,  Oct.,  rose  and  asked  a  question 
relative  to  a  measure  before  the  House,  which  was  taken 
as  an  unwarrantable  retiection  on  the  king's  amours. 
Charles  was  furious,  and  sent  some  of  his  guards  to  watch 
in  the  streets  where  C.  lived,  and  leave  a  mark  upon  him. 
C.  was  attacked  one  night,  and  had  bis  nose  cut  to  the 
bone.  Parliament  took  notice  of  this  atrocious  outrage, 
and  passed  a  bill  known  by  the  name  of  the  Coventry 
Act,  making  cutting  and  maiming  a  capital  offense;  but 

96 


COYER— COVERDALE. 

they  had  not  courage  sufficient  to  bring  the  king's  bravoes 
to  trial. 

COVER,  n.  kuv'er  [F.  coumr,  to  conceal— from  mid. 
L.  cdoperlre — from  L.  con,  operlre,  to  cover:  It.  coprire,  to 
cover]:  anything  laid  or  spread  over  something  else;  any- 
thing that  veils  or  conceals;  disguise;  shelter;  protection: 
V.  to  overspread  the  surface  or  top  of  anything  by  another 
thing;  to  veil  or  conceal  from  view  by  some  intervening  ob- 
ject; to  copulate;  to  clothe;  to  shelter;  to  wrap;  to  protect; 
to  equal  or  be  equivalent  to.  Cov  eking,  imp. :  N.  any- 
thing spread  or  laid  over  another;  a  garment;  bed-clothes. 
Covered,  pp.  -erd.  Cov'ercle,  n.  -er-kl  [F.  couvercle]: 
a  small  cover;  a  lid.  Cov'erlet,  n.  -er-Ut  [F.  comre-lit, 
a  bedcover:  OF.  covre-lW]'.  the  upper  light  covering  of  a 
bed,  a  cot,  or  a  crib.  Cov  ert,  a.  -ert  [OF.  covert;  F. 
convert,  a  cover,  covered]:  concealed;  private;  secret;  dis- 
guised; insidious;  under  protection:  N.  a  place  w^hich 
covers  or  shelters;  a  defense;  a  shady  place;  a  thicket;  a 
hiding-place.  Covertly,  ad.  -11,  secretly;  insidiously. 
Covertness,  n.  Coverture,  n.  -tr-tur  [F.  couverture, 
a  cover]:  shelter;  defense;  in  laic,  the  state  or  condition  of 
a  married  woman,  as  being  under  the  power  and  protection 
of  her  husband.  To  break  coyer,  in  liunting,  to  escape 
from  a  covert  or  lair.— Syn.  of  '  cover,  v.':  to  conceal;  hide; 
shelter;  screen;  shield;  overspread;  secrete. 

COVERDALE,  kuv'er-dill.  Miles:  1487— abt.  1568;  b. 
Yorkshire:  eminent  English  divine.  He  w^as  educated  at 
Cambridge  by  the  Auguslin  friars,  and,  becoming  an  Aug- 
ustin  monk,  was  ordained  at  Norwich.  He  appears,  how- 
ever, to  have  soon  changed  his  religious  opinions,  and  to 
have  devoted  himself  earnestly  to  the  w^ork  of  the  Reform- 
ation. Being  abroad  in  1532  he  assisted  Tyndale  with 'his 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  three  years  afterward  ap- 
peared his  own  translation  of  the  Bible,  with  a  dedication 
himself  to  Henry  VIII.  This  was  the  tirst  English  Bible 
sanctioned  by  royal  authority,  as,  indeed,  it  w^as  the  first 
complete  translation  of  the  I3ible  printed  in  the  English 
language.  The  Psalms  of  this  translation  are  those  still  used 
by  in  tiie  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  In  1588,  C,  with  the 
consent  of  King  Henry  VIII.,  and  with  the  permission  of 
Francis  I.,  w^ent  to  Paris  to  superintend  another  English 
edition  of  the  Scriptures,  his  reason  for  going  to  Paris 
being  that  paper  and  workmanship  were  there  cheaper  and 
better  than  in  England.  The  inquisition,  however,  not- 
withstanding the  ro3^a  1  license  of  Francis,  interfered, 
seized  the  whole  impression,  consisting  of  2500  copies,  and 
condemned  them  to  the  flames.  But  through  the  cupidity 
of  one  of  their  executive  officers,  who  sold  a  considerable 
number  of  the  heretical  books  to  a  harberdasher  as  waste 
paper,  some  copies  w^ere  saved  and  brought  to  London  with 
the  presses,  types,  etc.  ,  which  had  been  employed  in  print- 
ing them.  Several  of  the  workmen  also  came  over  to 
London;  and  Gratfon  and  Whitchurch,  the  noted  printers 
of  that  day,  were  thus  enabled  to  bring  out  in  1539,  under 
C.'s  superintendence,  the   Grea/t  Bible,   commonly  called 

97 


COYERT  WAY— COVET. 

Granmer^s  Bible,  on  account  of  that  prelate  having  written 
a  preface  to  it.  In  1551,  C  was  appointed  to  the  see  of 
Exeter,  the  duties  on  which  high  ecclesiastical  oflBce  he 
discharged  with  great  zeal  until  the  accession  of  Mary, 
1553,when  he  was  ejected,  and  thrown  into  prison,  from 
which  he  was  released  after  two  years'  confinement,  on  the 
earnest  intercession  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  whose  interest 
was  evoked  by  his  chaplain,  C.'s  brother-in-law,  and  on  the 
condition  that  he  should  leave  the  country.  C.  went  to 
Denmark,  and  subsequently  to  Geneva,  where  he  assisted 
in  producing  the  Geneva  Translation  of  the  Scriptures  (1557 
-60).  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land; but  certain  notions  concerning  ecclesiastical  cere- 
monies which  he  had  imbibed  at  Geneva  operated  against 
his  preferment  in  the  church,  and  it  was  not  until  1564  that 
he  was  collated  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Magnus,  London. 
Owing  to  age  and  inhrmities,  he  resigned  this  living  in  1566, 
and  died  about  two  years  afterwards.  C.  was  the  author  of 
several  tracts  designed  to  promote  the  Reformation,  and 
made  various  translations  from  the  works  of  the  continental 
reformers.  The  tri- centenary  of  the  issue  of  his  Bible  was 
celebrated  throughout  the  English  Church,  1835,  Oct.  4, 
and  medals  were  struck  in  honor  of  the  occasion. 


COYERT  WAY,  khv'ert-wd,  or  Covered  way,  in  Forti- 
fication: road  or  broad  path  outside  the  ditch  of  a  fortified 
place,  between  the  counterscarp  and  the  glacis.    It  is  about 


Vertical  Section  of  Defense-works. 


30  ft.  wide,  and  is  sunk  so  far  below  the  crest  of  the  glacis, 
that  soldiers  standing  upon  it  cannot  be  seen  by  the  be- 
siegers; hence  the  name  of  covert  or  hidden  way.  Sent- 
inels, placed  in  the  C.  W.,  prevent  all  access  of  the  enemy's 
spies  to  examine  the  ditch;  and  M^hen  musketeers  mount 
on  the  banquette  or  raised  platform  on  the  side  next  the 
glacis,  they  can  pour  out  a  grazing  fire  on  the  enemy  over 
the  crest.  The  C.  W.  is  broad  enough  to  allow  bodies  of 
troops  to  form  on  it,  either  to  act  defensively  or  to  make 
sorties;  and  to  increase  this  accommodation,  enlarged 
portions,  called  places  of  arms,  are  made  at  certain  spots. 
In  the  annexed  cut,  representing  a  vertical  section  of  the 
whole  range  of  defense-works,  from  the  rampart  next  the 
city  to  the  glacis,  the  relation  between  the  C.  W.  and  the 
other  works  is  clearly  shown.  The  banquette  of  the  C.  W. 
is  here  shown  to  be  about  3  ft.  high  by  4  wide,  and 
reached  by  a  sloping  ascent  of  4  f  t  :  see  Curtain. 

CO  YET,  V.  km'H  [OF.  cowiter,  to  covet — from  Prov, 
cubltos—irom  L.  cuptttts,  passionately  desirous,  covetous: 
It.  cubitare  for  L.  cupitdre,  to  covetj:  to  desire  or  wish  for 


COVETTA-COYIKGTON. 
eagerly;  to  desire  earnestly  to  obtain;  to  desire  any  object 
which  cannot  be  obtained  or  possessed  lawfully;  to  have  an 
earnest  desire  for.  Cov  eting,  imp. :  N.  earnest  inordinate 
desire.  Cov  etingly,  ad.  -U.  Gov  eted,  pp.  Cov'etek, 
n.  one  who.  Coy'etable,  a.  -td-hl,  that  may  be  coveted. 
Covetous,  a.  -e-tus  [OF.  covoitus]:  eager  to  obtain ;  greed- 
ily desirous  after;  avaricious.  Cov  etously,  ad.  -11,  in  a 
covetous  manner;  avariciously.  Gov  etousness,  n.  the 
quality  of  being  covetous;  an  inordinate  eagerness  of  gain; 
eagerness. — Syn.  of  '  covetous  avaricious;  sordid;  miserly; 
niggardly;  parsimonious;  penurious; — of  '  covetousness': 
avarice;  cupidity,  etc. 

COVETTA,  n.  kd  vH'ta:  a  plane  used  for  molding  frame- 
work, called  also  quarter-round. 

COVEY,  n.  Idiv'i  [OF.  covee;  F.  coutee,  a  brood — from 
OF.  cover;  F.  couver,  to  hatch— from  L.  cuhdre,  to  lie 
down] :  a  brood  or  hatch  of  birds;  a  small  flock  of  birds;  a 
flock  of  partridges. 

COVILHA,  kd-vel-ydng' :  town  of  Beira,  Portugal,  having 
manufactures  of  brown  cloth.    (Pop.  1878)  10,986. 

COVIN,  n.  Miv'tn  [OF.  coumne,  and  covine,  intrigue — 
from  conmnir,  to  agree — from  L.  convenlre,  to  meet  to- 
gether, to  agree] :  deceitful  agreement  between  two  or  more 
to  the  hurt  of  another.  Cov  inous,  a.  -i-nus,  deceitful; 
fraudulent.  Covin-  or  Covine-tree,  in  Scot.,  a  tree 
planted  before  an  old  castle,  where  the  lord  received  his 
guests,  and  on  which  criminals  were  executed;  a  trysting- 
tree. 

COVING,  n.  koving  [AS.  kofa,  a  cave,  a  room:  L  cams, 
a  hollow,  a  cavity  (see  Cove  1)]:  the  projection  of  the  up- 
per parts  of  a  building  beyond  the  ground- plan;  the  vertical 
sides  of  a  fireplace  which  incline  backward  and  inward  for 
reflecting  the  heat. 

COVINGTON,  km'ing-ton:  city,  cap.  of  Kenton  Co., 
Ky.,  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  the  Louisville  Cincinnati  and 
Lexington,  and  the  Ky.  Central  railroads,  99  m.  n.  of  Lex- 
ington. It  is  opposite  Cincinnati,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  suspension  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river  2,252  ft. 
long,  completed  1867  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $2,000,000.  It  is 
connected  with  Newport,  Ky.  by  a  similar  bridge  over  the 
Licking  river,  built  1854.  C.  is  built  on  a  plain,  covers 
over  1,350  acres,  and,  with  its  streets  running  from  the  river^ 
appears  like  an  extension  of  Cincinnati,  many  of  whose 
business  men  reside  in  this  place.  It  is  divided  into  9 
wards  and  governed  by  a  mayor  and  common  council  of 
18  members;  is  supplied  with  w^ater  by  the  Holly  system, 
which  works  w^ere  erected,  1871,  at  a  cost  of  $430,000;  and 
has  4  national  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  nearly; 
$2,000,000,  a  public  library,  a  Rom.  Cath.  hospital  with 
foundling  asylum  attached,  and  a  German  orphan  asylum 
a  priory  of  the  Benedictine  order  and  a  convent  of  Bene- 
dictine nuns;  combined  court-house  and  city  hall;  3  roll- 
ing mills,  8  tobacco  factories,  21  cigar  factories,  5  brew- 
eries, 4  distilleries,  several  beef-and  pork-packing  houseS| 


COW~COWAGE. 

glass-works,  silk  maiiafactories,  and  3  weekly  newspapers. 
In  1880  it  had  a  total  of  181  manufactories,  w^ith  a  capital 
of  $3,182,141,  employing  2,925  persons,  paying  in  wages 
$1,033,463,  and  yielding  a  product  of  $5,864,530.  C.  has 
a  high  school,  12  grammar  and  31  primary  schools  of  a 
public  character,  and  10  Rom  Cath.  academies  and  schools. 
The  churches  number  25,  of  which  8  are  Rom.  Cath.,  6 
Meth.  Epis.,  3  Bapt.,  2  Presb.,  2  Evang.  Ref.,  and  one 
each  Disciples,  Prot.  Episc,  Lutheran,  and  Welsh:  the 
Evang.  Ref.,  Lutheran,  one  Meth.  Epis.,  and  4  Rom. 
Cath.  churches  are  for  Germans;  and  one  Bapt.  and  one 
Meth.  Epis.  are  for  colored  people.  C.  is  also  the  seat  of  a 
Rom.  Cath.  bishop.  It  was  laid  out  1815;  incorporated 
as  a  city  1834.  Pop.  (1860)  16,471,  (1870)  24,505,  (1880) 
29,720. 

COW,  n.  how,  Cows,  n.  plu.  Mwz,  Kine,  old  plu.  kin 
[AS.  cu,  a  cow;  cy,  cows:  Dut.  koe;  Icel.  kyr;  Dan.  ko;  Ir. 
and  Gael,  ho;  Ger,  kuli,  cow:  L.  hos;  Gr.  hous;  Sans,  gao,  a 
bull,  a  cow]:  the  female  of  the  bull,  a  well-known  animal 
yielding  milk  for  domestic  uses.  Cow-bird,  n. :  see  Cuckoo. 
Cow-boys,  n.  plu. :  a  name  given  to  a  band  of  marauders 
who  during  the  American  War  of  Independence  infested 
the  neutral  ground  between  the  two  sides,  and  plundered  the 
Revolutionists;  also,  name  now  applied  to  the  men  who  watch 
and  drive  the  great  herds  of  cattle  in  the  vast  western  plains  in 
the  United  States.  Cow-catch  er,  a  strong  frame  in  front 
Df  a  locomotive- engine,  used  in  America  to  throw  off  large 
obstructions  on  the  rails.  Cow-pox,  small  blisters  that  appear 
on  the  teats  of  a  cow,  the  vaccine  matter  for  inoculation 
being  obtained  from  these.  Cow-hide,  leather  made  from 
the  skin  of  a  cow;  a  rough  riding- whip:  Y.  to  whip  roughly. 
Cow'feeder,  one  whose  business  it  is  to  feed  cows  and  deal 
in  their  milk.  Cow'herd,  one  who  tends  cows  in  the  field. 
Cow-horn,  n.  the  horn  of  a  cow;  a  dentist's  instrument  for 
extracting  molars.  Cow-leech,  n.  kow'Uch  [cow,  and  AS. 
Imce,  a  physician,  a  leech]:  a  cattle-doctor.  Cow-lick,  a 
tuft  of  hair  on  the  human  head,  so  named  from  its  being 
turned  back  as  if  licked  by  a  cow.  Cow-pat,  cow-dung. 
Cow- wheat,  the  common  name  for  the  personated  genus 
Melampyrum, 

COW,  V.  kow  [Sw.  kufm;  Dan.  kue;  Icel.  kuga,  to  sub- 
due, to  bring  under] :  to  depress  with  fear;  to  keep  under; 
to  dispirit.    Cow  ing,  imp.    Cowed,  pp.  kowd. 

COW:  see  Ox:  Dairy. 

COWAGE,  or  Cowhage,  kow'ij,  or  Cow'itch:  short, 
slender,  brittle  hairs,  which  grow  on  the  outside  of  th€ 
pods  of  plants  of  the  genus  Mucuna,  natives  of  tropical 
America  and  Asia.  This  genus  belongs  to  the  nat.  ord. 
LegwninoscB,  suborder  Papilionacece,  and  has  a  knotted, 
two-valved  pod,  divided  by  transverse  partitions.  The 
species  are  twining  plants,  shrubby  or  herbaceous,  with 
leaves  of  three  leaflets.  That  which  yields  most  of  the  C. 
brought  to  Europe  is  M.  pruriens,  native  of  the  W.  Indies, 
with  racemes  of  tine  purple  flowers,  which  have  a  disa- 
greeable  alliaceous  smell,  and  pods  about  four  inches  long. 

100 


COWARD-COWER. 

M.  pimrita  of  the  E.  Indies,  and  M.  uresis,  the  Ox-ej^e  Bean 
of  the  W.  Indies,  yield  C.  of  similar  quality.  The  hairs 
readily  stick  in  the  skin,  and  cause  intolerable  itching.  C. 
is  used  in  medicine,  acting  mechanically  in  killing  and  ex- 
pelling worms,  particularly  the  species  of  ascmHs  (q.v.). 
That  it  does  not  act  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  intestinal 
caoal,  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  mucous  secretion. 
It  is  generally  administered  in  syrup,  treacle,  or  honey. — 
Before  the  pods  of  C.  plants  are  ripe,  they  are  used  as  a 
vegetable  like  kidney-beans;  and  are  very  palatable. 

COWARD,  n.  kdio'erd  [OF.  couard,  a  hare,  an  animal  pro- 
verbially timid,  a  coward— so  called  from  its  short  tail:  L. 
Cauda,  the  tail— also  applied  to  one  who  holds  back:  Sp. 
cobarde,  a  cowardj:  one  who  wants  courage  to  meet  danger 
of  any  kind;  a  timid  person;  a  poltroon.  Cow'ard,  a.,  also 
Cow  ardly,  a.  -U,  destitute  of  courage;  timid;  base;  fear- 
ful; dastardly.  Cow  ardly,  ad.  -U,  in  the  manner  of  a 
coward;  timorously.  Cow  ardliness,  n.,  also  Cow  ardice, 
n.  -er-dis,  want  of  courage  to  face  danger;  undue  fear  or 
timidity.  Cow  ardship,  n.  the  quality  or  character  of  a 
coward. — Syn.  of  '  cowardly,  a.':  timorous;  dastardly,  pusil- 
lanimous; craven;  mean;  faint-  or  chicken-hearted. 

COW'BAKE:  see  Hemlock. 

COWBERRY:  see  Whortleberry. 

COW-BIRD,  or  Cow-Bunting:  see  Cow-pen  Bird. 

COWBOYS,  in  the  American  revolution:  a  band  of 
American  tories  who  infested  the  neutral  ground  of  West- 
chester co.,  N.  Y.,  robbed  the  w^higs  and  loyalists,  and 
made  a  specialty  of  stealing  cattle.  A  similar  band  of 
marauders  on  the  British  side  received  the  name  of  *  skin- 
ners'. The  word  C,  is  now  used  to  designate  the  men  who 
have  charge  of  the  cattle  on  the  vast  ranges  in  Tex.,  Col., 
Ariz.,  Kew  Mex.,  Kan.,  Montana,  Idaho,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  w.  and  s.w.  of  the  United  States.  They  are  well 
mounted,  wear  a  fanciful  costume  consisting  of  an  enor- 
mous sombrero,  or  Mexican  hat  of  felt,  buckskin  breeches 
and  jackets,  and  high  top-boots,  delight  in  gaudy  waist- 
sashes  and  neck-cloths,  use  Mexican  saddles  with  high 
stout  pommels  to  which  their  horse-hair  lassoes  are  at- 
tached, carry  huge  revolvers,  and  are  perfectly  at  ease  on 
their  wiry,  bucking  broncos,  a  small  mustang  of  Spanish 
origin.  They  are  bold  and  adventurous,  and  from  their 
necessarily  wild  and  rough  mode  of  life  are  often  spoken 
of,  as  a  class,  with  disfavor;  but,  while  doubtless  there  are 
among  them  varieties  of  character,  many  of  them  are  as 
honest  and  faithful  as  they  are  active  and  strong. 

COWBRIDGE,  kowWiy.  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  in  the  south  of  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  on  the 
Ddaw,  12  m.  w.  of  Carditf.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long 
and  wide  street.  It  anciently  had  walls  with  three  gates, 
built  in  the  end  of  the  11th  c:  one  of  the  gates,  a  Gothic 
structure,  still  remains.  With  Cardiff  and  Llantrissant, 
it  returns  one  member  to  parliament.    Pop.  abt.  1300. 

COWER,  V.  Icmr'er  [W.  cwrian,  to  squat:  Icel.  kura,  to 

lOi 


COWES-COWLEY. 

roost,  to  doze:  Dan.  kure,  to  lie  quiet:  Gael.  curVy  a  corner: 
Fin.  kaare,  a  curve]:  to  sink  by  bending  the  knees;  to  shrink 
or  crouch  through  fear;  in  OE.^  to  cherish  by  care;  to  shelter. 
Cow  ering,  imp.  Cowered,  pp.  kdw'erd.  Note. — Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Charles  Mackay,  cow,  coward,  and  cower,  are  all 
derived  from  Gael,  cit,  a  dog — whence  Cow,  to  treat  like  a 
dog.  Cower,  to  slink  or  crouch,  as  a  dog  in  fear.  Cow- 
ard—from  Gael,  cu-ard,  a  high  or  chief  dog,  an  utter  dog — 
from  ard,  eminent,  high. 

COWES,  kowz,  West:  seaport  and  watering-place  in  the 
n.  corner  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  on  the  w.  side  of  the  mouth 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Medina  (here  a  third  of  a  mile  broad). 
It  stands  on  a  hill-slope,  and  has  a  striking  aspect  from  the 
sea.  There  are  many  elegant  villas  in  the  vicinity.  C. 
has  much  trade,  being  the  port  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It 
has  daily  steam  communication  with  Southampton,  from 
which  it  is  lOJ  m.  s.s.e. ;  and  with  Portsmouth,  from  which 
it  is  11  m.  to  the  w.s.w.  At  the  angle  formed  by  the  Me- 
dina and  the  sea,  is  a  small  battery  built  by  Henry  YIII. 
C.  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron  and 
Club,  who  hold  their  annual  regatta  here.  In  1880,  15,211 
vessels,  of  1,093,673  tonnage  entered  the  port.  Pop.  (1871) 
5730;  (1881)  6487. 

East  Cowes  is  on  the  e.  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Medi- 
na, 2  m.  n.w.  of  Osborne  House,  the  marine  residence  of 
Queen  Victoria.— Pop.  (1871)  2058;  (1881)  2615. 

COWL,  n.  kowl  [OF.  cuoule;  AS.  cuqle;  W.  cwfl,  a  monk's 
hood:  Icel.  kujl,  a  cowl:  L.  cucul'lus,  a  hood  (see  Cowl  2)]: 
a  monk's  hood  or  habit— a  hood  for  the  head,  generally  at- 
tached to  a  loose  cloak,  common  in  England  in  the  middle 
ages,  now  almost  confined  in  use  to  members  of  some  relig- 
ious order;  a  cover  for  a  chimney  that  turns  with  the  wind. 
Cowled,  a.  kowld,  hooded;  covered  with  a  cowl. ' 

COWL,  u.  kowl  [OF.  cui'el  and  cuveau,  a  little  tub— dim. 
of  F.  cuve,  an  open  tub]:  in  OE.,  any  kind  of  cup  or  vessel; 
a  vessel  carried  on  a  pole,  as  cowl-staff. 

COWLEY,  kow'U,  formerly  pron.  ko'U,  Abraham:  1618- 
1667,  July;  b.  London:  son  of  a  grocer.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  made  a  poet  by 
the  perusal  of  Spenser,  whose  works  were  wont  to  lie  in 
his  mother's  parlor.  A  volume  of  poems,  entitled  Poetic 
Blossoms,  was  published  by  him  at  the  age  of  15,  one  of  the 
poems  written  when  he  was  10  years  old.  At  Cambridge, 
he  obtained  distinction  through  the  elegance  of  his  trans- 
lations; and  while  there,  he  composed  the  greater  part  of 
the  Damdeis,  an  epic  in  four  books — a  work  which  he  never 
completed.  He  was  attached  to  the  court  party,  and,  in 
consequence,  was  ejected  from  his  college,  1643,  after  he 
had  taken  his  degree  of  m.a.  In  1646,  he  followed  the 
queen  to  Paris,  in  which  city  he  remained  ten  j^ears;  and 
on  his  return  to  England,  being  under  suspicion,  he  was 
seized  and  bound  in  heavy  securities  for  his  future  behav- 
ior. In  the  same  year,  he  published  an  edition  of  his 
poems,  wit^i  a  preface,  in  which  certain  passages  appeared, 

102 


COWLEY— COWP. 

supposed  to  have  a  political  bearing,  which  were  suppressed 
in  subsequent  editions.  After  the  Restoration,  he  expected 
to  obtain  the  mastership  of  the  Savoy,  but  was  disappointed. 
He  subsequently  obtained  a  lease  of  the  queen's  land  at 
Chetsey,  in  Surrey,  whither  he  retired,  1665.  He  died 
in  his  49th  year,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
near  Chaucer  and  Spenser.  In  1675,  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham. 

Although  almost  forgotten  noAV,  the  time  was  when  C.'s 
poetry  was  considered  equal  to  Shakspeare's  or  Spenser's. 
It  certainl}^  has  merits  of  ingenuity  and  verbal  brilliancy. 
He  is  often  splendid,  but  it  is  the  splendor  of  the  rocket 
rather  than  of  the  star.  His  prose  is  more  natural  than  his 
verse,  and  some  of  its  passages  reach  a  stately  eloquence, 
reminding  the  reader  of  the  magnificent  prose  of  Milton. 

COWLEY,  Henry  Richard  Wellesley,  first  Earl: 
English  diplomatist  of  liberal  opinions:  1804-84;  son  of  the 
first  Baron  Cowley,  better  known  as  Sir  Henry  Wellesley. 
He  early  applied  himself  to  diplomatic  pursuits.  An  attache 
at  Vienna,  1821,  he  was  afterward  successively  promoted  to 
be  sec.  to  the  legation  at  Stuttgart,  and  to  the  embassy  at 
Constantinople.  Having  acted  as  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  Switzerland,  and  afterward  to  Frankfurt,  he  was  (1851) 
appointed  minister  to  the  Germanic  Confederation,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  succeeded  the  Marquis  of  Normandy 
as  ambassador  at  Paris.  For  this  position  he  had  eminent 
qualifications,  and  held  the  appointment  whether  his  party 
was  in  or  out  of  ofiice  till  1867,  when  he  resigned.  With 
the  Earl  of  Clarendon  he  represented  Great  Britain  at  the 
Paris  Congress,  1856;  and  it  was  greatly  owing  to  his  tact 
and  temper  that  ill-feeling  between  the  tw^o  countries  did 
not  result  in  more  serious  disagreement.  He  was  created  Vis- 
count Dangan  and  Earl  Cowley,  1857,  and  made  aK.G.,1865. 

CO-WORKER,  n.  kd-werk'er  [con,  and  worker]:  one  who 
works  with  another. 

COWP,  v.  kowp  [Gael,  cop,  to  capsize]:  in  Scot,  to 
tilt  over;  to  upset.    Cowp'ing,  imp.    Cowped,  pp.  kowpt. 


cow  PARSNIP— COWPER. 

COW  PARS'KIP  {Ileracleum)'.  genus  of  plants  of  the 
nat.  ord.  UmbelUferce,  having  petals  bent  in  at  the  middle, 
and  flat  compressed  fruit.  One  species, 
the  Common  C.  P.  or  Hog- weed, 
called  Kiesh  in  Scotland,  a  common 
and  rank  weed,  with  coarsely  hairy 
leaves,  and  stem  about  3-5  ft.  high,  is 
gathered  in  some  parts  of  England  for 
fattening  hogs,  and  is  said  to  afford 
w^holesome  food  for  cattle.  Some  Si- 
berian species  are  much  larger,  and 
have  been  recommended  for  cultiva- 
tion on  account  of  the  great  quantity 
.  of  herbage  which  they  yield  very  early 

Cow  Parsnip  Fruit.  season,  particularly  H.  panaces, 

which  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  10  ft.,  and  the  root 
leaves  are  3-5  ft.  long. 

COW-PEN  BIRD  (Molothrus  pecoris),  also  called  Cow 
Bird,  Cow  Troopial,  Cow  Blackbird,  Cow  Bunting,  &c. : 
bird  nearly  allied  to  the  Baltimore  Birds  and  Troopials, 
having  a  short,  conical  beak,  and  remarkable  for  its  habit 
of  depositing  its  eggs,  like  the  cuckoo,  in  the  nests  of  other 
birds.  It  is  a  native  of  N.  America,  common  in  some  of 
the  southern  states  in  winter,  and  migrating  northward  in 
spring.  Great  flocks  are  sometimes  seen  together.  The  C. 
B.  is  about  seven  inches  in  entire  length,  of  glossy  brown- 
ish-black plumage.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  frequent- 
ing cow-pens,  to  feed  on  the  insects  contained  in,  or 
attracted  by  the  dung.  It  selects  for  the  reception  of  its 
eggs  the  nests  of  birds  smaller  than  itself,  and  by  an  inter- 
esting provision  of  nature,  its  egg,  which  is  not  much 
larger  than  theirs,  is  hatched  sooner,  and  theirs  appear  to 
be  generally  removed  as  addled  eggs. 

COW'PENS,  Battle  of:  1781,  Jan.  17,  in  a  cattle  pas- 
ture in  Spartanburg  co..  S.  C,  abt.  30  m.  w.  of  King's 
Mountain;  between  the  British,  under  Col.  Tarleton,  and 
the  Americans  under  Gen.  Morgan  and  Col.  Pickens. 
Tarleton  had  been  detached  by  Cornwallis  from  his  main 
body  to  cut  off  Morgan's  division  lying  between  the  Broad 
and  Catawba  rivers.  Morgan  at  first  retreated  on  hearing  of 
Tarleton's  approach,  but  suddenly  stopping  at  the  Cowpens, 
turned  upon  his  pursuers,  poured  a  deadly  volley  into 
their  astonished  ranks,  and  then,  by  a  brilliant  bayonet 
charge,  routed  them  and  captured  their  colors  and  cannons. 
Tarleton  barely  escaped  capture.  The  British  lost  300  in 
killed  and  wounded,  and  500  prisoners,  800  muskets,  2  can- 
nons, and  2  standards;  and  the  Americans,  72  in  killed  and 
wounded. 

COWPER,  kow'per  or  ko'per,  William:  English  poet: 
1731,  Nov.  26—1800,  Apr.  27;  b.  in  the  parsonage  house  of 
Great  Berkliamstead.  His  father,  chaplain  to  George  II. , 
married  Ann,  daughter  of  Roger  Donne,  of  Ludham  Hall, 
Norfolk.  This  lady  expired  in  childbirth  in  1737,  leaving 
two  sons,  William,  the  poet,  and  John.  This  event  made  a 
deep  impression  on  C.'s  mind:  and  the  lines  addressed  to 

104 


COWPER. 

his  mother's  portrait  have  probably  drawn  more  tears  than 
any  other  poem  in  the  English  language. 

C.  was  a  delicate  and  sensitive  child,  and  boyhood 
brought  with  it  only  deeper  melancholy  and  depression.  At 
the  age  of  six  he  was  placed  at  a  considerable  school,  kept 
by  a  Dr.  Pitman,  in  Market  Street,  Hertfordshire.  The  pe- 
riod he  spent  here  was  very  miserable,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  that  settled  gloom  which  oppressed  him  till 
death.  It  is  to  the  remembrance  of  these  wretched  days 
that  we  are  indebted  for  the  tierce  invective  that  burns  in 
the  somewhat  one-sided  Tirocinium,  or  a  Pxmew  of  Schools. 
C.  completed  his  studies  at  Westminster  School,  and  short- 
ly afterward  was  articled  to  a  Mr.  Chapman,  attorney  in 
London. 

After  completing  his  three  years'  articles  with  Mr.  Chap-  * 
man,  C.  went,  1752,  to  reside  in  the  Middle  Temple.  In 
l?o4  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  never  practiced.  His  fa- 
ther died,  1756,  and  left  him  a  small  patrimony.  In  1759  he 
removed  to  the  Inner  Temple;  and  though  at  this  period 
he  expected  to  secure  some  legal  appointment  through  the 
intlucDce  of  his  family,  he  hated  law  with  a  perfect  hatred, 
and  seldom  opened  a  book  that  bore  on  his  profession.  Yet 
he  was  industrious  enough;  he  scribbled  poetry,  read 
Homer,  and,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother,  translated 
some  of  the  books  of  the  Henriade.  Soon  after  his  settle- 
ment in  the  Inner  Temple,  he  was  appointed  a  Commission- 
er of  Bankrupts;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he 
ever  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office.  An  influential  rel- 
ative now  oifered  him  the  office  of  Clerk  of  the  Journals  of 
the  House  of  Lords,  which  was  "accepted;  but  he,  having  to 
undergo  an  examination  at  the  bar  of  the  House,  was 
seized  with  nervousness,  and  could  not  appear.  At  this 
period  his  misery  was  so  great  that  he  meditated  suicide, 
but  fortunately  failed  to  carry  out  his  intentions  for  want 
of  courage.  In  1763,  Dec,  he  was  removed  to  the  house  of 
Dr.  Cotton  at  St.  Albans — a  prey  to  the  deepest  remorse. 

C.'s  pecuniary  means  had  suffered  considerably  by  the 
loss  of  his  appointments,  but  his  friends  contrived  to  make 
up  an  income  sufficient  for  his  wants.  After  his  removal 
from  St.  Albans,  he  went  to  reside  in  the  town  of  Hunting- 
don. Here  he  formed  acquaintance  with  Mrs  Unwin — the 
Mary  of  his  poems — an  acquaintance  which  ripened  into 
the  deepest  friendship,  and  lasted  till  death.  He  went  to 
reside  with  the  Unwins,  and  enjoyed  much  tranquil  happi- 
ness under  that  kindly  and  religious  roof.  When  on  a  visit, 
1773,  Jan.,  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Newton,  a  friend  of  the  Unwins, 
and  a  man  of  sincere  piety,  but,  from  the  peculiar  cast  of 
his  religious  views,  perhaps  not  the  best  ph3^sician  '  to  min« 
isterto  a  mind  diseased,'  C.'s  malady  returned.  Mrs.  Un- 
win carefully  tended  him  through  the  crisis  of  his  delirium, 
and  through  his  long  and  slow  recovery.  When  convales- 
cent, he  betook  himself  to  writing  hymns  with  Mr.  New- 
ton, and  to  domesticating  hares,  with  the  particulars  and 
little  incidents  of  which  amusement  the  world  is  pleasantly 
familiar.  Mrs.  Unwin  also  suggested,  as  a  subject  suited 
to  his  genius,  TM  Progrm  of  Error,    C.  set  to  work,  1780, 

105 


cow  PLANT— COWRY. 

Dec,  and  by  the  following  March  had  completed  Truths 
Table- Talk,  The  Progress  of  Elisor,  and  Expostulation.  The 
vol.  was  published  1782. 

In  1781,  C.  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lady  Austen,  who 
suggested  to  him  T/ie  Task,  urged  him  to  translate  Homer, 
and— what  the  world  is  perhaps  still  more  grateful  for — she 
related  to  him  the  history  of  John  Gilpin.  The  story  so 
seized  C.'s  fancy,  that  in  the  course  of  a  single  night  he 
produced  the  poem  which  has  tickled  the  midriffs  of  three 
generations.  The  Task  was  begun  in  the  winter  of  1783, 
and  published  1785.  Its  success  was  great,  and  C.  began  to 
be  considered  the.  greatest  poet  of  his  day.  In  1784  he  be- 
gan the  translation  of  Homer,  which  appeared,  1791,  and 
was  received  with  great  applause.  He  had  labored  hard, 
and  had  now  to  pay  the  penalty.  The  pen  was  the  only 
weapon  with  which  he  could  keep  his  constitutional  mala- 
dy at  bay;  but  now,  when  seated  at  his  desk,  his  genius 
would  not  answer  the  call.  He  began  to  hear  again  the 
voices  and  the  whisperings  which  had  afflicted  him  in  ear- 
lier days.  Mrs.  Unwin's  faculties  also  became  affected,  and 
the  two  friends  were  groping  in  the  same  twilight,  deepen- 
ing for  both  into  the  darkness  of  death.  They  left  Olney, 
and  were  received  into  the  house  of  Mr.  Johnson,  in  Tud- 
denham,  in  Norfolk.  Here  Mrs.  Unwin  died  1796, 
Dec.  17.  C.  now  fell  into  a  state  of  utter  dejection;  in 
1799  he  was  attacked  by  dropsy,  and  died  in  the  following 
year,  1800. 

C.  was  a  great  innovator  in  English  literature;  he  de- 
stroyed the  sentimentalists  led  by  Hayley,  and  the  image- 
hunters  headed  by  Darwin*  His  poetry  is  eminently  health- 
ful, natural,  and  unaffected.  C.  and  Robert  Burns  we  have 
to  thank  for  bringing  back  nature  to  English  poetry.  Be- 
sides being  a  poet,  C.  was  perhaps  the  most  delightful  let- 
ter-writer in  the  English  language.  Nothing  can  surpass 
the  charm  of  his  epistles — full  of  fun,  gentle  sarcasm,  an- 
ecdote, acute  remark,  and  a  tender  shadow  of  melancholy 
thrown  over  and  toning  down  the  whole.  The  best  edition 
of  C.  's  works  (accompanied  by  an  admirable  biography)  is 
thatof  Southey,  15  vols.,  12mo,  Lond.  1837-8. 

COW  PLANT  {Oymnema  lactiferum):  perennial  plant 
of  the  nat.  ord.  Asclepiadacem,  native  of  Ceylon;  with  erect 
stem,  ovate  leaves,  and  very  short  umbels;  which  has  ac- 
quired a  factitious  celebrity  from  the  statement  made  and 
often  repeated  that  its  milky  juice  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  milk,  and  that  its  leaves  are  boiled  to  supply  the  want  of 
cream.  But  this,  according  to  Sir  J.  E.  Tennant,  is  alto- 
gether a  mistake,  and  the  name  is  derived  merely  from  the 
appearance  of  the  juice. 

COWRY,  n.  kow'ri  [Hind,  kauri],  {Cypi'wa):  genus  of 
gasteropodous  mollusks  of  the  ord.  Fectinibranchiata — 
type  of  a  family,  Gypra^idce,  to  all  of  which  the  name  C.  is 
often  extended — having  the  margin  of  the  mantle  prolonged 
into  a  siphon,  by  which  water  is  convej^ed  into  the  gill- 
chamber  ;  and  a  spiral  convoluted  shell,  the  spire  visible  in 
the  young,  but  entirely  concealed  in  the  adult,  and  th^ 

106 


COWSLIP. 

outer  lip  then  thickened  and  bent  in.  The  aperture  ex- 
tends the  whole  length  of  the  shell.  The  shells,  called 
Porcelain  Shells  by  the  French  and  Germans,  are  almost 
entirely  calcareous  in  their  composition,  are  richly 
enamelled,  and  often  very  beautiful.  They  are  most 
abundant,  and  attain  their  largest  size  in  the  seas  of 
warm  climates.     Only  a  few  very  small  species  are 


Money  Cowry. 

found  on  the  British  coasts.  Some  of  the  species  are 
much  prized  by  collectors  of  shells.  The  Money  C. 
{G,  moneia)  is  of  commercial  interest,  from  its  general 
use  as  a  substitute  for  coin  in  many  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  It  is  not  of  great  beauty,  is  yellow  or  white, 
often  with  a  yellow  ring,  about  an  inch  long,  and  nearly  as 
broad  as  long.  It  is  found  on  the  Indian  coasts,  and  in 
particular  abundance  on  those  of 
the  Maldive  Islands,  and  is  one  of 
their  principal  exports.  In  Ben- 
gal 3,200  cowries  are  reckoned 
equal  to  a  rupee,  so  that  a  C.  is 
about  equal  in  value  to  one  thirty-  , 
sixth  of  a  farthing.  Yet  cowries  C;;;^ 
to  the  value  of  200,000  rupees  are  " 
said  to  have  been  at  one  period 
imported  annually  into  Bengal. 
Many  tons  of  cowries  are  annu- 
ally imported  into  Britain,  to  be 
used  in  trade  with  the  w^est  of 
Africa,  and  this  importation  began 
when  it  was  in  the  slave-trade 
that  they  were  employed. — To  the 
family  Gyprmdm  belong  the  shells 
called  Poached  Eggs  {Ovulum),  the 
Weamr's  Shuttle  Shell  {Ovulum 
wlm),  remarkable  for  its  pro- 
longation at  both  ends,  etc.  Fos- 
sils of  this  family  are  numerous 
in  some  strata,  as  in  the  Bagshot 
Beds  (q.v.) 

COWSLIP,  n.  kbw'slip  [AS. 
cu-slyppe :  probably  for  cow's- 
leek,  as  house- leek  :  Icel.  laukr, 
a  garden  vegetable]:  {Primula 
mris;  see  Primrose)  :  common 
native  of  pastures  in  England  and  many  other  parts  pf 


Cowslip, 


cow  TREE. 

Europe,  a  delicate  and  modest  little  flower,  a  universal 
favorite,  both  for  its  beauty  and  for  its  fragrance.  The 
flowers  are  small,  in  an  umbel  at  the  top  of  the  scape, 
the  limb  of  the  corolla  short  and  concave.  The  flowers 
have  sedative  properties,  and  are  sometimes  used  as  an 
anodyne  and  anti-spasmodic.  They  are  fermented  with 
sugar  to  make  coicslip  wine,  an  agreeable  and  favorite 
soporific  domestic  medicine. — The  name  Virginiais  Cow- 
slip is  given  to  the  Dodecatheon  Meadia,  a  perennial  plant, 
also  of  the  nat.  ord.  Primulacem,  native  of  N.  America, 
with  a  stalk  about  eight  inches  high,  bearing  an  umbel 
of  gracefully  pendent  lilac  flowers,  the  petals  reflexed  over 
the  calyx,  the  stamens  and  pistil  long,  and  the  anthers  of 
a  golden  color.  It  is  very  ornamental  in  the  flower- 
border,  flowering  in  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May. 

COW  TREE:  name  given  to  a  number  of  species  of  tree 
of  different  nat.  orders,  the  bland,  milky  juice  of  which  is 
used  instead  of  milk.  They  all  are  natives  of  tropical 
countries,  and  belong  mostly 
to  nat.  orders  in  which  acrid- 
ity is  the  general  characteris- 
tic of  the  milky  juice.  Some 
of  them  belong  to  the  nat. 
ord.  Moracsce,  and  are  closely 
allied  to  the  Fig;  others  to  the 
nat.  ord.  Artocarpacecf,  one  of 
which  is  the  famous  Palo  de 
Vac  A  or  C.  T.  of  the  Cordil- 
leras and  Caraccas  {Galactoden- 
dron  utile,  now  referred  rather 
to  the  genus  Brosimum,  see 
Bread-nut).  Another  is  the 
Hya-hya  {Taberncemontana 
utilis),  native  of  equatorial 
America,  belonging  to  the  nat. 

Cow  Tree  {Galactodendron  utile).  Apocynacece. 

The  Palo  de  Vac  a  grows 
in  rocky  situations,  at  an  elevation  in  equatorial  regions  of 
about  3,000  ft.  It  is  a  lofty  tree,  with  laurel-like  leaves, 
10-16  inches  long,  and  very  small  flowers.    For  several 


Fruit  of  Cow  Tree. 


months  in  the  year,  not  a  shower  moistens  its  foliage,  and 
its  branches  appear  dead;  but  as  soon  as  the  trunk  is 
pierced,  there  flows  from  it  a  copious  stream  of  sweet  and 
nourishing  milk.  The  milk  flows  most  freely  at  sunrise. 
The  natives  are  then  seen  hastening  from  all  quarters  with 


COW-WHEAT— cox. 

bowls  to  receive  it.  The  milk  has  an  agreeable  odor,  and 
a  viscidity  which  does  not  belong  to  the  milk  of  animals; 
it  becomes  yellow  in  a  short  time,  and  thickeos  or  forms 
a  sort  of  cream  at  the  surface,  which  gradually  thickens 
into  a  cheesy  consistency  before  it  begins  to  putrefy.  This 
milk  is  nutritious,  and  is  much  used  by  the  negroes  and 
Indians;  but  differs  very  materially  in  its  composition  from 
the  milk  of  animals,  more  than  one-half  being  wax  and 
fibrin ;  a  little  sugar,  a  salt  of  magnesia,  and  water  chietiy 
making  up  the  rest. 

The  Hya-hya  also  yields  a  copious,  milky  juice,  used  in 
Demerara  and  elsewhere  as  an  agreeable  and  nutritious 
substitute  for  milk. 

COW-WHEAT  {Melampyrum):  genus  of  plants  of  the 
nat.  ord.  Scropliulariacece,  having  an  oblong  two-celled 
capsule,  with  a  few  seeds  somewhat  resembling  grains  of 
wheat.  The  species  are  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of 
the  n.  hemisphere,  annual  plants  with  opposite  narrow 
leaves  and  yellow  flowers,  growing  in  woods,  corn-fields, 
pastures,  etc.  Several  are  natives  of  England.  They  are 
said  to  be  very  fattening  to  cattle,  and  to  give  a  peculiar 
excellence  to  butter. 

COX,  David:  landscape  painter  of  the  English  school: 
1783,  Apr.  29—1859,  June  7;  son  of  of  a  Birmingham 
smith.  He  w^orked  for  a  time  as  a  smith,  then  at  the  toy- 
trade;  next  as  an  assistant  to  a  scene-painter,  from  which 
he  advanced  to  teaching  and  painting.  He  died  at  Har- 
borne.  An.  exhibition  of  his  pictures,  sketches,  and  water- 
color  drawings  was  held  in  London  in  the  same  year.  Be- 
fore his  fame  was  established,  C.  destroyed  not  a  few  of 
his  drawings,  or  sold  them  for  a  few  shillings;  while  before 
and  after  his  death,  £1,575  to  £3,430  have  been  paid  for 
single  pictures.  He  was  thoroughly  insular,  and  distinct- 
ly English  in  his  habits  and  tastes.  His  paintings  are 
usually  small,  and  chiefly  Welsh  subjects;  they  show  thor- 
ough familiarity  with  nature,  and,  though  sometimes 
rough  in  execution,  are  very  effective;  w^hile  he  was  re- 
markable for  his  success  in  sketching  rain  and  wind,  bursts 
of  sunshine,  or  the  herbage  of  marshes.  In  1814,  he  issued 
a  Treatise  on  Landscape  Painting  in  Water  Colors,  which  is 
still  an  authority. 

COX,  Richard:  1499-1581,  July  22;  b.  Whaddou,  Eng. 
land:  clergyman.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  appointed  an  ofiicer  of  Christ- 
church  College,  Oxford,  immediately  after  its  establish- 
ment, by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  thrown  into  prison  for  having 
accepted  the  doctrines  of  the  reformers,  and  subsequently 
became  master  of  Eton,  prebendary  of  Ely  cathedral,  tutor 
to  Prince  Edward,  and,  after  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
chancellor  of  Oxford,  canon  of  Windsor,  dean  of  West- 
minster, and  privy  councilor.  He  suffered  a  brief  im- 
prisonment under  Queen  Mary,  lived  sometime  in  retire- 
ment in  Strasburg,  whence  he  was  recalled  and  appointed 
bp.  of  Ely  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  translated  the  four  gospels, 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  Epistle  to  the  Romans  for  the 

109 


COX-COXALGIA. 

'Bishop's  Bible;' assisted  in  compiling  and  revising  the 
Liturgy;  and  was  noted  for  his  zealous  and  even  violent 
defense  of  the  reformed  faith. 

COX,  Samuel  Hanson,  d.d.,  ll.d.:  1793,  Aug.  25 — 
1880,  Oct.  2;  h.  Leesville,  IST.  J.:  Presb.  minister.  He  was 
of  Quaker  parentage  and  education,  studied  law  a  few 
months,  and  then  turned  to  theol.;  was  ordained  by  the 
presb.  of  IST.  J.,  1817,  July  1;  became  pastor  of  the  Spring 
street  Presb.  church,  New  York,  1820;  made  a  trip  to 
Europe  1833,  had  his  house  and  church  sacked  by  a  mob 
on  account  of  his  activity  in  the  anti-slavery  movement 
1834,  July  10;  was  chosen  prof,  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the 
Auburn  Theol.  Seminary  1834,  and  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Presb.  Church,  Brooklyn,  1837-54,  and  most  of  this  time 
was  also  prof,  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Union  Theol. 
Seminary,  New  York.  Upon  the  division  of  the  Presb. 
Church,  1837,  he  gave  his  adhesion  to  the  '  New  School ' 
branch,  which  he  represented  several  times  in  important 
gatherings  in  Europe,  and  was  moderator  of  its  general 
assembly  1846.  The  failure  of  his  voice  compelled  him  to 
give  up  preaching  1854,  and  he  subsequently  made  his 
home  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.  He  was  author  of  Quakerism  not 
Christiamit/  (1833),  and  Interviews,  Memorable  and  Useful 
(1853),  besides  numerous  discourses  and  sermons. 

COX,  Samuel  Sullivan;  b.  Zanesville,  O.,  1824,  Sep. 
80:  legislator  and  author.  He  studied  at  Ohio  Univ.,  grad- 
uated at  Brown  Univ.  1846,  read  and  practiced  law  in  his 
native  state,  was  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Columbus 
(O.)  Statesman  1853-4,  sec.  of  the  U.  S.  legation  in  Peru 
1855,  and  delegate  to  the  national  democratic  conventions 
1864,  68,  and  76.  In  1856  he  was  elected  member  of  con- 
gress from  the  Columbus  cong.  dist.,  and  served  continu- 
ously by  re-elections,  1857,  Dec.  7-1865,  Mar.  3.  He  re- 
moved to  New  York,  1865,  was  elected  to  congress  1868 
and  served  continuously  till  1885,  when  he  was  appointed 
U.  S.  minister  to  Turkey,  which  office  he  resigned  1886  to 
re-enter  congress,  of  which  he  is  still  a  member  (1888). 
During  his  long  service  he  has  acted  frequently  as  speaker 
of  the  house  pro  tem,,  held  chairmanship  and  memberhip 
on  important  committees,  and  introduced  many  popular 
measures  that  became  laws.  He  has  travelled  extensively, 
and  besides  contributions  to  newspapers  and  magazines  has 
written  The  Buckeye  Abroad  (New  York,  1851);  Puritanism 
in  Politics  (1863);  Eight  Years  in  Congress  (1865);  A  Search 
for  Winter  Sunbeams  {1S70);  Wiy  we  Laugh  (1876);  Free  Land 
and  Free  Trade  (1876);  Arctic  Sunbeams  (1882);  Orient  Sun- 
beams (1882);  Three  Decades  of  Federal  Legislation  (1885); 
Diversions  of  a  Diplomat  in  Turkey  (1887),  and  The  Isles  of 
the  Princes  {IS^l). 

COXA,  n.  koks'a  [L.  coxa,  the  hip]:  one  of  the  highest 
parts  of  the  hinder  legs  of  an  insect,  corresponding  to  the 
hip  of  an  animal. 

COXALGIxi,  koks-al'ji-a,  or  Coxitis,  koks-l'tis:  chronic 
iiitlammationpf  thejhip- joint,  usually  beginning  in  the  head 
of  the  thigh-bone  or  the  socket  of  the  hip-bone,  and  ex- 
no 


COXCIE— COXE. 

tending  to  all  the  surrounding  soft  parts.  The  disease, 
most  frequent  among  children,  often  proceeds  from  a  fall 
or  blow,  and  its  early  presence  is  detected  by  lameness, 
pain  in  the  knee,  and  subsequent  soreness  in  the  joint  it- 
self. The  limb  becomes  shortened,  dislocation  sometimes 
occurs,  and,  more  frequently,  the  socket  of  the  joint  en- 
larges and  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  separates  from  its 
shaft.  Death  may  intervene  from  exhaustion,  the  absorp- 
tion of  pus,  or  pyaemia. 

COXCIE,  or  Coxis,  kolcs~e,  Michael:  1497-1592;  b. 
Mechlise,  Belgium:  painter.  He  pursued  art  studies  with 
Van  Orley  and  in  Rome,  where  hd  executed  a  number  of 
frescoes  in  the  Church  della  Aurina,  and  is  known  chietiy 
by  his  copy  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Lainh  by  the  Van  Eyck 
brothers,  painted  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  removed  from 
Madrid  to  Brussels  by  the  French,  and  subsequently  muti- 
lated and  distributed  between  the  art  galleries  of  Berlin, 
Munich,  and  Amsterdam.  He  made  also  a  notable  series 
of  illustrations  of  the  fable  of  Cupid  and  Psyche. 

COXCOMB,  n.  koks'kdm  [cock's-comh,  something  resem- 
bling it  formerly  worn  by  licensed  fools  in  their  caps:  comp. 
Gael,  coocli,  empty;  com.  the  cavity  of  the  chest]:  a  vain, 
conceited,  silly  man,  fond  of  dress  and  personal  display;  a 
fop;  a  vain  showy  fellow;  in  OE.,  a  fool's  cap;  the  head. 
Coxcombry,  n.  -kbm-ri,  foppishness.  Coxcombical  or 
CoxcoMiCAL,  a.  koks-kom't-cal,  toppish;  conceited.— Syn.  of 
*  coxcombical ':  finical;  dandyish;  spruce;  fanciful. 

COXE,  koks,  Akthitr  Cleveland,  d.d.,  ll.d.:  b. 
Mendham,  N.  J.,  1818,  May  10;  son  of  Samuel  Hanson 
Cox,  D.D.,  using  an  old  spelling  of  the  name:  Prot.  Episc. 
Bishop.  He  graduated  at  the  Univ.  of  the  City  of  New 
York  1838,  and  at  the  Gen.  Theol.  Seminar}^  of  the  Prot. 
Episc.  Church  1841;  was  ordained  deacon  1841,  June  27, 
and  priest,  Sep.  25;  and  was  rector  of  St.  John's  Church, 
Hartford,  1843-54,  Grace,  Baltimore,  1854-63,  and  Cal- 
vary, New  York,  1863-65.  He  was  elected  bp.  of  the 
diocese  of  Tex.,  but  declined  1856;  was  consecrated  asst. 
bp.  of  Western  N.  Y.  1865,  Jan.  4,  and  became  second  bp. 
of  that  diocese  1868,  April.  From  an  early  period  of  his 
ministry  he  has  been  active  in  the  councils  and  work  of 
the  church.  He  has  been  a  member  of  several  general 
conventions;  was  author  of  a  motion  in  the  house  of  depu- 
ties 1853  which  led  to  the  revision  of  the  prayer-book 
1883;  provisional  bp.  of  the  church  in  Hayti,  where  he  or- 
ganized churches  and  ordained  clergy,  1872-74;  delegate  to 
the  second  Lambeth  conference;  and  active  opponent  of 
the  New  Test,  revision.  He  is  a  schoha'  of  wide  travel 
and  large  authorship,  an  expert  controversialist,  and  an 
accomplished  parliamentarian.  Besides  a  large  number  of 
tracts,  translations,  sermons,  lectures,  and  contributions 
to  general  literature,  he  has  published  Advent,  a  Mystery 
(1837),  Jonathan,  the  Lay  of  a  Scold  (1838),  Athwood  (1838), 
Athanasion  and  Other  Poems  (1S42),  IIaUowe'e?i  (1844),  Chris- 
tian Ballads  (1845),  Saul,  a  Mystery  (1845),  and  2 he  Ladye 
Chase  (1877),  poems;  Apology  fw^  the  English  Bible  (1854), 
lit 


COXE— COYPU. 

Thoughts  on  the  Services  (1859),  The  Criierion  (1866),  Angli- 
can Orders  (in  Union  Gheriienne,  Paris,  1867-8),  an  Open 
Letter  to  Pius  /X(1869),  and  Uepiscopat  de  r Occident  (Paris, 
1872).  He  edited  an  American  edition  of  Translations  of 
the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (1885-6),  and  in  1888,  July,  con- 
firmed a  large  portion  of  Pere  Hyacinthe's  congregation  in 
Paris. 

COXE,  koks,  William:  1747,  Mar.-1828,  June;  b.  Lon- 
don: historical  writer.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
As  tutor  to  the  sous  of  several  noblemen,  he,  at  various 
times,  spent  many  years  on  the  continent,  w^here  he  ne- 
glected no  opportunity  of  collecting  information  about  the 
countries  which  he  visited.  The  result  appeared  in  many 
volumes  of  travels  and  history,  all  of  which  are  character- 
ized by  close  observation,  care,  and  research;  but  the 
writing  in  general  is  far  from  sprightly.  Among  the  best 
known  of  C.'s  works  is  his  History  of  the  House  Austria, 
still  a  standard  work.  C.  wrote  also  History  of  the  Kings  of 
Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Pelham  Administration,  besides  many  contributions  on  the 
topography  and  social  condition  of  several  continental 
countries.  C,  who  commenced  his  clerical  life  1771  as  a 
curate  at  Denham,  hear  Uxbridge,  ended  it  as  archdeacon 
of  Wilts,  which  appointment  he  obtained  in  1805.  Several 
of  his  w^orks  have  been  published  in  Bohn's  Standard  Li- 
brary. 

COXIM,  kb-shein!\  one  of  the  head-waters  of  La  Plata. 
It  rises  in  Matto  Grosso,  a  frontier  province  of  Brazil,  to- 
ward Bolivia  and  Peru;  and,  after  flowing  first  n.e.  then 
n.w.,  it  enters  the  Taquari,  itself  a  tributary  of  the  Para- 
guay, in  lat.  18°  24'  south.  The  C.  receives  many  afliuents. 

COXSWAIN:  see  Cockswain. 

COY,  a.  k  y  [F.  coi,  still,  quiet:  It.  cheto;  Sp.  quedo;  L. 
quietus,  quiet]:  bashful;  modest;  reserved;  not  accessible:  Y. 
to  treat  with  reverse;  to  condescend  unwillingly.  Coy'ing, 
imp.  CoYED,  pp.  koyd.  Coy  ly,  ad.  -U.  Coy'ness,  n. 
reserve;  unwillingness  to  become  familiar.  Coy'ish,  a.  ishy 
somewhat  coy.  Coy  ishly,  ad.  -li.  Coy  ishness,  n.  a  quiet 
reserved  bashfulness;  unwillingness  to  become  friendly. — 
Syn.  of  'coy,  a.':  shy;  distant;  backward;  shrinking; 
strange. 

COYOTE:  see  Wolf. 

COYPU,  koy-po  (Myopotamus  Coypu):  rodent  quadru- 
ped nearly  allied  to  the  beaver,  w^ith  which  it  agrees  in  the 
number  and  character  of  its  teeth,  in  its  short  limbs,  in  its 
feet  having  five  toes  each,  the  hinder  feet  w^ebbed  and  the 
fore  feet  not  webbed,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  its 
habits;  but  from  which  it  differs  in  the  form  of  its  skull, 
having  a  more  elongated  muzzle  and  a  contracted  palate, 
and  in  its  slender  tail  resembling  that  of  a  mouse.  It  is  the 
only  known  species  of  its  genus,  and  inhabits  a  great  part  of 
S.  America,  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes,  burrow  ing  in  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  and  sometimes  in  forests  near  the  sea- 

112 


COYSTREL-COZZEXS. 


beach.  It  is  very  nearly  equal  in  size  to  the  beaver,  has 
small  ears,  very  long  and  stilf  whiskers,  and  long  hair 
mixed  with  dense  and  soft  short  hair,  the  upper  parts  beau- 
tifully pencilled  with  diiierent  shades  of  yellow,  the  sides 


Coypu  (Myopotamus  Coypii). 


and  under  parts  lighter  and  more  uniform  in  color.  The 
fur  has  become  an  important  article  of  commerce,  under 
the  name  of  Kacooxda  (q.v.)  andXuTRiA,  the  latter  name 
signifying  in  Spanish  an  otter,  apparently  given  it  by  mis- 
take, but  being  that  chiefly  used  in  Britain. 

COYSTREL,  n.  k^ysua  [OF.  coustillkr,  a  squire  who 
carried  the  aims  by  the  side  of  his  master] :  in  OE. ,  a  groom 
or  lad  who  carried  a  knight's  arms,  etc.;  a  degenerate  hawk; 
an  unwarlike  attendant  on  an  army;  a  cowardly  man;  a  pol- 
troon. 

COZ,  n.  kuz,  a  contracted  foim  of  cousin. 

COZEN,  V.  kO.z'n  [OF.  cousiner,  to  claim  kindred  for  par- 
ticular ends,  in  F.  to  call  any  one  cousin,  to  sponge:  Gael. 
coisinn,  to  gain,  to  win]:  to  cheat;  to  defraud;  to  deceive. 
Coz'exin'g.  imp.  kiiznAng.  Cozened,  pp.  kiiz  end.  Coz  - 
ener, n.  -en-t  r,  a  cheat.  Coz  enage,  n.  -eii-aj,  fraud;  de- 
ceit; the  practice  of  cheating. 

COZIER,  n.  kuz\-ir  [Gael,  coisear,  a  pedestrian— from 
coise,  feet]:  in  OE.,  a  traveller  on  foot;  a  tramp. 

COZY,  or  Cosy,  or  Cosey,  a.  kozi  [Scot,  cosie,  sheltered, 
warm:  Gael,  cos,  a  recess;  cioseach,  a  wann  quiet  corner]: 
warm;  snug;  comfortable;  chatty;  social;  written  also  CosiE. 
X.  a  decorated  padded  cover  put  over  a  tea-  or  coffee-pot 
while  on  table  to  keep  the  pot  warm  and  promote  the  perfect 
infusion  of  the  tea  or  coffee.  Co'zily,  or  Co  sily,  or  Co  - 
SEYLY,  ad.  -11. 

COZZEXS,  kuz'ens,  Frederick  Swartwout:  1818, 
Mar.  5 — 1869,  Dec.  23;  b.  Xew  i  ork:  author.  He  was  ed- 
ucated in  Xew  York,  engaged  in  business  as  a  wine  mer- 
chant when  21  years  old;  edited  and  published  the  Wine 
Pi^ess,  one  of  the  earliest  trade  papers,  and  applied  the 
greater  part  of  his  leisure  to  literary  works.  Excepting  his 
essays  on  grape-culture  and  wine-making  in  his  paper,  and 
his  MeinoriaJ  of  Col.  Peter  A.  Porter  and  Jtfemorial  of  Fitz- 

113 


CRAB. 

Oreene  Halleck,  his  writings  in  prose  and  verse  are  highly 
humorous,  and  include  Prisni(Uics  (articles  contributed  to 
the  Knickerbocker  Magazine,  185B;;  The  Sparrowgr ass  Papers 
(1856);  Acadia;  a  Sojour/i  among  ike  Blue- JVoses  A 
True  History  of  New  Plyirtouih  (1858);  and  Sayings  of  Dr. 
Bushwhacker  and  other  Learned  Men  (18(57). 

CRAB,  n.  krtib  [Sw.  krahba,  a  crab-fish,  from  the  notion 
of  pinching,  in  allusion  to  the  bitter  taste :  comp.Gael.  craohh, 
a  tree]:  a  sour  harsh  apple,  growing  on  native,  wild,  or  un- 
cultivated trees;  the  Pyrus  mCdiis,  Ord.  Eosdcem  (see  Crab 
apple):  a  peevish,  morose  person:  Adj.  crablike;  sour. 
Crabbed,  a.  krdb'ed,  sour  and  ill-tempered;  rough;  auslere; 
peevish;  morose.  Crab'bedly,  ad.  -li.  Crabbedness,  n. 
Crab-lobster  {Porcellana),  a  genus  of  crustaceans,  tribe 
Anomura.  Crab-louse,  a  kind  of  louse,  Plithirius  ingui- 
nalis,  found  in  certain  cases  on  the  human  body,  to  which  it 
closely  adheres.  Crab-tree,  n.  wild  apple-tree.  Note. — 
Crabbed,  etc.,  may  be  connected  with  Dut.  krabben,  to 
scratch;  kribben,  to  quarrel,  to  be  peevish;  Icel.  krabba^Xo 
scrawl:  hence,  *  to  write  a  crabbed  hand/  is  to  write  in  a  stiff, 
scratchy  style. 

CRAB,  n.  krdh  \^^.cabra,  a  goat,  a  machine  for  throwing 
stones;  cabria,  a  crane:  comp.  Gael,  cabar,  a  stake,  a  pole 
— lit.,  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  a  windlass]:  an  apparatus  some- 
thing like  a  capstan,  and  used  for  similar  purposes;  an  engine 
with  three  claws  for  launching  ships.  Craber,  n.  krd'ber, 
in  OE.,  the  water-rat. 

CRAB,  n.  krcib  [Icel.  krabbi\  Dan.  krahbe;  Ger.  krebs,  a 
crab,  the  pinching  animal:  L.  carabus;  Gr.  karabos,  a 
prickly  kind  of  crab,  also  a  kind  of  beetle:  Bret,  krah,  a  crab; 
kraban,i\  claw]:  popular  name  of  all  the  crustaceans  or  shell- 
fish of  the  order  JDecapoda  (highest  order  of  crustaceans, 
characterized  by  great  concentration  of  the  nervous  system 
and  corresponding  general  concentration,  by  five  pairs  of 
thoracic  limbs,  and  by  having  the  gills  inclosed  in  a  special 
cavity  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  covered  by  the  cai'apace) 
and  sub-order  Bracliyoura  (characterized  by  the  small  size 
of  the  abdomen,  which  resembles  a  short  tail  curved  under 
the  thorax  and  appressed  to  it,  all  the  most  important  vis- 
cera being  included  in  the  thorax),  and  extended  also  to 
some  of  the  sub-order  Anomoura  (Purse-crabs,  Hermit- 
crabs,  etc.,  characterized  by  a  condition  of  abdomen  inter 
mediate  between  that  of  the  Brachyoura  and  that  of  the 
Macroura,  or  Long-tailed  Decapod  Crustaceans,  such  aa 
the  Lobster,  Cray  hsh,  &c.).  All  the  crabs,  besides  many 
other  crustaceans,  were  comprehended  in  the  Linnaean 
genus  Cancer;  but  the  number  of  species  is  very  great,  and 
the  Brachyoura  alone  are  now  arranged  into  many  genera 
and  even  families.  The  diflierent  kinds  of  crabs  dilf er  very 
much  in  the  form  of  the  carapace  (the  back),  which,  in  some 
is  orbicular  or  nearly  so;  in  some,  much  broader  than  it  is 
long;  in  others,  longer  than  broad;  in  some,  prolonged  in 
front  into  a  kind  of  beak,  etc.;  also  in  its  smoothness,  or 
roughness  with  hairs,  tubercles,  or  spines;  in  the  length  of 
the  legs,  etc.    The  eyes  are  compound,  with  hexagonal 

114 


CRAB. 

facets,  and  are  elevated  on  stalks,  which  are  generally- 
short,  but  sometimes  considerably  lengthened,  and  which 
have  the  power  of  motion,  so  as  to  turn  the  eye  in  different 
directions.  The  first  pair  of  limbs  are  not  used  for  loco- 
motion, but  exhibit  in  great  perfection  the  characteristic 
claws  or  pincers  ichelce)  of  the  decapod  crustaceans.  Crabs 
are  inhabitants  of  almost  all  seas;  most  of  them,  however, 
having  their  limbs  formed  for  Avalking  i-ather  than  for  swim- 
ming, are  found  chietiy  near  the  coast;  some  inhabiting 
comparatively  deep  water,  and  others  abounding  in  those 
parts  which  are  left  by  the  receding  tide,  where  they  occur 
equally  in  the  rock  pools  and  among  the  moist  sea-weeds. 
Some  small  kinds  of  crabs  {Pea  Crabs)  are  often 
found  in  the  inside  of  mussels  and  other  bivalve  mollusks. 
Some  crabs  inhabit  fresh  water,  particularly  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  world;  others,  known  as  land-crabs  (q.v.), 
live  among  moist  herbage,  or  burrow  in  sand  or  earth. 
Some  have  the  last  pair  of  limbs  expanded  at  the  extremity 
into  a  broad  blade  for  swimming,  and  some  have  even  all 


Large  edible  Crab  {Cancer  Pagurus.) 


the  four  pair  of  limbs  intended  for  locomotion  thus  ex- 
panded, and  sometimes  occur  far  out  at  sea.  Some  of  the 
crabs,  with  very  long  legs,  are  known  as  Spider-crabs. 
Crabs  molt  or  change  their  shell,  not  at  fixed  intervals  or 
seasons,  but  according  to  the  exigencies  of  their  growth; 
k  the  change  being  made  with  great  frequency  when  they 
are  very  young,  but  rarely  in  advanced  age:  indeed,  from 
the  mollu.sks,  and  other  animals  sometimes  found  ad- 
hering to  the  carapace,  it  is  inferred  that  the  same  covering 
is  sometimes  worn  for  a  number  of  years. — For  the  meta- 
morphosis of  crabs,  see  Crustaceans. — Crabs  are  interest- 
ing inmates  of  the  aquarium,  from  their  readiness  in 
seizing  food,  their  activity  in  tearing  and  eating  it,  their 
general  habits,  and,  in  particular,  their  pugnacity.  The 
number  of  specimens  is  apt,  however,  to  be  soon  diminished 
by  the  stronger  killing  and  eating  the  weaker.— Many  kinds 
of  crabs  are  used  as  food  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  as 
the  Large  Edible  C.  {Cancel^  Pagurus)  and  Small  Edible  C. 
{Gdrcinus  Mamas)  of  the  British  shores.  The  latter  is  ex- 
tremely common  on  all  parts  of  the  coast,  but  is  not  nearly 
so  much  esteemed  as  the  former,  which  is  much  sought  af- 
ter, and  is  caught  either  in  the  holes  of  the  rocks  at  low 
tide,  or  by  means  of  a  kind  of  trap,  a  basket  which  readily 


CRAB— CRABBE. 

permits  its  entrance  but  not  its  escape,  and  which  is  baited 
with  meat  or  animal  garbage  of  some  kind.  In  winter  it 
seems  to  retire  to  deeper  water.  Its  black  claws  and  very- 
broad  carapace,  arched  at  the  sides,  distinguish  it  from 
many  other  species.  It  is  sometimes  nearly  a  foot  in 
breadth.  The  claws  of  the  Edible  C.  were  formerly  ground 
to  powder  and  used  as  a  medicine,  having,  however,  no 
properties  but  those  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

CRAB,  Roger:  singular  sectary  of  the  English  Revolu- 
tion, who  served  for  seven  years  in  the  parliamentary 
army:  died,  1680,  Sep.  11.  C.  set  up  in  business  as  *  a  haber- 
dasher of  hats'  at  Chesham,  Buckinghamshire,  and  im- 
bibed the  idea  that  is  was  sinful  to  eat  any  kind  of  animal 
food,  or  to  drink  anything  stronger  than  water.  Deter- 
mined to  follow,  literally,  the  injunctions  given  to  the 
3^oung  man  in  the  gospel,  he  sold  of  this  stock-in-trade,  dis- 
tributing the  proceeds  among  the  poor,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  a  hut.  His  food  consisted  of  bran,  dock- 
leaves,  mallows,  and  grass.  The  persecutions  the  poor 
man  intiicted  on  himself  caused  him  to  be  persecuted  by 
others,  unmercifully  whipped,  and  put  in  the  stocks. 
Though  he  declared  that  he  was  neither  a  Quaker,  a 
Shaker,  or  a  Ranter,  he  w^as  four  times  arrested  on  suspi- 
cion of  being  a  wizard,  and  was  sent  from  prison  to  prison; 
yet  still  he  would  persist  in  his  course  of  life.  He  pub- 
lished two  pamphlets,  one  entitled  The  English  Hermit;  the 
other  Dagon's  Downfall.  It  is  evident  that  he  was  insane. 
His  last  known  residence  was  at  Bethnal  Green. 

CRABB,  krah,  George:  1778,  Dec.  8—1854,  Dec.  14; 
b.  Palgrave,  England:  lawyer  and  philologist.  He  grad- 
uated at  Oxford  Univ.  when  43  years  old,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  when  51.  He  compiled  a  number  of  edu- 
cational text-books;  English  Synonymes  (1816):  An  Histori- 
cal Dictionary  (1825);  Mythology  of  all  Nations  (1847);  A 
Technological  Dictionary;  A  History  of  the  English  Law;  A 
Digest  and  Index  of  all  the  Statutes  at  Large;  ATechnical  Dic- 
tionary of  Terms  used  in  Science  and  Art;  and  A  Dictionary 
of  General  Knowledge.  His  English  Synonymes  has  been 
widely  used. 

CRAB:  n.  one  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 

CRABBE,  krah,  George:  1754,  Dec.  24—1832,  Feb.  3; 
b.  Aldborough,  in  Suffolk:  English  poet.  His  father  was 
a  warehouse  keeper,  and  collector  of  the  salt-duties  at  Ald- 
borough, and  exerted  himself  to  secure  for  his  son  a  su- 
perior education.  C.  early  showed  a  passion  for  all  kinds 
of  book-learning,  with  a  decided  bias  toward  poetry.  After 
being  tolerably  grounded  at  school  in  mathematics  and 
classics,  he  was,  in  his  14tli  year,  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon 
at  Wickham  Brook,  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds;  but  he  bad 
no  liking  for  the  profession,  and  ultimately  went  to  Lon- 
don, 1780,  with  £3  in  his  pocket,  to  make  a  trial  of  litera- 
ture. For  a  while  he  was  very  unfortunate.  At  last,  when 
threatened  with  arrest  for  debt,  he  resolved  to  make  his 
case  known  to  Burke.  He  told  Mr.  Lockhart,  years  after- 
ward, *  the  night  after  I  delivered  the  letter  at  the  door,  I 
m 


CRABETH. 

was  in  such  a  state  of  agitation  that  I  walked  Westminster 
Bridge  backward  and  forward  until  daylight.'  The  great 
orator  at  once  appointed  an  interview,  looked  over  C.'s 
poetical  compositions,  suggested  several  alterations  which 
were  adopted,  and  linally  took  The  Library  andT/^e  Village 
to  Mr.  Dodsley,  by  w^hom  the  first-named  poem  was  pub- 
lished, 1781.  (J  went  to  reside  at  Beaconsheld  with  his 
generous  and  brilliant  acquaintance,  and  while  there  met 
Fox,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  Lord  Thurlow;  the  last  of 
these  invited  the  new  celebrity  to  breakfast,  and  presented 
him  with  a  bank-note  for  £100,  at  parting. 

By  the  advice  of  Burke,  C.  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
was  ordained  curate  of  his  native  place  1782.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  appointed  domestic  chaplain  to  the  Duke 
of  Rutland,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Belvoir  Castle. 
The  Village  appeared  1783,  and  established  the  reputation 
of  its  author.  Shortly  afterward,  Lord  Thurlow  presented 
him  with  two  small  livuigs  in  Dorsetshire;  and  C,  free 
from  the  fear  of  want,  married  Miss  Sarah  Elmy,  and  en- 
tered into  the  piu'cst  domestic  happiness.  In  1785,  he 
left  the  castle,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the  parsonage 
of  Strathern;  thereafter  for  many  years  he  botanized,  stud- 
ied geology,  wrote  poems,  saw — in  hurried  visits  to  London 
— the  distinguished  men  of  his  time,  and  was  courted  by 
them,  enjoying  an  uninterrupted  course  of  happiness  and 
honor. 

The  Neijospa^per  appeared  1785;  in  1807,  C.  published  Jhe 
Parish  Register;  in  1810,  The  Borough;  two  years  later,  he 
produced  his  Tales  in  Verse;  and,  1819,  he  gave  to  the  w^orld 
his  Tales  of  the  Hall.  In  1813  his  wife  died,  and  soon  after- 
ward he  procured  the  living  of  Trow^bridge,  w^here,  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  he  resided.  In  the  autumn  of  1822, 
he  visited  Edinburgh,  and  was  the  guest  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
His  health  began  to  fail  at  the  age  of  74,  and  four  years 
later  he  died. 

C.  disdained  all  the  luxuries  of  his  art.  He  has  no  he- 
roes with  a  Hyperian  front,  and  no  heroines  radiant  as 
Aurora.  He  worked  w^ith  the  delf,  not  with  the  porcelain 
of  human  clay.  He  concerns  himself  with  w41d  smugglers, 
denizens  of  villages  by  the  sea,  full  of  ancient  and  fish-like 
smells;  g3^psies  on  the  heath,  cooking  the  fowl  purloined 
from  the  neighboring  barnyard;  with  tramps,  vagabonds, 
and  vagrants,  and  the  inmates  of  the  w^orkhouse.  On  his 
page  these  unsavory  individuals  live,  carouse,  curse,  brawl, 
and  die.  He  has  pages  stern  as  anything  in  The  Inferno; 
many,  droll  as  Hogarth's  pictures;  and  one  or  tw^o  so 
sw^eet,  and  tender,  and  pathetic,  that  no  man  of  any  sensi- 
bility can  read  them  unmoved. 

CRABETH,  kra'het,  Dirk  and  Wouter — the  last  sur- 
named  theElder:  two  brothers,  glass-painters,  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  16th  c:  b.  (it  is  supposed)  at  Gouda  in  s.  Hol- 
land. It  seems  that  Dirk  visited  France  in  his  youth, 
while  Wouter  journe^^ed  to  Italy,  v/here  he  studied  the 
works  of  Raphael,  as  is  evident  from  his  productions. 
Wouter,  it  is  said,  surpassed  his  brother  in  drawing,  grace, 
m 


CRABIONID^— CRACKED  HEELS. 

and  clearness,  while  Dirk  surpassed  him  in  coloring.  They, 
however,  were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  each  concealed 
from  the  other  the  secrets  of  his  processes.  Their  con- 
joint work  in  the  church  of  St.  John  at  Gouda,  is  the  mas- 
terpiece of  the  two  brothers.  Of  the  eleven  painted  win- 
dows in  that  church,  seven  are  by  Dirk,  and  four  by 
Wouter.  They  were  done  1555 — 71.  Dirk  died,  it  is  be"- 
lieved,  1601.  It  is  unknown  when  Wouter  died.  The 
brothers  were  buried  in  the  sanctuary  that  they  had  so  sur- 
passingly illustrated. 

CRABIONID^,  krd-hron'i-de:  family  of  hymenopterous 
Insects,  section  Aculeaia,  sub-section  Fossores. 

CRABRO,  krd'brd:  hymenopterous  insect  of  the  hornet 
family:  see  Hornet. 

CRABS,  n.  plu. :  in  gaming,  the  lowest  cast  at  hazard. 

CRACID^,  n.  krdsl-de  [mod.  L.  cvax  (gen.  craci8)\  fem. 
pi.  adj.  suf.  -ddce]:  the  Currassows,  a  family  of  gallinaceous 
birds.  Genera  Grax,  Penelope,  Ourax,  etc.;  found  in  Cen- 
tral and  S.  America;  apparently  the  American  representa- 
tives of  the  Phasianidoi  (pheasants)  of  the  eastern  world. 

CRACK,  n.  krdk  [a  word  imitative  of  the  sound  of  a  hard 
substance  in  splitting,  or  by  the  collision  of  hard  bodies:  F 
crac;  jyxxt.  krak;  Gael. a  crack:  Dut,  A:yaA;A:6n,to  crack] : 
a  partial  break  by  which  the  parts  are  not  wholly  separated 
from  one  another;  a  chink  or  fissure;  a  crevice;  a  rent;  any 
violent,  sudden,  or  sharp  sound;  a  smart,  quick  blow,  such 
as  may  cause  a  rent;  in  OE.,  a  lad  or  youth:  Y.  to  rend;  to 
burst  or  break  partially;  to  split;  to  break  completely,  as  a 
Dut;  to  send  forth  a  loud  piercing  noise;  to  echo  loudly;  to 
disorder  or  destroy;  to  throw  out  smartly  with  noise,  as  to 
crack  a  whip,  to  crack  a  joke.  Cracking,  imp.  Cracked, 
pp.  krdkt.  Adj.  split;  broken;  crazed.  Crack'er,  n.  a 
noisy  fire-work;  a  hard  biscuit;  anything  that  breaks  sharp- 
ly. Crack  BRAINED,  crazed.  To  crack  a  bottle,  to  open 
and  drinks  its  contents.  In  a  crack,  instantly;  without  de- 
lay.— Syn.  of  'crack,  v.':  to  shiver;  tear;  fissure;  distress; 
disorder;  derange;  snap;  puff. 

CRACK,  V.  krdk  [Gael,  crac,  to  talk:  OE.  crake,  to  talk, 
to  boast:  F.  slang,  cracker,  to  talk:  mid.  L.  cracdre,  to  croak]: 
in  Scot.,  to  talk  or  converse  in  a  familiar  friendly  way;  in 
OE.,  to  brag;  to  boast;  extol;  praise:  N.  a  familiar  friendly 
conversation:  Adj.  m  familiar  language,  having  qualities  to 
be  boasted  of;  first-rate,  as  a  crack  horse,  a  crack  stud. 

CRACKED  HEELS:  disease  in  horses'  feet.  From 
careless  grooming,  washing  horses'  legs  and  imperfectly 
drying  them,  permitting  them  to  stand  in  accumulations  of 
tilth  or  exposed  to  draughts,  the  skin  becomes  inflamed, 
tender,  itchy,  thickened,  and,  by  and  by,  cracked.  An 
ichorous,  noisome  discharge  exudes,  and  lameness  often  re- 
sults. In  animals  with  round  gummy  legs,  it  is  sometimes 
constitutional;  underbred  horses,  with  rough  hairy  fetlocks, 
present  the  majority  of  cases;  wliite  heels,  being  more  deli- 
cate, are  especially  affected;  while  the  the  hind  limbs,  ex- 
posed as  they  are  to  tilth  and  cold,  suffer  most  frequently, 

116 


CRACKERS— CRACOW. 
Treatment.  Cleanse  carefully  with  tepid  water;  w^ash  with 
a  diluted  solution  of  Goulard's  Extract,  or  any  other  mild 
astringent,  or  dress  occasionally  with  oxide  or  zinc  oint- 
ment. Give,  besides,  a  half-dose  of  physic,  and  a  few 
mashes,  carrots,  swedes,  or  such  laxative  food,  and  where 
persistent,  use  diuretics  (q.v.).  When  the  affected  parts 
are  dry  and  irritable,  poultice  and  apply  glycerine  before 
proceeding  with  astringents  In  cold  weather,  especially 
w^hen  the  horse  is  heated,  avoid  washing  the  legs,  except 
with  tepid  water  and  with  careful  drying. 

CRACK  ERS:  name  in  the  United  States  for  w^hat  are 
known  in  Britain  as  Biscuit  (q.v.). 

CRACKLE,  V.  krak'l  [from  Ckack  1]:  to  send  out  slight 
cracks  or  snaps;  to  repeat  small  cracks  rapidly;  to  crepitate. 
Crackli:ng,  \m\).krnk'ring.  Crackled, pp.  krak'ld.  Crack'- 
LiNGS,  n.  plu.  cakes  made  from  the  refuse  of  tallow-melting, 
used  for  dogs'  food.  Crackle-ware:  see  Cracklin.  Crack- 
nel, n  krdk'nel  [F.  craquelin,  a  cracknel]:  a  small  brittle 
cake  or  biscuit. 

CRACKLIN,  krdk'lin:  a  kind  of  chinaware,  the  glazing 
of  which  is  purposely  cracked  in  the  kiln,  as  an  ornament; 
often  called  crackle-ware, 

CRACOVIENNE  krd-kfhve-en'  {krakowiak):  national 
dance  of  the  Polish  peasantry  around  Cracow.  It  has  a 
rather  melancholy  than  lively  melody  in  |  time,  and  is  ac- 
companied by  singing.  The  pair  who  lead  off  the  dance 
often  begin  with  only  the  music  of  their  own  voices,  and 
are  soon  followed  by  others,  and  the  charm  of  the  dance 
consists  much  in  the  diverting  movements  b}^  which  they 
seem  to  chase  and  avoid  each  other.  The  Poles  have  a 
multitude  of  little  ditties  of  two  lines  each,  adapted  to  this 
music  and  dance,  which  generally  contain  some  allusion 
to  natural  phenomena,  accompanied  with  some  slight  pleas- 
antry. 

CRACOW,  krakb  [Pol.  Krako'G^  formerly  cap.  of  a 
small  Polish  republic,  and  anciently  cap.  of  the  kingdom 
of  Poland,  now  an  Austrian  city;  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  where  it  becomes  a  navigable  river,  in  a  beautiful 
plain  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of  gentle  hills;  lat.  50° 
4'  n.,  long.  19'  52'  e.  It  contains 46  churches,  15  monasteries, 
10  nunneries,  and  7  Jewish  synagogues.  The  ancient  city 
of  C.  is  a  labyrinth  of  narrow,  dark,  and  deserted  streets, 
but  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
its  churches  and  other  edifices;  and  some  handsome  build- 
ings are  also  in  the  more  modern  suburbs.  The  old  walls 
have  been  converted  into  a  promenade.  In  the  midst  of  the 
houses  rises  the  castle,  a  huge  building  of  imposing  appear- 
ance. The  cathedral  contains  the  tombs  of  many  of  the 
Polish  kings,  and  of  some  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  Po- 
lish nation.  The  university  was  founded  1364,  by  Casimir 
the  Great,  whose  design  w^as  carried  into  effect  by  Jagello 
and  Hedwig  1401.  It  was  long  the  centre  of  light  for  Po- 
land, but  decayed  under  the  influences  of  the  Jesuits,  till  it 
ceased  to  exigt.    It  was  reorganized  and  reopened  1817, 

119 


CRACOWE— CRAFT. 

and  underwent  important  changes  1833.  It  has  a  museum 
of  natural  history,  a  botanic  garden,  a  library  of  more  than 
140,000  vols.,  and  many  mss,  of  great  value  in  connection 
with  Polish  history.  Its  manufactures  are  unimportant; 
and  its  trade,  at  one  time  extensive,  became,  for  a  period, 
very  limited,  but  has  of  late  years  greatly  revived,  owing 
to  the  extension  of  its  railway  communications,  which  con- 
nect it  with  Vienna,  Berlin,  Warsaw,  and  Lemberg.  Three 
miles  w.  of  the  city  is  a  vast  tumulus  to  the  memory  of 
Kosciusko.  It  is  composed  of  earth  taken  from  all  the 
patriotic  battle-fields  of  Poland. 

C.  was  founded  by  Krak,  Prince  of  Poland,  from  whom 
it  derives  its  name  about  700,  became  cap.  of  Poland  1320, 
and  continued  to  be  so  till  1609,  when  that  honor  was 
transferred  to  Warsaw  by  Sigismund  III.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Bohemians  1039,  by  the  Mongols  1241,  by  the  Swedes 
1655  and  1702,  and  by  the  Russians  1768.  On  the  third 
partition  of  Poland,  1795,  it  was  assigned  to  Austria.  From 
1809  to  15,  it  formed  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  The 
congress  of  Vienna  established  it  as  a  republic,  with  a  small 
territory  containing  about  140,000  inhabitants,  under  the 
protectorate  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  The  terii- 
tory  bordered  with  that  of  each  of  these  great  powers.  In- 
ternal dissensions  between  the  nobles  and  the  common 
people  afforded  a  pretence  for  interference,  and  the  sym- 
pathy shown  by  the  inhabitants  of  C.  for  the  cause  of  Po- 
lish independence  in  1830  and  following  years  was  made 
the  ground  of  proceedings,  which  terminated,  1846,  in  the 
annexation  of  C.  to  the  Austrian  dominions,  a  measure 
alleged  to  be  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  neighboring 
states,  but  against  which  Britain  and  Frnuce  protested.  C. 
now  forms  part  of  the  Austrian  crown-laiid  of  Galicia.  An 
extensive  line  of  fortifications  has  been  constructed  around 
it  by  the  Austrian s,  with  numerous  detached  forts,  and 
one  immense  fortress  on  a  height  commanding  the  city, 
whose  outworks  extend  over  a  space  of  about  five  miles. 
These  works  are  intended  as  a  barrier  against  the  advance 
of  Russia.    Pop.  (1880)  66,095,  of  whom  14,000  are  Jews. 

CRACOWE,  n.  krd'kd  [from  Cracow,  a  city  in  Poland]:  a 
kind  of  boot  or  shoe,  with  extremely  long  pointed  toes;  in- 
troduced from  Cracow. 

CRADLE,  n.  krd'dl  [AS.  cradol;  Gael,  creatjiall,  a  cradle 
— from  eredtJiach,  underwood-  Gael,  craidlileaf,  a  basket,  a 
creel] :  a  movable  bed  in  which  children  are  rocked  to  sleep, 
so  named  as  made  of  wicker-work;  infancy j  a  framework 
used  for  various  purposes,  as  in  ship-building;  a  rocking- 
machine  used  in  gold-mining:  V.  to  lay  or  rock  in  a  cradle; 
to  nurse  tenderly.  Cradling,  imp.  kra'dling:  N.  the  open 
timbers  or  ribs  of  any  vaulted  ceiling.  Cradled,  pp.  krd'- 
dld,  lodged  as  in  a  cradle. 

CRAFT,  n.  kraft  [AS.  cro'ft,  strength,  skill:  Tcel.  craftr, 
craft,  force:  Ger.  kinft,  strength,  power:  W.  craffu,  to  seize 
with  the  understanding] :  a  trade  requiring  skill ;  manual  art 
or  skill;  fraud;  cunning;  small  sailing-ships.  Craftsman, 
n.  krdfts'7ndn,  a  mechanic;  an  artificer.  Crafts  master,  n. 

1-20 


CRAPT-CRAG. 

a  skilled  artificer.  Crafty,  a.  krafti,  artful;  cunning 
Craf  TiLY,  ad.  -li.  Craf  tiness,  n.  -ti-ms,  dexterity  in 
devising  and  effecting  a  purpose;  cunning.  Craft'less,  a. 
destitute  of  craft.  Han  dtcraft,  n.  -i-knift,  a  trade  require 
ing  skilled  labor:  Adj.  of  or  pertaining  to  skilled  labor. — 
Syn.  of  '  crafty':  wily;  sly;  deceitful;  subtle;  shrewd;  fraud- 
ulent. 

CRAFT,  krdft:  general  designation  for  lighters,  hoys, 
barges,  etc.,  employed  in  loading  or  unloading  large  ships. 
In  the  navy,  the  name  small  G.  is  sometimes  given  to  ves- 
sels commanded  by  lieutenants,  such  as  cutters,  schoon- 
ers, gun-boats,  etc.  Also,  craft  is  a  term  applied  by  seamen 
to  any  vessel  whatever. 

CRAG,  n.  krdg  [Dut.  kraeglie,  the  throat:  Icel.  krage,  the 
collar  of  a  coat;  kraki,  spittle:  Ger.  kragen,  a  collar,  the 
throat]:  in  Scot.,  and  OE.,  the  neck;  the  throat. 

CRAG,  n.  krdg  [Gael,  creag  and  carraig;  W.  craig,  a  rock; 
W.  careg,  a  stone;  caregos,  pebbles]:  a  steep  rugged  rock; 
a  cliff;  a  rocky  point  or  ridge  on  a  hill;  in  geoL,  shelly 
tertiary  deposits  of  the  pliocene  epoch,  used  as  a  fertilizer 
chiefly  developed  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  characterizing 
several  groups  of  strata:  see  ISToRwacH  or  Mammalifer- 
ous  Crag:  Red  Crag.  CRAGGY,a.  krdg'gi,  also  Cragged, 
a.  krdg'ged,  covered  with  crags,  or  broken  rocks;  rugged: 
Crag'gedness,  n.  -ged-nes,  fujness  of  crags  or  prominent 
rocks:  Crag'giness,  n.  -gi-nes,  state  of  being  craggy: 
Crag  and  tail,  in  geoL,  peculiar  hill  conformation,  in 
which  a  bold  and  precipitous  front  exists  on  one  aspect  of 
a  hill,  while  the  opposite  shows  a  sloping  declivity.  Those 
who  first  observed  this  form  of  the  surface,  believed  it  was 
the  effect  of  currents  of  water  moving  in  the  direction  in- 
dicated by  the  C.  and  T. ;  latterly,  there  have  been  specula- 
tions calling  in  the  aid  of  ice,  though  not  excluding  the 
action  of  w^ater.  Fine  examples  of  this  structure  occur  in 
and  around  Edinburgh,  where  the  western  current  has 
left  the  bold  *  Craig  '  facing  the  w.,  and  the  *  Tail '  sloping 
toward  the  e.;  for  example,  the  castle  rock,  precipitous  and 
unapproachable  on  every  side  except  the  e.,  where  it  has 
protected  the  shale  and  sandstone  beds  from  erosion.  The 
direction  and  progress  of  the  current  can  easily  be  traced; 


Castle  Rock,  Edinburgh. 

rushing  against  the  hard  basalt  of  the  castle  rock,  it  was 
turned  aside,  and  continued  its  course  eastward,  hollowing 
out  the  Nor'  Loch  on  one  side  and  the  Cowgate  valley  on 
the  other,  until  the  influence  of  the  rock  being  lost,  and 
aided  by  the  resistance  of  the  Calton  hill  and  Salisbury 
craigs,  the  currents  again  met  in  the  valley  at  Holyrood, 
when  the  '  tail '  entirely  disappears. 

1-21 


CRAIG. 

Cl^xVIG,  krdg,  John:  abt  1512-1600,  Dec.  12;  b.  Scol- 
Uind:  eminent  preaclier  of  the  Heforniation.  Having  spent 
some  time  as  a  tutor  in  England,  he  returned  to  Scotland 
and  entered  the  Dominican  order,  of  which  he  had  not  long- 
been  a  member  when  he  fell  under  suspicion  of  heresy, 
and  was  cast  into  prison.  On  his  release,  he  travelled  on 
the  continent;  and,  after  some  time,  was,  through  Cardinal 
Pole's  intluence,  intrusted  with  the  education  of  the  novi- 
ces in  connection  with  the  Dominican  order  at  Bologna. 
While  here,  Calvin's  Institutes  fell  in  his  way,  and  con- 
verted him  to  Protestant  doctrines.  Having  openly  avowed 
the  change  in  his  opinions,  he  was  brought  before  the  In- 
quisition, and  sentenced  to  be  burnt  -  a  fate  from  which  he 
was  saved  by  the  mob,  on  the  death  of  Pope  Paul  IV., 
breaking  open  the  prisons  in  Rome,  and  setting  the  prison- 
ers at  liberty.  C.  escaped  to  Vienna,  and  obtained  some 
favor  at  the  court  of  Maximilian  II. ;  but  the  news  of  his 
being  there  reached  Rome,  and  the  pope  demanded  his 
surrender  as  one  condemned  for  heresy.  The  emperor, 
however,  instead  of  complying,  gave  C.  a  safe-conduct  out 
of  Germany.  He  returned  to  Scotland,  and  was  appointed 
the  colleague  of  John  Knox  in  the  parish  church  of  Edin- 
burgh. Thinking  the  marriage  of  Queen  Maiy  and  Both- 
well  contrary  to  the  word  of  God,  he  boldly  refused  to  pro- 
claim the  banns.  In  1572,  C.  was  sent  'to  illuminate  the 
dark  places '  in  Forfarshire  and  Aberdeenshire,  and  re- 
mained in  the  north  till  1579,  when  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  king  James  VI.  in  Edinburgh.  He  now  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  church,  was  the  compiler 
of  part  of  the  second  book  of  discipline,  and  the  writer  of 
the  national  covenant  signed,  1580,  by  the  king  and  his 
household.  He  was  not  slow  to  oppose  the  proceeding  of 
the  court,  when  he  deemed  them  opposed  to  Scripture:  see 
the  fac-simile  edition  of  C.'s  Short  Summe  of  the  tohole  Cate- 
cUsme,  of  1581,  with  Memoir  by  T.  G.  Law  (1883). 

CRAIG,  Thomas:  abt.  1538-1608,  Feb.;  b.  Scotland: 
author  of  the  well-known  Treatise  on  the  Feudal  Law. 
Educated  first  at  St.  Andrews,  he  prosecuted  his  studies  at 
Paris,  and  passed  as  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar,  1563, 
Feb.,  and  in  that  or  the  following  year  was  appointed 
justice-depute  to  Archibald,  Earl  of  Argyle,  hereditary 
justice-gen.  of  Scotland.  In  literary  pursuits,  C.  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  above  all  his  contemporaries,  and  while 
at  the  head  of  the  criminal  judicature  of  Scotland  he  did 
not  neglect  the  belles-lettres,  as  was  evidenced  by  an  epitha- 
lamium  on  the  queen's  marriage  with  Darnley,  and  by  a 
poem  on  the  birth  of  James  I.  Besides  his  work  on 
Feudal  Law,  C.  wrote  on  the  Succession  to  the  Throne  of 
England ;  also  a  treatise  on  the  union  of  Scotland  and 
England,  and  one  on  Homage,  vindicating  Scotland  from 
the  charge  of  feudal  dependence  on  England  ;  and  many 
poetical  pieces.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  C.  acted  as 
advocate  for  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He  seems  to  have 
been  high  in  favor  with  James  VI.,  who  wished  to  confer 
the  honor  of  knighthood  upon  him  ;  and  when  C.  steadily 
\n 


CRAIGLEITH  STOXE— CRAIK. 

refused,  ordered  that  all  persons  should  address  him  as  if 
he  really  had  accepted  the  honor. 

CRAIGLEITH  STOXE  :  siliceous  sandstone  belonging 
to  the  carboniferous  series,  quarried  at  Craigleith,  near 
Edinburgh,  and  largely  used  for  building  in  that  city,  for 
which  it  is  admirablV  adapted  by  its  purity,  durability,  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  wrought. 

CRAIK,  krak,  Dinah  Makia  ^(Mulock):  1826-1887, 
Oct.  12 ;  t).  Stoke-on-Trent,  England  :  author.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  was  left  an  orphan,  with  two  younger  brothers  to  look 
after,  when  a  mere  child.  Her  first  novel.  The  Ogilmes,  was 
published  1849,  and  her  last  finished  work  was  an  article 
written  for  the  Forum  of  Xew  York.  A  pension  of  ^300 
per  annum  was  conferred  upon  her,  1864.  She  was  mar- 
ried, 1865,  to  George  Lillie  C,  Jr.,  of  the  London  publishing 
house  of  MacMillau  Co.  She  was  a  strong  advocate  of 
the  movement  to  secure  the  legalization  of  a  marriage  with 
a  deceased  wife's  si.ster.  Her  most  popular  novel  was 
John  Halifax,  Gentleman  (1857),  though  she  regarded  A 
Life  for  a  Life  (1^66),  as  her  best  work  in  literary  style  and 
construction.  Her  published  works  number  over  30 
volumes. 

CRAIK,  George  Lillie:  1799-1866:  b.  Fifeshire, 
Scotland.  He  was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  St.  An- 
drew's Univ.,  but,  preferring  a  literary  career,  he  went  to 
London,  1824.  His  first  work  of  importance  was  the  Pur- 
suit of  Knoirledge  under  Difficulties  (1831),  in  the  series  of 
publications  by  the  Soc.  for  the  DiHusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge.  He  contributed  largely  to  the  Fenny  Cyclo- 
paedia. In  1839,  C.  became  editor  of  the  Pictorial  IListory 
of  England,  writing  some  of  the  most  valuable  chapters — 
among  them,  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Literature  and  Learn- 
%ng  in  England  from  the  Korman  Conquest  to  the  Pi^esent  Time 
(6  vols.  1844\  and  History  of  British  Commerce  from  the 
Earliest  Times  (3  vols.  1844');  and,  in  the  same  year,  Bacon, 
h is  Writings  a 7id  Philosophy.  In  1849,  C.  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  history  and  English  literature  in  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Belfast,  which  he  occupied  till  his  death.  C.  had  an 
energetic  mind;  and  as  a  writer  he  was  clear,  accurate,  and 
conscientious.  His  works  contained  suggestions  in  politics 
and  social  science  which  were  afterward  appropriated  by, 
or  ascribed  to,  others;  e.  g. ,  in  the  first  class,  the  idea  of 
mutual  citizenship;  in  the  second,  that  of  the  representa- 
tion of  minorties.  Between  1849 — 52  appeared  his  Boinance 
of  the  Peerage  ;  1855,  his  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  English 
LAinguage  ;  1857,  The  English  df  Shakespeare. 
^  CRAIK,  James:  1731-1814,  Feb.  6;  b.  Scotland:  phy- 
sician. He  studied  medicine  and  surgeiy  with  the  inten- 
tion of  serving  in  the  Briti.sh  army:  emigrated  to  Ya.; 
served  with  AVashington  in  his  Fi'ench  and  lndian  expedi- 
tion, 1754,  and  with  Braddock,  1755;  became  a  surgeon  in 
the  revolutionary  army,  and  was  director  of  the  Yorktown 
hospital;  settled  near  Mount  Yernou  on  the  conclusion  of 
peace;  and  was  Washington's  family  physician, 

1^3 


CRAIL— CRAKE. 

CRAIL,  krdl :  royal  and  parliamentaiy  burgh  and  sea- 
port in  the  '  East  Neuk  '  of  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  2  m.  s.w. 
of  Flfeness,  10  m.  s.e.  of  St.  Andrews.  C.  was  a  town 
of  some  note  in  the  middle  ages,  being  then  called  Caryll. 
There  are  traces  of  an  old  castle  and  of  a  priory  college. 
The  Established  Church  (Presb.),  though  it  has  undergone 


Crail  Church  (before  the  restoration). 


many  alterations,  is  still  substantially  the  ancient  structure; 
and  the  square  tower,  with  the  brooch  (q.  v.)  which  springs 
from  it,  are  in  their  original  condition.  It  was  after  a  ser- 
mon preached  in  this  church  by  Knox,  1 559,  that  his  hearers 
rushed  in  an  infuriated  mob  to  St.  Andrews,  and  burned 
the  magnificent  cathedral  of  the  Episcopal  metropolis. 
Abp.  Sharp  was  for  some  time  minister  of  Crail.  There 
is  a  small,  safe  harbor.  C.  was  formerly  the  great  rendez- 
vous for  the  herring  fishery,  and  there  has  been  a  great 
revival  in  this  branch  of  trade  of  late  years.  The  town 
has  the  interest  of  antiquity,  and  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
a  bold  coast.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  has  good  shops  and 
markets,  a  reading-room,  lecture  institute,  etc.  Pop. 
(1881)  1148. 

CRAKE,  V.  krdk  [Gael,  crac,  to  talk;  eracaire,  a  talker: 
perhaps  imitative  of  the  hoarse  croak  of  the  crow  (see  Crake 
1  and  Crack  2)]:  in  OE.,  to  brag;  to  boast;  to  utter  boast- 
ingly  and  offensively:  N.  a  boast;  exultation.  Cra'king, 
imp.    Craked,  pp.  krakt. 

CRAKE,  n  krCtk  [Icel.  kraka,  a  crow;  kraki\  a  raven], 
{Grex)'.  genus  of  birds  of  the  rail  family  [RaUido'),  differing 
from  the  true  rails  in  having  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head 
and  comparatively  thick.  The  wings  are  armed  with  a 
small  concealed  spine.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
harsh  call-note  of  the  male.  The  best  kno^vn  species  is  the 
common  Corn- Crake  or  Land-Ratl  (0.  p}-atensis),  the 
frequent  call -note  of  which  is  heard  from  fields  of  wheat 
or  rye  in  valleys  and  low  grounds  in  early  summer.  The 
corn-crake  is  a  very  pretty  bird,  of  a  reddish-brown  color, 

1-24 


CRAM— CRA3IBE. 

marked  with  dark-brown  in  streaks  along  the  middle  of 
the  feathers,  lighter  below;  it  has  rather  long  legs  and  long 
toes;  the  tail  is  very  short  and  pointed.  It  runs  very  swiftl}-, 
so  as  to  be  able  sometimes  to  escape  from  a  dog;  but  flies 
rather  heavily,  though  it  is  a  bird  of  passage,  seen  in  Brit- 
ain only  in  summer.  It  visits,  in  like  manner,  all  northern 
Europe,  and  even  Iceland,  spending  the  winter  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  Africa.    Its  call-note 


Com-Crake(Crca*  pratensis.) 


may  be  so  exactly  imitated  by  passing  the  edge  of  the 
thumb-nail  briskly  along  the  points  of  the  teeth  of  a  small 
comb,  that  it  can  thus  be  decoyed  within  a  short  distance, 
though  it  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  many  persons  who  have 
never  seen  it  are  familiar  with  its  cry.  Its  w^eight  is  ordina- 
rily about  six  ounces.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 
Two  or  three  other  species,  common  in  southern  Europe, 
are  found  chiefly  in  marshy  grounds,  and  sometimes  re- 
ceive the  name  of  Sora  {Zapornia).  With  them  is  ranked 
the  Cakolixa  Rail  or  Sora  Rail  (C.  CaroUnus)  of  N. 
America,  which  spends  its  winters  in  the  States  near  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  migrates  northward  in  summer:  it  is 
sometimes  seen  in  vast  numbers  about  marshes  and  the 
reedy  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers,  particularly  in  its  migra- 
tion southward  in  autumn.  Its  size  is  about  equal  to  that 
of  the  corn-crake;  and  its  color  is  very  similar,  but  with 
mingled  short  streaks  of  white.  It  is  much  esteemed  for 
the  table. — In  O.  E.  the  name  C.  was  applied  to  the  crow. 

CRAM,  V.  knhn  [AS.  cramman,  to  stuff:  Icel.  krami, 
pressure;  kremja,  to  press,  to  crush:  Dan,  kramme,  to 
crush]:  to  press  or  drive  in;  to  fill  to  excess;  to  stuff;  to  eat 
greedily.  Cram  ]vnNG,  imp.  CRA:NrMED,  pp.  krnmd.  The 
following  may  be  called  j^olite  slang: — Cram,  v.  to  prepare, 
in  a  limited  time,  for  passing  an  examination  by  the  stuffing 
in  of  intellectual  food,  whether  by  a  tutor  called  a  *  coach,' 
or  by  one's  own  endeavors:  N.  the  information  so  imparted 
or  acquired.  Cramming,  n.  knim'ing,  the  act  of  preparing, 
in  a  limited  time,  for  passing  an  examination,  by  only  ac- 
quiring that  amount  of  knowledge  necessary  to  answer 
the  questions  that  may  be  proposed.  Cram  mer,  n.  one 
who  crams. 

CRAMBE,  krdm'he:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord, 

125 


CRAMBIDES -CRAMP  RINGS. 

Cruciferce;  having  a  pouch  [silicle)  of  two  unequal  joints, 
of  which  the  upper  is  globose  and  one-seeded,  the  lower 
abortive.  The  cotjdedons  (q.v.)  are  conduplicate.  The 
species,  not  very  numerous,  are  scattered  over  the  world. 
One  is  a  native  of  Britain,  C.  mariiima,  the  M^ell-known 
Sea-Kale  (q.v.).  Another,  G.  Tartarica,  with  much  di- 
vided leaves  and  a  great  fleshy  root,  native  of  Hungary 
and  central  Europe  and  Asia,  is  sometimes  called  Tartar 
Bread;  and  its  root  is  eaten  in  the  countries  of  which  it  is 
a  native,  either  boiled,  or  more  generally  peeled  and  sliced 
with  oil,  vinegar,  and  salt. 

CRAMBIDES,  n.  plu.  krdm'hi-des  {h.cramhus,  ^Tid.-ides]'. 
a  group  of  moths,  tribe  Pyralidina.  There  are  four  fam- 
ilies: (1)  Eudoreidoe,  (2)  Galleridce,  (3)  Phycidm,  (4)  Cram- 
UdcB.  Crambus,  krdm'hus:  genus  of  moths,  typical  of  the 
family  Gramhidm. 

CRAMBO,  n.  krdm'bd  [probably  from  cram:  comp.  Gael. 
crom,  crooked] :  a  play  in  which  one  person  gives  a  word 
and  another  finds  a  rhyme;  a  word  rhyming  with  another: 
Adj.  in  Scot.,  crooked,  as  a  '  crambo- jingle/ 

CRAMP,  n.  krdmp  [Dut.  krampe;  F.  crampon,  a  hook: 
OF.  crampe — from  Ger.  krampf,  a  spasm,  a  cramp:  Bret. 
kraban,  a  claw:  It.  granfo,  contraction,  drawing  together: 
comp.  Gael,  crom,  crooked— that  which  contracts  or 
draws  in]:  a  painful  contraction  of  a  muscle,  particularly  of 
the  leg  or  foot;  a  spasm;  restraint;  a  short  piece  of  iron 
bent  at  the  ends:  V.  to  contract  or  draw  in;  to  pain  with 
the  cramp  or  spasms;  to  restrain  or  confine;  to  fasten  with 
a  cramp-iron.  Cramp  ing,  imp.  Cramped,  pp.  krdmt: 
Adj.  packed  or  squeezed  up  into  insufficient  room.  Cram- 
pooNS,  n.  plu.  krd7n-p6ns' ,  also  Cramp-irons,  hooked  pieces 
of  iron  for  raising  stones,  etc.;  in  mil.,  irons  fastened  to  the 
feet  of  a  storming-party  to  assist  in  scaling  walls.  Cram- 
pons, n.  plu.  kr dm' pons,  in  hot.,  the  roots  which  serve  as 
supports  to  certain  climbers,  as  in  the  ivy.  Cramp-fish, 
the  torpedo-fish,  which  causes  a  numbness  in  those  who 
touch  it. 

CRAMP:  irregular,  involuntary,  and  painful  contraction 
of  a  voluntary  muscle,  without  insensibility  or  other  dis- 
turbance of  the  general  system.  C.  is  often  the  effect  of 
cold,  and  has  proved  fatal  to  swimmers  by  disabling  them 
suddenly  in  the  water.  Otherwise  it  is  a  disease  of  little 
importance,  and  readily  removed  by  warmth  and  friction, 
with  regulated  movement  of  the  muscles  affected  Cramps 
are  a  distressing  symptom  in  cholera  (q.v.),  in  w^hich  dis- 
ease it  has  been  proposed  to  treat  them  by  applying  a  light 
bandage  or  tourniquet  (q.v.)  to  the  affected  limbs:  see 
Spasm. 

CRAMP  RINGS:  rings  supposed  to  cure  cramp  and 
the  *  falling-sickness.'  They  are  said  to  have  originated  as 
far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  11th  c,  in  a  ring  presented 
by  a  pilgrim  to  Edward  the  Confessor,  w^hich,  after  that 
ruler's  death,  was  preserved  as  a  relic  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey, and  was  applied  for  the  cure  of  epilepsy  and  cramp. 
Hence  appears  to  have  arisen  the  belief  that  rings  blessed 


CRAN— CRAKACH. 

by  English  sovereigns  were  efficacious  in  such  cases;  and 
the  custom  of  blessing  for  distribution  large  numbers  of 
C.  R.  on  Good  Friday  continued  to  the  time  of  Queen 
Mary.  Lord  Berners,  ambassador  to  Spain  in  Henry  VIII/s 
time,  writes  from  Saragossa  to  Cardinal  Wolsey:  '  If  your 
grace  remember  me  with  some  crampe  ryngs  ye  shall  doo 
a  thing  muche  looked  for;  and  I  trust  to  bestow  thaym 
well  with  Goddes  grace.'  The  metal  of  which  the  rings 
were  composed  was  what  formed  the  king's  offering  to  the 
cross  on  Good  Friday,  usually  either  gold  or  silver.  The 
superstitious  belief  in  the  curative  property  of  certain  rings 
lingers  in  some  less  enlightened  English  counties. 

OR  AN,  n.  krdn  [Gael,  crann,  a  barrel  full  of  fresh  her- 
rings i :  the  quantity  of  fresh  herrings  which  will  fill  a  barrel 
of  tlie  capacity  of  about  37^  gallons. 

OR  AN,  n.  krdn  [Scot,  (see  Crane)]:  in  Scot.,  a  crooked 
and  clawed  iron  instrument  laid  over  a  fire  to  support  a  pot  ~ 
or  kettle,  etc.,  while  cooking — so  named  from  its  supposed 
likeness  to  a  crane. 

CRANACH,  krari'ak  or  krancich,  Lucas:  1472-1553, 
Oct.  16;  b.  German  painter,  in  the  bishopric  of  Bamberg: 
Little  is  knovvm  of  his  early  life,  except  that  he  was  in- 
structed in  art  by  his  father — that  he  visited  Palestine 
1493  with  the  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Saxony,  who 
made  him  his  court  painter  1504,  at  which  period  he  was 
in  high  repute,  especially  for  his  facility.  In  1508,  the 
elector  made  him  a  grant  of  armorial  bearings,  having  for 
crest  a  winged  serpent.  He  made  a  journey  into  the  Neth- 
erlands 1509,  and  there  drew  a  picture  of  Charles  V. — the 
future  emperor— then  nine  years  old.  C.  seems  to  have 
acted  fi'^  factotum  at  the  court  of  the  elector  and  his  two 
successors,  preparing  for  and  directing  the  ceremonies  and 
festivities,  and  knew  besides  how  to  follow  otiier  lucrative 
trades.  In  1520  he  bought  an  apothecary's  business  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  was  also  a  bookseller  and  paper- 
maker,  became  councillor  and  chamberlain,  and  was  twice 
chosen  burgomaster  of  the  town. 

C.  was  closely  connected  with  the  early  reformers.  He 
was  the  intimate  friend  of  Luther,  whose  picture  he  several 
limes  painted.  In  1550  he  went  to  Augsburg  to  share  the 
imprisonment  of  the  elector,  and  returned  with  him  to 
Saxony  1552.  C.  died  at  Weimar,  in  the  81st  year  of  his 
age,  and  was  buried  in  the  court  church  there.  He  had 
two  sons,  one  of  whom,  Lucas,  was  known  by  the  name 
of  *  the  young  Cranach,'  an  excellent  colorist  and  portrait- 
painter. 

C  left  an  unusually  large  number  of  authentic  pictures 
— indeed,  he  painted  beyond  his  powers.  He  excelled  in 
portraits,  in  painting  animals,  in  fabulous  and  droll  pieces, 
and  was  an  excellent  colorist;  but  failed  in  form,  grace, 
and  unity,  and  in  the  higher  walks  of  art.  His  last  and 
greatest  work  is  an  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  Weimar — 
a  mystical  representation  of  the  crucifixion.  His  peculiar 
humor  is  best  seen  in  such  pictures  as  his  Samson  and  De- 
lilah and  his  sylvan  scene  containing  Apollo  and  Diana. 

127 


CRAKBERRY. 

CRANBERRY,  n.  kran'her-rl  [Ger.  kranheere — so  named 
from  the  supposed  resemblance  of  its  slender  stalk  to  the 
lon^^  legs  and  neck  of  a  crane],  {Oxy coccus):  genus  of  small 
evergreen  shrubs  of  the  nat.  ord.  Vaccinece,  distinguished 
from  the  genus  Vaccinium  (see  Whortlebekry)  by  the 
wheel- shaped  corolla,  with  segments  rolled  back  and  the 
filaments  leaning  to  the  pistil.  The  species  are  few,  na- 
tives of  the  colder  regions  of  the  n.  hemisphere.    The  fruit 


Cranberry  (Oxy coccus palustris): 
a,  part  of  stem  and  branches,  with  roots,  leaves,  and  flowers;  &,  a 
berry ;  c,  transverse  section  of  a  berry. 

is  acid,  and  is  in  great  request  for  making  tarts.  The  Com- 
mon C.  (0.  palustris,  formerly  Vaccinium  Oxycoccos),  is  a 
native  of  northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It  grows 
in  peaty  bogs  and  marshy  grounds,  and  is  a  small  wiry 
shrub  with  creeping  thread-like  branches,  and  small  oval 
leaves  rolled  back  at  the  edges.  The  blossoms  are  small 
but  beautiful,  of  a  deep  flesh  color.  Large  quantities  of 
the  fruit  are  collected  in  some  places,  though  the  draining 
of  bogs  has  made  it  scarce  where  it  was  plentiful.  In 
Germany  it  is  collected  by  means  of  a  wooden  comb,  and 
preserved  with  sugar.  In  England,  cranberries  are  often 
preserved  in  bottles  closely  corked  or  filled  with  pure 
water,  in  which  they  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time.  They 
are  an  excellent  addition  to  sea  stores.  Wine  is  made  from 
them  in  Siberia,  and  a  beverage  made  from  them  is  sold  in 
the  streets  of  St.  Petersburg. — The  American  C.  (0.  ma 
crocarpa)  is  a  much  larger  and  more  upright  plant,  with 
leaves  much  larger  and  less  rolled  back  at  the  margin. 
The  berries  also  are  larger  and  of  a  brighter  red.  It  is  a 
native  of  N.  America,  frequent  in  Canada,  and  as  far  s.  as 
Virginia,  growing  in  bogs,  and  particularly  in  elevated 
situations  and  where  the  soil  is  sandy.  The  berries  are 
collected  by  means  of  a  rake.  Large  quantities  are  ex- 
ported to  Europe.  Both  kinds  may  be  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens, in  a  peat-soil  kept  very  moist  or  round  the  margin  of 
a  pond,  and  the  produce  of  a  small  space  properly  man- 
aged is  so  great  as  to  make  the  culture  very  profitable. — 

128 


CRAXBROOK— CRANE. 

The  berries  of  the  red  whortleberry  ( Vaccinium  viiis  idaea) 
are  sold  under  the  Dame  of  cranberries  in  some  places  in 
Scotland,  and  are  used  in  the  same  way. — A  third  species 
of  C.  (0.  erecta,  formerly  Vaccinium  erythrocarpon),  native 
of  lofty  mountains  in  Virginia  and  Carolina,  is  a  shrub 
two  ft.  high,  and  with  a  habit  more  like  that  of  the  w^hor- 
tleberries  than  of  the  other  cranberries;  it  has  a  fruit  re- 
markable for  transparency  and  of  exquisite  Mavor,  and  ap- 
pears  to  deserve  attention  and  cultivation. — The  Tasma- 
NiAK  C.  is  the  fruit  of  Astroloma  Immifumm,  a  little  shrub 
with  trailing  stems,  leaves  somewhat  resembling  those  of 
juniper,  and  beautiful  scarlet  blossoms,  found  in  all  parts 
of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  It  belongs  to  the  nat.  ord.  Epa- 
cridace'^.  The  fruit  is  of  a  green  or  whitish  color,  some- 
times slightly  red,  about  the  size  qf  a  black  currant,  and 
consists  of  a  viscid  apple-tiavored  pulp,  inclosing  a  large 
seed. — StypJielia  adscendens,  a  small  prostrate  Australian 
shrub  of  the  same  nat.  ord.,  has  a  similar  fruit;  and  in 
New  South  Wales  the  name  C.  is  given  likewise  to  the  red 
acid  berries  of  Lisscuithe  sapida,  a  low  evergreen  shrub, 
with  small  white  flowers,  also  belonging  to  Epacridacece. 

CRANBROOK,  kran'bruk:  small  town  in  the  s.  of  Kent, 
England,  30  m.  s.w.  of  Canterbury;  near  the  Crane,  on  an 
outlying  ridge  of  the  Hastings  sand  formation;  the  chief 
village  of  the  Weald.  It  has  a  large  hop  business.  It  was 
the  centre  of  the  clothing  manufacture,  introduced  by  the 
Flemings  in  the  time  of  Edward  III. ;  but  this  branch  of 
industry  has  long  since  disappeared.  Pop.  of  parish  (1881) 
4,216. 

CRANCH,  V.  krdnsh:  see  Craunch. 

CRANCH,  William,  ll.d.:  1769,  July  17—1855,  Sept. 
1;  b.  Weymouth,  Mass.:  jurist.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard 1787;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1790;  was  appointed 
an  associate  judge  of  the  U.  S.  circuit  court  for  the  Dist. 
of  Col.  1801,  Feb.  27;  and  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
that  court  1805.  He  held  this  office  till  his  death,  and 
during  a  period  of  over  half  a  century  had  only  two  de- 
cisions overruled  by  the  supreme  court.  His  reports  of 
cases  decided  in  the  circuit  court  1801-41,  were  published 
in  6  vols.  8vo;  and  those  of  the  U.  S.  supreme  court  1801- 
15,  in  9  vols.,  with  supplementary  issues  in  1835. 

CRANE,  n.  krOn  [AS.  cran;  Ger.  kranich;  Dut.  kraariy 
a  crane:  W.  garan,  a  crane,  a  shank — from  gar,  a  leg: 
comp.  Gael,  crann,  a  tree,  the  mast  of  a  ship]:  a  wading- 
bird  having  long  legs  and  a  long  neck;  a  machine  for  rais- 
ing and  removing  heavy  goods;  a  bent  metal  tube  with  a 
stop  for  drawing  off  liquors;  a  siphon.  Cra  nage,  n.  -naj, 
the  dues  paid  for  the  use  of  a  crane;  liberty  of  using  a  crane. 
Crane's  bill,  n.  the  wild  geranium  of  many  species,  so 
named  from  the  seed-vessels  resembling  the  beak  or  bill  of  a 
crane;  a  popular  name  for  the  genera  and  species  of  the  ord. 
Geranidcm  (see  Geranium):  long-beaked  pincers  used  by 
surgeons. 

CRANE  (Grus):  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  Grallatores, 
type  of  the  family  Gruid/e.    This  family  differs  from 

129 


CRANE. 

lierons,  bitterns,  storks,  etc.,  in  having  the  hind-toe  higher 
on  the  leg  than  the  front  toes.  It  consists  also  of  birds  less 
addicted  to  marshy  places,  and  which  feed  not  only  on 
animal,  but,  to  a  considerable  extent,  on  vegetable  food. 
They  all  are  large  birds,  long  legged,  long  necked,  and  of 
powerful  v/ing,  though  their  wings  are  rounded  and  not 
elongated;  some  of  them  performiug  great  migrations,  and 
hying  at  a  prodigious  height  in  the  air.  One  of  these  is 
the  Common  C.  {G.  dnerea),  which  breeds  in  northern 
Europe  and  Asia,  retiring  in  winter  to  tropical  or  sub- 


Crane  (Grus  dnerea). 


tropical  regions.  Flocks  of  cranes  periodically  pass  over 
southern  and  central  Europe,  uttering  their  loud  harsh 
cries  in  the  air,  and  occasionally  alighting  to  seek  food  in 
fields  or  marshes.  The  C,  when  standing,  is  about  four 
ft.  in  height;  the  prevailing  color  is  ash-gra}^  the  face  and 
throat  nearly  black,  the  wing  primaries  black.  The  tertial 
feathers  of  the  wings  are  elongated  reaching  beyond  the 
ends  of  the  primaries,  and  their  webs  are  unconnected; 
they  are  varied  and  tipped  with  bluish-black,  and  are  the 
well-known  plumes  once  much  used  in  ornamental  head- 
dresses. The  C.  feeds  on  roots,  seeds,  etc.,  as  well  as  on 
worms,  insects,  reptiles,  and  even  some  of  the  smallest 
quadrupeds.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table. — There 
are  several  other  species  of  crane.  The  Whooping  C.  (G. 
Americana)  is  considerably  larger  than  the  common  C, 
which  it  otherwise  much  resembles  except  in  color;  its 
plumage,  in  its  adult  state,  is  pure  white,  the  tips  of  the 
wings  black.  It  spends  the  winter  in  the  southern  parts 
of  N.  America.  In  summer  it  migrates  far  northward, 
but  rather  in  the  interior  than  the  eastern  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent.— To  the  C.  famil}^ belong  also  the  Demoiselles  (q. v.), 
with  which,  rather  than  with  the  true  cranes,  the  Balearic 
cranes  or  Balearicans  are  ranked. — Cranes  use  their  bill 
as  a  dagger,  and  when  wounded  are  dang  ^:ous  to  the  eyes 
of  a  rash  assailant. 

CKANE:  machine  for  lifting  weights.    Cranes  are  of 

130 


CRANE-FLY— CRANGANORE. 

various  kinds;  the  most  common  consist  of  an  upright  re- 
volving shaft,  with  a  projecting  arm  or  jib,  having  a  lixed 
pulley  at  the  extremity,  over  which  is  passed  one  end  of 
the  rope  or  chain  to  receive  the  weight,  the  other  end 
being  attached  to  a  cylinder  with  wheel  and  pinion,  by 
means  of  which  the  weight  is  raised  to  the  required  height. 
By  the  lateral  revolving  motion  of  the  upright  portion,  the 
load  can  be  deposited  on  any  spot  within  the  sweep  of  the 
jib. 

CR A'N'E-FLY  (Tipula):  genus  of  dipterous  (two-winged) 
insects  of  the  family  TipiUidce,  to  the  whole  of  which  the 
name  C.  is  often  extended,  nearly  allied  to  the  Gnat  family 


Crane-Fly  (Tipula  oleracea): 

a,  eggs;  6,  larva;  c,  pupa  case  as  left  by  the  insect,  sticking  out  of 
the  earth ;  d,  perfect  insect. 

{C'ulicidce),vi'lnc]i  they  resemble  in  their  beautifully  feath- 
ered and  tufted  antennae,  but  from  which  they  differ  in  hav- 
ing a  comparatively  short  proboscis.  The  true  crane-flies 
are  also  of  comparatively  large  size.  They  have  lanceolate 
spreading  wings,  and  very  long  legs.  One  species  {T.  ole- 
racea) is  the  well-known  Daddy  (or  Harry,  or  Peter)  Long- 
legs.  This  and  other  species  abound  in  arable  lands,  gar- 
dens, meadows,  etc.,  in  summer;  and  their  larvae — remark- 
ably tough  worms  without  legs,  sometimes  confounded 
with  wire-worms  by  farmers — are  extremely  destructive  to 
crops  of  various  kinds,  devouring  the  roots  of  corn  and 
pasture  grasses,  potatoes,  turnips,  and  almost  all  the  plants 
ordinarily  cultivated  either  in  field  or  garden.  Rolling  of 
fields  is  useful  in  killing  them;  and  soot,  salt,  and  other 
applications  are  employed  in  gardens. 

CRANGANORE,  krdn-gan-dr'  (properly  Kodungalur)-. 
town  in  Cochin  state,  on  the  w.  coast  of  s.  India:  on  one 
of  the  openings  of  the  great  Cochin  backwater,  18  m.  n.of 

131 


CRANGON— CRANK. 

Cochin  Town.  The  place  is  notable  historically.  Here 
the  apostle  Thomas  is  said  to  have  labored.  Possessed  by 
the  Portuguese,  it  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch 
about  1668;  and  after  being  purchased  by  the  rajah  of 
Travancore  1789,  and  wrested  from  him  by  Tippoo  Sultan 
1790,  it  was  conceded  by  the  latter  to  the  British.  But  the 
more  ancient  history  of  the  place  is  still  more  interesting, 
for  here  have  existed,  from  the  4th  and  5th  c.  respectively, 
congregations  of  Jews  and  Christians.    Pop.  abt.  10,000. 

CRANGON,  n.  krang'gon  [Gr.  krangon,  a  shrimp] :  genus 
of  crustaceans,  typical  of  the  family  Grangonidc2.  Cran- 
GONiD^,  n.  plu.  krdng-6n-i-de  [L.  crangon,  and-^^to]:  fam- 
ily of  macrourous  (long-tailed)  ciustaceans:  see  Shrimp. 

CRANIA,  n.krd'ni-a  [L.L.  c7^^»7im/72]:  genus  of  mollusks, 
typical  of  the  family  Crani'adoB.  Cra'niad^,  -a-de,  or 
Cra'niid^,  -i-de,  family  of  mcllusks,  class  BracMopoda 
(q.v.). 

CRANICHIDJE,  n.  plu.  kra-nWhi-de  [L.  cranicMSy  and 
id(B\\  in  hot,  family  of  orchids,  tribe  Neottem. 

CRANIUM,  n.  kTd!ni-um,  Cra  nia,  n.  plu.  -nl  d  [Gr. 
krdnion;  mid.  L.  cranium ,  the  skull]:  the  bony  or  cartilagin- 
ous case  containing  the  brain;  the  skull:  see  Skull.  Cra- 
nial, a.  krd'ni-dl,  of  or  pertaining  to  the  skull.  Cra'nia, 
n.  plu.  -d  [Gr.  kranos,  a  helmet  or  headpiece]:  a  genus  of 
small  brachiopods  having  the  lower  valve  flat  and  the  upper 
limpet-like  or  helmet-shaped.  Cra'niol'ogy,  n.  -bl'oji 
[Gr.  logos,  a  discourse] :  the  science  that  treats  of  the  skull 
in  connection  with  the  faculties  and  propensities  of  animals; 
phrenology.  Cra'niol'ogist,  n.  -jlst,  one  skilled  in  the 
study  of  the  skull.  Cra'niolog'ical,  a.  -loji-kdl,  pertain- 
ing to  the  study  of  the  skull.  Cra'niog'nomy,  n.  -dg'no-mi 
[Gr.  gnomon,  an  index  or  interpreter] :  practical  phrenology. 
Cra'niom'eter,  n.  -bm'e-tei'  [Gr.  metron,  a  measure]:  an 
instrument  for  measuring  skulls.  Dr.  Morton  gives  the 
following  as  the  average  results  in  cubic  inches  of  numerous 
measurements  of  skulls:  European,  87;  Malay,  85;  Negro, 
83;  Mongol,  82;  Ancient  Egytian,  80;  Americans,  79;  An- 
cient Peruvian,  75-79.  Prof.  Huxley  says  that  the  most 
capacious  European  skull  has  a  capacity  of  114  cu.  in.;  the 
smallest  55  cu.  in.  Schaffhausen  finds  Hindu  skulls  of  46 
cubic  inches.  Cra'niom^etry,  n.  -vm'e-tri,  the  art  of 
measuring  skulls.  Cra'niomet'rical,  a.  -metri-kdl. 
Cra'nios'copy,  n.  -vs'ko-pi  [Gr.  skoped,  I  see  or  look]:  the 
scientific  examination  of  the  skull.  Craniotomy,  n.  krd'- 
ni-oto-mi  [Gr.  tome,  a  cutting] :  the  operation  of  opening 
the  skull 

CRANK,  n.  krangk  [Dut.  kronkelen,  to  twist,  to  bend: 
Lap.  kranket,  to  crook,  to  bend:  Dan.  kringel,  crooked: 
prov.  Eng.  crivgle-cr angle,  zigzag]:  anything  bent  or 
turned;  in  a  machine,  an  iron  axis  bent  and  jointed  like  an 
arm,  used  for  changing  a  rotary  motion  into  a  horizontal  or 
perpendicular  one,  or  the  contrary;  a  metal  brace.  Crank- 
brace,  the  usual  form  of  brace,  w^hich  has  a  bent  shank  by 
which  it  is  rotated.  Cranked  tool,  a  tool  made  to  em- 
brace the  rest,  by  w^hich  it  is  prevented  from  slipping  away 


CRANK. 

from  the  work.  Crankle,  v.  krdng'kl,  to  run  into  folds 
or  wrinkles;  to  break  into  unequal  surfaces.  Crankling, 
imp.  krang  kling.    Crankled,  pp.  krdng'kld, 

CRANK,  a.  krdngk,  or  Cranky,  a.  krdng'kl  ficel. 
kranga,  to  stagger,  to  zigzag:  Dut.  krengen,  to  press  down 
a  vessel  on  its  side:  Lap.  kranket,  to  bend]:  inclined  to  heel 
ovTr,  as  a  ship  that  wants  steadiness;  liable  to  be  upset. 
Crank  NESS,  n.  -nes,  or  Crank  iness,  n.  -kl  nes,  liability 
to  be  overset,  as  a  ship  that  wants  steadiness.  Crank'y,  a. 
applied  to  a  man  or  woman  aged  and  feeble ;  having  a  com- 
plaining tone;  peevish;  querulous.  Cranks,  n.  plu.  krdfigks, 
conceits  by  changing  or  twisting  a  word,  as  in  quips  and 
cranks. 

CRANK,  a.  krdnk  [Ger.  krank,  sick]:  in  OE.,  sick;  ill; 
sprightly;  healthy:  N.  a  sick  person;  an  invalid:  Y.  to  run 
in  and  out;  to  move  to  and  fro;  to  turn.  Crank  ing,  imp. 
Cranked,  pp.  krdnkt.  Cranks,  n.  plu.  pains;  aches. 
Note  — This  entry  is  closely  connected  with  the  preceding. 
The  opposite  meaning  of  crank — viz.,  '  sick '  and  '  healthy  ' 
— may  be  explained  from  its  primary  meaning,  '  the  un- 
steady movements  of  a  ship,  especially  when  unballasted.' 
Lightness,  giddiness,  and  unsteady  movements  are  charac- 
teristics of  sickness,  just  as  '  light-hcadedness '  and  a  *  never 
do  I  care '  are  characteristics  in  the  joyous  unrestrained 
movements  of  the  young  in  health. 

CRANK,  in  Machinery:  arm  or  bend  on  an  axle  or 
shaft,  which  may  be  driven  by  a  connecting-rod  or  by  the 
hand,  its  use  being  to  convert  an  alternating  straight 
motion  into  a  continuous  revolu- 
tion. A  crank  may  have  part  of 
the  shaft  on  both  sides,  so  that 
one  rod,  S,  may  drive  two 
wheels,  W,  W,  as  in  the  fig. 
There  are  two  positions  in  a  C, 
in  which  the  connecting-rod 
exercises  no  power  whatever — 
viz. ,  when  the  arm  of  the  crank, 
C,  is  parallel  to  the  connecting- 
rod,  as  in  the  fig.,  and  again 
when  the  crank  is  at  the  opposite  point  of  its  course. 
A  push  or  pull  of  the  rod  in  such  circumstances  can  only 
press  the  shaft  against  its  bearings.  The  effect  is  greatest 
when  the  rod  and  the  crank-arm  are  at  right  angles,  and 
it  decreases  gradually  on  both  sides  of  that  position,  until 
at  the  top  and  bottom  it  is  reduced  to  nothing.  In  order 
to  carry  the  C.  over  these  dead  points,  as  they  are  called,  a 
fly-wheel  is  fixed  on  the  shaft;  this  receives  part  of  the 
force  of  the  rod  while  at  its  best,  acts  as  a  reservoir,  and 
by  its  stored-up  momentum  carries  the  shaft  round  when 
the  rod  is  powerless. 

133 


CRANMER. 

CRANMER,  krdn'mer,  Thomas:  1489,  July  2—1556, 
Mar.  31;  b.  Aslacton,  county  of  Nottingham:  one  of  the 
chief  reformers  of  the  English  Church,  first  Protestant 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  descended  from  an 
old  Norman  family,  said  to  have  come  into  England  with 
William  the  Conqueror.  In  his  14th  year,  he  went  to 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
1510.  He  devoted  himself  diligently  to  the  study  of  the 
learned  languages,  and  of  Scripture.  His  mind  seems  to 
have  been  early  interested  in  the  writings  of  Erasmus, 
Luther,  and  Le  Fevre,  and  especially  in  their  interpreta-* 
tions  of  Scripture.  In  his  23d  year,  he  married,  and  so 
lost  his  fellowship;  but  his  wife  dying  about  a  year  after 
marriage,  he  was  restored  to  it  by  his  college.  In  1 523,  he 
took  his  degree  d.d.,  and  was  appointed  lecturer  on  theol-^ 
ogy.  In  1528,  during  the  prevalence  of  the  sweating  sick- 
ness in  Cambridge,  he  retired  with  tw^o  pupils  to  Waltham 
Abbey:  and  Henry  YIIL,  in  company  with  Gardiner  and 
Fox,  afterward  bishops  of  Winchester  and  Hereford,  hap- 
pening to  be  in  the  neighborhood,  the  event  proved  a 
turning-point  in  the  life  of  Cranmer.  The  king  was  then 
seriously  concerned  about  his  divorce  from  Catharine  of 
Aragon;  and  Cranmer,  in  conversation  on  the  subject  with 
Gardiner  and  Fox,  suggested  that  the  question  should  be 
'tried  according  to  the  word  of  God.'  Fox  having  men- 
tioned this  suggestion  to  the  king,  Henry  was  greatly 
pleased,  and  *  swore  by  the  mother  of  God,  that  man  hath 
the  right  sow  by  the  ear. '  From  this  time,  Henry  never 
lost  sight  of  Cranmer.  He  was  asked  to  reduce  his  sug- 
gestion to  writing,  and  to  have  it  submitted  to  the  Euro- 
pean universities.  After  this  he  was  appointed  archdeacon 
of  Taunton,  and  one  of  the  royal  chaplains.  He  was  also 
sent  to  Rome  on  a  special  embassy  about  the  divorce,  but 
met  little  success.  Subsequently,  he  was  dispatched  to 
the  emperor  on  the  same  errand,  and  w^hile  in  Germany, 
1532,  he  married  a  second  time,  a  niece  of  the  German 
divine,  Osiander.  Shortly  afterward,  on  the  death  of  Abp. 
Warham,  he  was  recalled  to  till  the  vacant  see.  Under  his 
auspices,  Henry's  divorce  was  speedily  carried  through,  and 
^  C.  married  the  king  to  Anne  Boleyn  1533,May  28.  In  Anne's 
'subsequent  disgrace,  and  again,  in  the  affair  of  Anne  of 
Cleves,  C.  took  a  part  not  creditable  to  him.  His  position 
was  no  doubt  difficult;  but  his  character  was  naturally  pli- 
able and  timid,  rather  than  resolved  and  consistent.  The 
same  spirit  characterizes  the  measures  of  religious  reform 
promoted  by  him.  On  one  hand,  he  joined  actively  with 
Henry  in  restricting  the  power  of  the  pope,  and  in  sup- 
pressing the  monasteries;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  was  no 
less  active  in  persecuting  men  like  Frith,  Forrest,  and  oth- 
ers, who,  on  matters  of  religious  faith,  were  disposed  co  ad- 
vance further  than  himself  or  the  king.  He  did  what  he 
could,  however,  to  resist  the  reactionary  movement  in  1539, 
and  which  is  known  by  the  institution  of  the  *  Six  Articles.' 
He  was  also  instrumental  in  promoting  the  translation  and 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures.    On  Henry  VIII.  's  death, 

J  34 


CRANMER. 

Cranmer  was  appointed  one  of  the  regents  of  the  kingdom, 
and  with  Latimer  and  others,  largel}^  contributed  to  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Protestant  cause  during  the  reign  of  Edward. 
He  assisted  in  the  compilation  of  the  Service-book  and  the 
Articles  of  Religion.  The  latter  are  said  to  have  been 
chiefly  composed  by  him.  He  was  also  the  author  of  four 
of  the  Homilies. 

On  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  with  Latimer  and  Ridley.  In  1554,  Mar.,  they 
were  removed  to  Oxford,  and  confined  there  in  the  common 
prison,  called  the  Bocardo.  Latimer  and  Ridley  bore  their 
cruel  fate  with  magnanimous  courage;  but  the  spirit  and 
principles  of  C.  temporarily  gave  way  under  the  severity 
of  his  sufferings.  He  was  induced,  in  the  hope  of  stiving 
his  life,  to  sign  no  fewer  than  six  recantations;  but  his  en- 
emies were  determined  to  be  satisfied  by  nothing  short  of 
his  death;  and  he  suffered  martyrdom,  as  his  fellow- 
reformers  had  done,  opposite  Baliol  College.  His  courage 
returned  at  the  end;  and  he  died  protesting  his  repentance 
for  his  unworthy  weakness  in  changing  his  faith,  and  show- 
ing an  unexpected  fortitude  in  the  midst  of  the  flames. 

135 


CRANNOGS. 

CRANNOGS,  n.  kran'nogs  [Irish] :  name  in  Ireland  and 
in  Scotland  for  the  fortified  islands  in  lakes  which  were  in 
common  use  as  dwelling  places  and  places  of  refuge  among 
the  Celtic  inhabitants.  The  etymology  of  the  word  (some- 
times written  crannoge)  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  believed  to 
refer  to  the  timber  which  was  employed  either  in  the  forti- 
fication of  the  island,  or  in  the  construction  of  the  houses 
upon  it. 

Tlie  earliest  notice  of  such  lake-dwellings  which  has 
been  observed,  is  in  the  pages  of  Herodotus  (book  v.  chap. 
10).  Writing  of  the  Persian  invasion  of  Thrace  and  Mace- 
donia under  Darius — about  500  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  less  than  100  years  before  his  own  death — he  re- 
lates *  how  the  satrap  Megabazus,  warring  against  the 
Paeonians,  led  certain  tribes  of  them  captive  into  Asia,  but 
failed  to  conquer  those  who  inhabited  Lake  Prasias.  '  He 
sought,  indeed,'  says  the  historian,  'to  subdue  the  dwellers 
upon  the  lake,  but  could  not  effect  his  purpose.  Their 
manner  of  living  is  the  following:  Platforms  supported 
upon  tall  piles,  stand  in  the  middle  of  the  lake,  which  are 
approached  from  the  land  by  a  single  narrow  bridge.  At 
the  first,  the  piles  which  bear  up  the  platforms  were  fixed 
in  their  places  by  the  w^hole  body  of  the  citizens;  but  since 
that  time  the  custom  which  has  prevailed  about  fixing 
them  is  this:  They  are  brought  from  a  hill  called  Orbelus, 
and  every  man  drives  in  three  for  each  wdfe  that  he  mar- 
ries. Now,  the  men  have  all  many  wives  apiece,  and  this 
is  the  way  in  which  they  live.  Each  has  his  own  hut, 
w^herein  he  dwells,  upon  one  of  the  platforms,  and  each 
has  also  a  trap-door  giving  access  to  the  lake  beneath;  and 
their  wont  is  to  tie  their  baby-children  by  the  foot  with  a 
string,  to  save  them  from  rolling  into  the  water.  They 
feed  their  horses  and  their  other  beasts  upon  fish,  which 
abound  in  the  lake  to  such  a  degree,  that  a  man  has  only 
to  open  his  trap-door,  and  to  let  down  a  basket  by  a  rope 
into  the  water,  and  then  to  wait  a  very  short  time,  when  he 
draws  it  up  quite  full  of  them.  The  fish  are  of  two  kinds, 
which  they  call  the  paprax  and  the  tilon.'  The  Lake 
Prasias  of  the  Father  of  History  seems  to  be  the  modern 
Lake  Takinos,  on  the  Strymon  or  Kara-su,  a  river  Avhich, 
rising  on  the  borders  of  Bulgaria, flows  through  s.  Roumelia, 
and,  after  expending  its  waters  into  a  lake,  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Contessa.  The  fish  named  by  Herodotus  have  not 
been  identified  by  naturalists;  Lake  Takinos  abounds  in 
carp,  tench,  and  eels. 

The  island-dwellings  of  Lake  Prasias  drew  comparatively 
little  attention  until  archeologists,  quite  recently,  found 
the  remains  of  similar  habitations  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  first  discovery  was  made  in  Ireland,  1839,  by  W.  R. 
Wilde,  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
The  small  lake  of  Lagore,  near  Dunshaughlin,  county 
Meath,  having  been  drained,  a  circular  mound,  which  had 
been  an  island  in  its  waters,  was  observed  to  be  thickly 
strewed  with  bones.  As  these  were  to  be  carted  aw^ay  for 
manure,  it  was  found  to  be  an  artificial  structure.  Its  cir- 
cumference, measuring  520  ft.,  was  formed  by  upright 

136 


CPvANNOGS. 

piles  of  oak  about  7  ft.  long,  mortised  into  oak  planks  laid 
tlat  upon  the  marl  and  sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The 
upright  piles  were  tied  together  by  cross-beams,  and  the 
space  which  they  inclosed  was  divided  into  compartments 
by  oak-beams,  some  of  which  had  grooves,  so  as  to  allow 
panels  to  be  driven  down  between  them.  The  compartments 
thus  formed  were  filled  with  bones  and  black  peaty  earth. 
Portions  of  a  second  tier  of  upright  piles  were  observed 
rising  from  the  first  tier.  The  bones  were  ascertained  to 
be  those  of  several  varieties  of  oxen,  of  swine,  deer,  goats, 
sheep,  dogs,  foxes,  horses,  and  asses.  With  them  were 
found  a  vast  number  of  weapons,  ornaments,  and  utensils, 
of  stone,  bone,  wood,  bronze,  and  iron;  such  as  swords, 
knives,  spears,  javelins,  daggers,  whetstones,  querns  (or 
hand-mills),  beads,  pins,  brooches,  combs,  horse-trappings, 
shears,  chains,  axes,  pots,  and  bowls.  On  reference  to  the 
ancient  annals,  in  which  Ireland  is  so  rich,  it  was  seen  that, 
in  A.D.  848,  a  hostile  Irish  chief  'plundered  the  island  of 
Loch  Gabhor  [as  Lagore  was  then  written],  and  afterward 
burned  it,  so  that  it  was  level  with  the  ground;' and  that 
again,  in  933,  *  the  island  of  Loch  Gabhor  was  pulled  down  ' 
by  the  piratical  Norsemen. 

Mr.  Wilde's  discovery  at  Lagore  was  followed  by  other 
discoveries  of  the  same  kind  elsewhere  in  Ireland,  so  that 
in  1857  the  existence  of  about  50  C.  had  been  ascertained; 
and  every  succeeding  year  has  been  an  increase.  They 
show  several  varieties  of  construction.  The  island  at  La- 
gore is  a  type  of  the  purely  artificial  crannog.  But  most 
frequently  the  crannog  was  partly  natural.  An  islet  just 
level  with  the  water,  was  raised  artificially  a  foot  or  two 
above  it.  An  islet  too  small  to  be  a  convenient  habitation, 
or  too  easy  of  landing  to  be  a  place  of  defense,  had  its  area 
artificially  enlarged,  or  its  banks  artificially  strengthened, 
generally  by  piles  or  stockades,  occasionally  by  heaps  of 
stones  The  space  thus  inclosed  is  generally  a  circle  of 
from  60  to  80  ft.  in  diameter;  but  in  some  cases  the  in- 
closed space  is  larger,  and  of  an  oval  shape.  The  piles  are 
usually  of  oak,  mostly  young  trees,  from  four  to  nine  inches 
broad,  still  bearing  marks  of  the  hatchet;  usually  a  single 
row  has  been  considered  enough,  but  there  are  instances  of 
two.  and  even  of  three  rows.  It  seems  that  originally  the 
piles  had  risen  several  ft.  above  the  water,  and  it  has  been 
supposed  that  they  were  interlaced  with  branches  placed 
horizontally,  so  as  to  form  a  screen  or  breastwork.  The 
area  within  the  stockade  is  sometimes  wholly  or  partially 
covered  with  a  layer  of  round  logs,  from  four  to  six  ft. 
long,  having  stones,  clay,  or  gravel  alDOvethem.  Fragments 
of  oak-framing,  with  mortises  and  cheeks  cut  in  them, 
have  been  found  within  the  piles.  In  almost  every  instance, 
a  few  flat  stones,  apparently  serving  as  a  hearth,  have  been 
observed  near  the  middle  of  the  inclosure:  in  several  C, 
two  or  three  hearths  have  been  met  with.  In  some  cases, 
a  causeway  leads  from  the  island  to  the  mainland;  but  in 
general  the  crannog  was  to  be  reached  only  by  boat,  and 
scarcely  any  crannog  has  been  discovered  without  the  re- 
mains of  a  primitive  canoe,  hollowed  out  of  the  trunk  of 

131 


CRANNOGS. 


an  oak,  beside  it.  In  at  least  one  crannog,  a  pier  or  jetty 
projected  from  the  island;  it  was  a  double  row  of  piles  and 
stretchers,  riinniag  parallel  to  each  other  at  a  distance  of 
about  eight  ft.,  aud  supporting  a  platform  of  logs.  On  al- 
most every  crannog  one  or  two  querns  (q  v.)  have  been 
found,  with  bones  of  oxcd,  deer,  goats,  and  swine,  horns 
of  cattle,  deer,  sheep,  and  goats,  boars'  tusks,  and  sharpen- 
ing stones;  fragments  of  pottery,  and  articles  of  stone,  bone, 
horn,  wood,  glass,  copper,  bronze,  brass,  and  iron,  are  of 
somewhat  rarer  occurrence.  Many  of  the  C.  had  been 
submerged  by  the  gradual  rise  of  the  lakes  in  which  they 
stood,  so  that  their  existence  became  known  only  as  the 
great  drainage-works  of  late  years  reduced  the  waters  to 
their  old  level. 

The  accompanying  woodcut  shows 
a  section  (scale  of  1  inch  to  20  ft.) 
of  the  crannog  in  Ardakillin  Lough, 
near  Stokestown,  county  Roscom- 
mon. The  uppermost  line  marks 
the  highest  level  of  the  waters  of 
the  lake;  the  middle  line,  the  com- 
mon winter  level;  the  third  line,  the 
common  summer  level.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  crannog  was  formed 
of  a  layer  of  loose  stones,  surround- 
ed by  a  wall,  partly  supported  by 
piles.  The  stones  rested  on  the  nat- 
ural clay,  peat,  and  boulders  of  the 
island,  in  digging  through  which 
strata  of  ashes,  bones,  and  logs  of 
timber  were  met.  The  stockades 
w^ere  of  oak;  the  oblique  or  slanting 
stockade  shown  in  the  woodcut  rep- 
resents a  girdle  of  sheet-piling  which 
quite  encircled  the  crannog. 

The  woodcut  on  the  following 
page  gives  a  ground-plan  (scale  of  1 
inch  to  20  ft.)  of  one  of  two  C.  in 
Drumaleague  Lough,  county  Leit- 
rim.  The  circle  within  the  ring  of 
stockades  is  60  ft.  in  diameter;  in 
some  places  there  are  two,  in  others 
three  rows  of  stockades;  and  within 
this  outer  ring,  there  are  groups  of 
piles,  some  of  them  arranged  ap- 
parently for  some  special  purpose. 
The  oblong  space  in  the  middle, 
marked  A,  is  covered  by  a  rude 
platform  of  round  logs,  chiefly  of 
alder,  four  to  six  ft.  in  length;  it 
was  probably  the  floor  of  the  log- 
house,  which  was  the  chief  or  only 
dwelling-place  on  the  islet.  B  shows  where  the  hearth 
stood — a  collection  of  stones,  still  retaining  traces  of  fire; 
C  marks  a  heap  of  stiff  clay;  D,  the  root  of  a  large  tree 
nearly  buried  in  the  peat,  the  surface  of  the  wood  being 

138 


CRAKNOGS. 

bevelled  off  with  a  hatchet,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  table, 
under  which  was  found  a  heap  of  bones,  apparently  of 
deer  and  swine. 

The  Irish  annals,  it  has  been  seen,  make  mention  of  C.  as 
early  as  the  9th  c,  and  they  figure  in  history  till  the  middle 
of  the  17th  c.  The  crannog  of  Lough  Lynch,  Antrim,  is 
shown  as  the  birthplace  of  Colkitto,  a  chief  who  figured  in 
Montrose's  wars,  and  has  found  a  place  in  one  of  Milton's 
sonnets.  The  crannog  of  Roughan  Lake,  near  Dungannon, 
was  the  last  retreat  of  Sir  Phelim  O'Neil,  1641.  Two  years 
later,  there  is  record  of  an  attempt  to  flood  the  crannog  of 
Lough  in  sholin,  county  Londonderry,  by  turning  a  stream 
into  the  lake,  and  damming  up  its  outlet.  This  attempt 
failed;  but  in  1645  the  garrison  were  compelled  by  hunger 
to  give  the  crannog  to  the  flames,  and  make  their  escape. 
In  1567,  an  agent  of  the  English  govt.,  who  was  asked  what 


Ground-plan  of  Crannog  in  Drumaleague  Lough. 


were  the  castles  of  the  O'Neil,  wrote  in  reply:  'For  castles, 
he  trusteth  no  point  thereunto  for  his  safety,  as  appeareth 
by  the  razing  of  the  strongest  castles  of  all  his  countries;  and 
that  fortification  that  he  only  dependeth  upon  is  in  certain 
fresh- water  lochs  in  his  country,  which  from  the  sea  there 
comes  neither  ship  nor  boat  to  approach  them:  it  is  thought 
that  there,  in  the  said  fortified  islands,  lieth  all  his  plate 
(which  is  much),  and  money,  prisoners,  and  gages  [^i,e., 


ORANNOGS. 

hostages];  which  islands  have  in  wars  heretofore  been  at- 
tempted, and  now  of  late  again  by  the  lord-deputy  there, 
Sir  Harry  Sydney,  which  for  want  of  means  for  safe  con- 
duct upon  the  water  hath  not  prevailed.' 

While  archcologists  were  still  exploring  the  C.  of  Ireland, 
structures  of  similar  kind  were  discovered  in  the  heart  of 
the  European  continent.  The  winter  of  1853-4  was  one  of 
the  driest  that  had  been  seen  in  Switzerland,  and  the  lakes 
sank  to  a  lower  level  than  was  ever  known  before.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  village  of  Meilen,  on  the  Lake  of  Zurich, 
took  advantage  of  this  unusual  subsidence  to  reclaim  a  piece 
of  land  from  the  lake.  As  the  work  went  on,  a  learned 
antiquary,  Dr.  Ferdinand  Keller,  discovered  the  remains  of 
rows  of  deeply  driven  piles,  and,  imbedded  in  the  mud  around 
them,  found  heaps  of  primitive  weapons,  tools,  and  utensils, 
made  of  stone  and  bone.  Closer  examination  satisfied  him 
that  the  piles  had  supported  a  platform;  that  on  this  plat- 
form huts  had  been  raised;  and  that  after  being  thus 
occupied,  probably  for  centuries,  the  structure  had  been 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  discovery  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich  of 
these  Keltische  pfahlhauten  (Celtic  pile-buildings),  as  Dr. 
Keller  called  them — habitations  lacustres  (lake  dwellings), 
as  other  Swiss  archcologists  have  termed  them — was  followed 
almost  immediately  by  the  discovery  of  erections  of  the 
same  kind  in  other  lakes  of  Switzerland.  No  fewer  than  30 
to  40  have  been  found  in  the  upper  and  lower  lakes  of  Con- 
stance; as  many  as  30  in  the  Lake  of  Geneva;  more  than  20 
in  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel;  10  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne;  besides 
others  in  the  deep  peat-bogs  which  surround  the  hill  of 
Chamblon,  in  the  Vallee  de  TOrbe,  and  in  the  lakes  of 
Morat,  Inkwyl  near  Soleure,  Moosseedorf  near  Bern,  Pfafla- 
kon  near  Zurich,  Wauwyl  near  Lucerne,  and  Nussbaumen 
in  the  canton  of  Thurgau.  The  site  chosen  for  these  lake- 
dwellings  was  generally  a  sunny  and  sheltered  bay,  with  a 
gently  shelving  bottom  of  mud  or  clay.  The  piles,  from 
four  to  ten  inches  in  diameter,  were  rudely  fashioned  of 
whatever  wood  was  at  hand,  oak,  fir,  ash,  beech,  birch, 
cherry,  or  apple.  They  were  driven  in  a  depth  of  not  less 
than  six  or  seven  ft.  of  w^ater,  at  a  distance  of  from  100  to 
300  ft.  from  the  shore.  They  were  ranged  generally  from 
one  to  two  ft.  apart,  in  the  form  of  a  narrow  parallelogram, 
having  its  longest  side  in  a  line  with  the  edge  of  the  lake. 
At  Wangen,  on  the  lower  lake  of  Constance,  the  piles, 
30,000  to 40,000  in  number,  extend  about  700  paces  in  length, 
and  about  120  in  breadth.  At  Morges,  on  the  Lake  of  Ge- 
neva, the  piles  stretch  1,200  ft.  in  length,  by  120  ft.  in  width, 
so  that  they  would  have  supported  a  platform  with  an  area 
of  about  18,000  ft.,  sufliciently  capacious,  according  to  the 
calculations  of  M.  Frederic  Troyon  of  Lausanne,  to  con- 
tain 316  huts,  with  a  population  of  1,264  persons.  The 
huts  seem  to  have  been  mostly  circular  in  shape,  10  to  15 
ft.  in  diameter;  they  were  of  wattles,  plastered  with  clay, 
masses  of  which  hardened  by  fire,  still  bearing  the  marks 
of  the  wattles  which  it  had  received  when  wet  and  soft, 
have  been  recovered  from  the  beds  of  the  lakes.  In  at  least 
one  instance,  the  remains  of  a  bridge  or  gangway,  leading 

140 


ORANNOGS. 

from  the  platform  to  the  shore,  have  been  discovered.  Many 
small  boats,  hollowed  out  of  the  trunks  of  trees,  have  been 
found;  and  one  large  vessel  of  the  same  kind,  50  ft.  long  and 
3i  ft.  wide,  has  been  observed  at  the  bottom  of  the  Lake  of 


Bienne.  The  woodcut  on  this  page  shows  the  pfaMhauten 
as  the  Swiss  archeologists  beleive  them  to  have  been  in  their 
original  state. 

The  lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland  have  obviously  much 
more  resemblance  to  those  of  Lake  Prasias,  described  by 
Lcrodolus,  than  to  the  C.  of  Ireland.    But  the  Swiss  can 

141  • 


OUAKNOGS. 

show  specimens  also  of  the  Irish  type.  At  Kidau  Stein- 
berg, in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  there  is  an  artificial  mound 
of  stones,  resting  on  horizontal  planks,  and  encircled  by  a 
row  of  upright  piles.  It  is  now  submerged,  but  when — 
as  the  Swiss  believe — the  lake  stood  at  a  lower  level,  it 
must  have  been  an  island.  At  Moringen,  in  the  same  lake, 
there  is  another  pile-building,  inclosing  a  mound  of  stones 
which  has  an  area  of  about  half  an  acre.  A  canoe  which 
had  been  used  in  its  construction  lies  with  its  load  of  stones 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  Structures  still  more  nearly 
resembling  the  Irish  C.  have  been  found  in  the  lakes  of 
Inkwyl,  Nussbaumen,  and  Wauwyl. 

History  and  tradition  alike  are  silent  as  to  the  pile-build- 
ings of  the  Swiss  lakes.  That  they  belong  to  a  remote  age, 
will  readily  be  granted,  even  by  those  who  may  hesitate 
to  accept  '  the  stone,  bronze,  and  iron  periods'  on  which 
the  Swiss  antiquary  rests  their  claims  to  '  pre-historic' 
antiquity;  or  who  may  question  the  grounds  on  which  the 
Swiss  naturalist  assigns  them  to  the  15th  c.  before  Christ. 
Of  the  remains  found  in  them,  many  appear  to  be  those  of 
a  rude  people — such  as  spear-points,  arrow-heads,  axes, 
chisels,  knives,  and  even  small  saws,  of  flint  and  stone; 
arrow-heads,  daggers,  hammers,  bodkins,  needles,  pins, 
rings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  of  bone  or  horn.  Articles  of 
bronze,  some  of  them  richly  ornamented,  are  of  common 
occurrence;  and  swords  and  other  objects  of  iron  are  found 
in  considerable  numbers.  Some  of  the  Swiss  archeologists 
seem  at  one  time  to  have  thought  that  the  piles  surrounded 
by  stone  and  bone  implements  showed  marks  of  greater  age 
than  the  piles  surrounded  by  bronze  implements.  It  is  now 
admitted,  however,  that  both  stone  and  bronze  objects,  and 
bronze  and  iron  objects,  are  to  be  found  in  the  same 
group  of  piles.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  too,  that  many  of  the 
objects  of  stone,  bone,  horn,  bronze,  and  iron,  are  fashioned 
of  the  same  shape,  and  for  the  same  use,  differing  only  in 
the  substance  of  which  they  are  made.  Whoever  the 
dwellers  on  the  pfaMhauten  were,  their  remains  show  that 
they  grew  wheat  and  barley;  that  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the 
ox,  the  goat,  the  sheep,  and  the  pig;  that  among  the  beasts 
of  the  chase  which  they  hunted  was  the  now  extinct  species 
of  the  aurochs  (see  Bison);  that  they  had  horses,  dogs,  and 
cats;  that  they  had  apples,  pears,  wild-plums,  and  wood- 
rasp  oerries;  that  they  baked  pottery;  that  their  women 
plied  the  distaff  and  knitted;  that  they  made  hempen  mats; 
and  that  they  wove  linen  cloths. 

Hitherto,  archeologists  knew  of  lake-dwellings  as  existing 
only  in  Ireland  and  Switzerland:  but  in  1857,  Joseph 
Robertson  read  a  paper  to  the  Soc.  of  Scottish  Antiquaries, 
proving  their  existence  in  almost  every  province  of  Scot- 
land. He  not  only  brought  to  light  abt.  50  specimens,  but 
was  able  to  show  from  records  that  they  were  known  in 
Scotland  by  the  same  name  of  C.  as  in  Ireland.  The 
re^eMiblance  between  the  Scottish  and  Irish  types  seems, 
in'l  (I,  complete.  Every  variety  of  structure  observed  in 
the  i)ne  country  is  to  be  found  in  the  other,  from  the  purely 
artificial  island,  framed  of  oak-beams,  mortised  together, 


CRANNOGS. 

to  the  natural  island,  artificially  fortified  or  enlarged  by 
girdles  of  oak-piles  or  ramparts  of  loose  stones;  from  the 
island  with  a  pier  projecting  from  its  side,  to  the  island 
communicating  with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway.  If 
there  be  any  ditference  between  the  C.  of  the  two  countries, 
it  is  that  the  number  of  C.  constructed  altogether  of  stones 
is  greater  in  Scotland  than  in  Ireland — a  dili'erence  readily 
explained  by  the  difference  in  physical  circumstances. 
Among  the  more  remarkable  of  the  Scotch  C.  is  that  in  the 
loch  of  Forfar,  w^hicli  bears  the  name  of  St.  Margaret,  the 
queen  of  King  Malcolm  Canmore,  w^ho  died  1097.  It  is 
chietiy  natural,  but  has  been  strengthened  by  piles  and 
stones,  and  the  care  taken  to  preserve  this  artitical  barrier 
is  attested  by  a  record  of  the  year  1508.  Another  crannog 
— that  of  Lochindorb,  in  Moray — was  visited  by  King 
Edward  I.  of  England  1303,  about  which  time  it  was 
fortified  by  a  castle  of  such  mark  that  in  1336,  King 
Edward  III.  of  England  led  an  army  to  its  relief  through 
the  mountain-passes  of  Athol  and  Badenoch.  A  third 
crannog — that  of  Loch  Cannor  or  Kinord,  in  Aberdeenshire 
— appears  in  history  in  1335,  had  King  James  IV.  for  its 
guest  1506,  and  continued  a  place  of  strength  until  1648, 
when  the  estates  of  parliament  ordered  its  fortifications  to 
be  destroyed.  It  has  an  area  of  about  an  acre,  and  owes 
Itttle  or  nothing  to  art  beyond  a  rampart  of  stones  and  a' 
row  of  piles.  In  the  same  lake  is  another  and  much 
smaller  crannog,  wholly  artificial.  Forty  years  after  the 
dismantling  of  the  crannog  of  Loch  Cannor,  the  crannog 
of  Lochan-Eilean,  in  Strathspey,  is  spoken  of  as  *  useful 
to  the  country  in  time  of  troubles  or  wars,  for  the  people 
put  in  their  goods  and  children  here,  and  it  is  easily 
defended. '  Canoes  hollowed  out  of  the  trunks  of  oaks  have 
been  found  beside  the  Scotch,  as  beside  the  Irish  crannogs. 
Bronze  vessels,  apparently  for  kitchen  purposes,  are  also 
of  frequent  occurrence.  Deer's  horns,  boars'  tusks,  and 
the  bones  of  domestic  animals,  have  been  discovered.  In 
.1880  abt,  35  Scottish  C.  were  known. 

Since  1857,  the  remains  of  lake-dwellings  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Savoy,  in  Upper  Italy,  Hanover,  Prussia,  and 
Denmark.  Less  certain  traces  have  been  found  in  England, 
in  draining  a  mere  at  Wretham  Hall,  near  Thetford,  Nor- 
folk. The  savages  of  Borneo  and  New  Guinea  still  live  on 
the  water,  in  huts  perched  upon  platforms  supported  by 
piles;  and  wooden  houses  raised  upon  piles  are  common  in 
Burmah  and  Siam,  on  the  creeks  and  rivers  of  the  Strait 
of  Malacca,  and  it  is  believed  elsewhere  in  Asia.  A  bas- 
relief  from  the  palace  of  Sennacherib,  e:igraved  in  Mr. 
Layard's  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  represents  what  seem  to 
be  artificial  islands,  formed  apparently  by  wattling  together 
the  tall  reeds  of  the  marshes  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
Euphrates. 

The  C.  of  Ireland  are  described  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Acad.,  i.,  v.,  vii.;  Wilde's  Catalogue  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Royal  Irish  Acad.;  The  Archeological  Journal, 
iii.,  vi. ;  Digby  Wyatt's  Observations  on  the  Early  Habitations 
of  the  Irish  (Lond.  1858);  The  Ulster  Journal  of  Archeology, 


CRANNY— CRAS-CROM. 

Ko.  26;  Proceedings  of  the  Kilkenny  Arclieological  Sac,  No. 
27.  The  chief  works  on  the  lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland 
are  Dr.  Ferdinand  Keller's  three  papers  on  Pfahlbauten, 
and  Dr.  L.  Riitimeyer's  TJnteTsudiung  der  Thierreste  aus  den 
Pfahlhauten,  all  published  in  the  Mittheilungen  der  Anti- 
quarischen  Gesellsclmft  in  ZuricJi,  hand  ix.,  xii.,  xiii.;  M. 
Frederic  Troyon's  Habitations  Lacustres  de  la  Suisse  (Lau- 
sanne 18o7);  his  Osseinens  et  Antiquites  da  Lac  de  Moossedorf, 
in  the  Bibliotheque  JJniverselle  de  Oenhe,  1857,  May;  his 
Details  of  Discoveries  at  the  Lake  Habitations  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  tflster  Journal  of  Archeology,  No.  29:  M.M.  Alb. 
Jahn  and  J.  Ulilmann's  Die  Pfahlbau- Alter thilmer  von 
Moossedorf  (Bern  1H^7);  and  M.A.  Moy\oVs  Etudes  Geologico- 
Archeologiques  en  Danemark  et  en  Suisse,  in  the  Bulletin  de 
la  Societe  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  Naturelles,  t.  vi.  (Lausanne 
1860).  The  Scottish  C.  are  described  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Soc.  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  iii.,  and  in  Dr.  Munro's 
Ancien  f  Scottish  Lake-dwellings  or  Crannogs  (1882).  On  pile- 
buildings  generally,  reference  may  be  made  to  Wylie's 
paper  On  Lake-dwellings  of  the  Early  Periods,  in  the  Arche- 
ologia,  xxxviii.,  and  to  papers  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine, 
1860,1. 

CRANNY,  n.  kran'm  [F.  cran,  a  notch,  a  mark:  Bav. 
krinnen;  Ger.  krinne,2,  notch,  a  rent]:  an  open  crack;  a 
chin;  a  cleft;  a  crevice;  a  retired  or  secret  place.  Cran  - 
nied, a.  -md,  full  of  chinks. 

CRANTARA,  or  Crantarra,  krdn-tdr'a  [Gael,  crann, 
a  cross;  tair,  shame;  so  called  because  to  neglect  it  was  re- 
garded shameful  | :  the  fiery  cross  sent  round  to  summon  the 
Highlanders  to  rise  in  arms. 

GRANTS,  n.  plu.  krauts  [Ger.  krantz;  Sw.  hrans,  a 
crown,  a  garland]:  in  Shakes.,  the  chaplet  or  wreath 
carried  at  the  funeral  of  a  m^aiden,  and  placed  on  or  over 
her  grave. 

CRAPE,  n.  krdp  [F.  crepe,  a  tissue  of  fine  silk  twisted 
to  form  a  series  of  minute  wrinkles;  crespe,  curled — from 
L.  crispus,  crisped,  curled]:  thin  fabric,  of  raw  silk,  which 
has  been  tightly  twisted,  without  removing  the  viscous 
matter  with  which  it  is  covered  when  spun  by  the  worm. 
It  is  simply  woven  as  a  thin  gauze,  then  dressed  with  a 
thick  solution  of  gum,  which  in  drying  causes  the  threads 
partially  to  untwist,  and  thus  gives  a  wrinkled  and  rough 
appearance  to  the  fabric.  It  is  frequently  dyed  black,  for 
mourning  apparel. 

CRAPLE,  n.  kriip'l  [Ger.  krappeln,  to  seize  (see  Grapple 
and  Grab)]:  in  OE.,  a  claw. 

GRAPNEL,  n.  krdp'nel:  see  Grapnel. 

CRAPULOUS,  a.  krdp'ii-liis  [L.  crapidosus,  drunken — 
from  crapida,  excessive  drinking,  a  surfeit]:  excessively 
drunk;  sick  from  indulgence  in  liquor.  Crapula,  n.  krdp' - 
ii-ld,  the  feeling  of  surfeit  and  sickness  in  the  morning  after 
a  night  of  harcT  drinking. 

CRAS-CROM  :  ancient  and  rude  instrument  of  agricult- 
ure in  the  Highlands,  consisting,  as  its  name  in  Gaelic  im- 

144 


CRASH— CRASSULA. 

ports,  of  a  crooked  stick  shod  with  iron,  with  a  small  pro- 
jecting bar  to  rest  the  foot  upon. 

CRASH,  n.  krash  [an  imitation  of  the  noise  made  by  a 
number  of  things  breaking— another  form  of  clash:  Sw. 
krasa;  Dan.  krase,  to  crackle]:  a  noise  as  of  things  falling 
and  breaking  at  once;  an  unbleached  and  unglazed  linen 
fabric  without  twill  or  pattern;  a  violent  mixed  noise:  V. 
to  give  out  a  confused  rough  noise.  Crash  ing,  imp. 
Crashed,  pp.  krdsfit. 

CRASHAW,  krash'aic,  Richard:  b.  London;  son  of  a 
clergyman  in  the  English  Church;  d.  abt.  1650:  a  poet 
whose  devotional  strains  exhibit  imagination  of  a  high 
order,  with  great  copiousness  and  beauty  of  language. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Charter-house,  and  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  obtained  a  fellowship  1637.  He  entered  the  min- 
istry about  1641,  it  is  said,  and  became  an  earnest  and  elo- 
quent preacher;  but  in  1644  he  was  ejected  from  his  fellow- 
ship by  the  parliament,  for  refusing  to  take  the  Covenant. 
He  went  to  France,  adopted  the  Rom.  Cath.  faith,  and 
suffered  great  pecuniary  distress,  until,  through  Cowley's 
intiuence,  he  was  introduced  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria, 
who  recommended  him  to  certain  dignitaries  of  the  Church 
in  Italy.  He  soon  obtained  a  secretaryship  to  one  of  the 
cardinals  at  Rome,  and  was  made  a  canon  of  the  church  of 
Loretto.  In  this  office  he  died.  In  1634,  C.  published  a 
volume  of  Latin  poems,  in  which  appeared  the  famous  line, 
sometimes  attributed  to  Dryden  and  others,  relative  to  the 
miracle  of  the  water  being  turned  into  wine, 

'  Nympha  pudica  Deum  vidit  et  erubuit.'' 
'  The  modest  water  saw  its  God  and  blushed.' 

In  1646  appeared  his  Steps  to  the  Temple,  The  Delights  of  the 
Muses,  and  Carmen  Deo  JVbstro,  in  which  there  is  much  fer- 
vid poetry.  C.  greatly  resembles  George  Herbert  in  his 
cast  of  thought,  and  is  not  inferior  to  him  in  richness  of 
fancy,  though  with  more  exaggeration  and  conceit. 

'  CRASIS,  n.  kn/'sls  [Gr.  krdszs,  a  mixture]:  healthy  con- 
stitution of  the  blood  and  humors;  in  gram.,  the  union  of 
two  vowels  into  one  syllable. 

GRASPED  A,  n.  plu.  kras'pe-dd  [Gr.  kras'pedon,  border 
or  tassel]:  the  long  cords  containing  thread  cells,  which 
are  attached  to  the  free  margins  of  the  mesenteries  of  a  sea- 
anemone. 

CRASS,  a.  kras  [F.  crasse — from  L.  crassvs,  thick, 
dense]:  thick;  dense;  coarse  or  gross:  N.  a  large  species  of 
sea-anemone.  Cras'situde,  n.  -si-tud,  grossness;  thickness; 
stupidity:  also  Crass'ness,  n. 

CRASSAMENTUM,  n.  kras' sd-men' turn,  or  Cras'sa- 
ment,  n.,  and  Cras'siment,  n.  [L.  crassamen'tmn,  dregs, 
grounds— from  crassus,  thick]:  the  clot  of  blood;  dregs  or 
sediment  of  a  fluid. 

CRASSATELLA,  n.  krds-sa  tel'la  [dim.  of  L.  crassus ^ 
thick]:  genus  of  mollusks,  family  Cyprinidm. 

CRASSULA,  n.  krds'su-la  [dim.  of  L.  crassus,  thick. 

145 


CRASSULACE^— CRASSUS. 

Named  from  the  thick  fleshy  leaves-  and  stems]:  genus  of 
hypogynous  exogens,  typical  of  the  order  Crassulacem  {c^.y.). 
Crassulea,  krds-sit'le-ie,  tribe  of  CncssulacefP. 

CRASSULACE^,  kras-u-ld' se-e  :  uat.  ord.  of  exogenous 
plants,  some  shrubby,  some  herbaceous,  all  remarkable  for 
succulency.  About  300  species  are  known,  among  which 
are  house-leeks,  stone-crops,  rose-root,  etc.  They  are 
widely  distributed  over  the  world,  but  s.  Africa  particu- 
larly abounds  in  them.  Most  of  them  grow  in  dry  places, 
and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  air  rather  than  from 
the  soil,  their  roots  seeming  intended  chiefly  to  fix  them  to 
the  spot.  Many  of  them  are  cultivated  in  green  houses, 
more  for  their  grotesque  forms  than  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers.  Some  are  refrigerant,  and  one  or  two  are  even 
used  as  food;  others,  on  account  of  the  tannin  which  they 
contain,  are  astringent;  some  are  acrid, 

CRASSUS,  kras'us :  surname  of  several  old  Roman 
families,  among  which  that  of  the  Licinii  was  most  re 
markable. 

CRASSUS,  Lucius  Licinius:  b.c.  140-91:  the  best  orator 
of  his  age,  distinguished  for  his  wit  and  for  his  rectitude 
in  the  capacity  of  proconsul.  In  b.c.  95  he  was  elected 
consul,  with  Quintus  Mucins  Scsevola  (who  had  been  his 
colleague  in  all  his  previous  ofiices).  During  their  consul- 
ship was  enacted  the  Lex  Licinia  Mucia  de  Cwibus  regundis, 
banishing  from  Rome  all  who  had  not  the  full  rights  of 
citizens.  This  imbittered  the  feelings  of  foreigners  toward 
Rome,  and  partly  led  to  the  Social  War.  As  censor,  C, 
B.C.  92,  closed  all  the  schools  of  the  rhetors — asserting 
that  they  had  exercised  a  bad  influence  on  the  minds  of 
young  men.  C.  died  in  consequence  of  excitement  attend- 
ing a  debate  in  the  senate. 

CRASSUS,  Marcus  Licinius,  Roman  triumvir :  abt. 

B.  C.  115 — abt,  57.  His  father  and  brother  suffered  death 
from  the  party  of  Marius,  b.c.  81,  and  he  himself — though 
young — was  subjected  to  a  jealous  and  dangerous  surveil- 
lance. In  B.C.  85,  to  escape  from  this,  he  went  to  Spain. 
He  afterward  joined  Sulla,  b.c  83,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  battle  against  the  Samnites  atjthe  gates  of  Rome. 
As  praetor  he  crushed  the  Servile  revolt,  by  the  conquest  of 
Spartacus  at  the  battle  of  Lucania  b.c.  71,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  made  consul  with  Pompey,  a  colleague 
w^iom  he  hated.  On  the  other  hand,  Caesar  valued  the 
friendship  of  C,  the  most  wealthy  of  Roman  citizens. 
During  his  consulate,  C.  gave  a  feast  to  the  people  which 
was  spread  on  10,000  tables,  and  distributed  a  provision  of 
corn  for  three  months.    Plutarch  estimates  the  wealth  of 

C.  at  more  than  7,000  talents,  and  Pliny  states  that  the  lands 
of  C.  were  worth  8,000  talents.  About  b.c.  60  Caesar, 
Pompey,  and  C.  entered  into  a  private  arrangement  for 
their  common  benefit :  this  paction  is  known  as  the  first 
triumvirate  :  see  C^sar.  In  b.c  57,  as  consul  with  Pom- 
pey, he  gained  the  province  of  Syria,  and  professed  to 
make  preparations  of  war  against  the  Parthians;  but  the 
acquisition  of  more  wealth  seems  to  have  been  his  main 

146 


CRAT^GUS-CRATE. 

object,  and  this  he  effected  by  plundering  the  towns  and 
temples  in  Syria.  At  length,  however,  he  set  out,  but  was 
misguided  by  a  treacherous  Arab,  and  utterly  defeated  at 
the  river  Bilecha  by  the  Partbians.  C.  now  retreated  to 
the  tow^n  of  Carrhse,  intending  to  pass  into  Armenia;  but 
was  beguiled  into  a  conference  with  the  Parthian  general, 
Surenas,  and  w^as  slain  at  the  appointed  place  of  meeting. 
His  quaestor,  Cassius,  with  500  cavalry,  escaped  into  Syria; 
but  the  remaining  Romans  w^ere  scattered  and  made  pris- 
oners, or  put  to  death. 

CRAT^GUS,  kra-tegiis'.  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord. 
*Bosaceo2,  sub-order  Pomece,  very  nearly  allied  to  MespUus 
(Medlar) and  Pyrits  (Pear,  Apple,  etc.),  l3ut  distinguished  by 
the  acute  calycine  segments,  and  by  the  round  or  oval  fruit, 
closed  at  the  apex,  and  concealing  the  upper  end  of  the  bony 
cells.  The  species  are  numerous,  natives  of  the  temperate 
parts  of  the  n.  hemisphere,  and  in  general  have  tlowers 
in  beautiful  terminal  corymbs.  They  all  are  large  shrubs 
or  small  trees,  more  or  less  spiny,  whence  the  name  Thorn 
has  been  very  generally  applied  to  them.  The  only  native 
of  Britain  is  the  common  Hawthorn  (q.v.),  (C.  oxyacantlia). 
Most  of  the  species  resemble  it  considerably  in  habit,  size, 
form  of  leaf,  etc.  A  number  of  them  are  now^  frequent  in 
plantations  and  shrubberies  in  Britain,  of  w^hich  perhaps 
the  most  common  is  the  Cock's-spur  Thorn  ((7.  crus-galli), 
native  of  N.  America  from  Canada  to  Carolina.  Its  leaves 
are  not  lobed;  its  fruit  rather  larger  than  that  of  the  haw- 
thorn. The  AzAROLE  {G.  Azarolus),  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  the  Aronia((7.  Aroma),  native  of  the  Levant, 
are  occasionally  cultivated  for  their  fruit,  which  is  about 
the  size  of  the  Siberian  crab,  and  is  used  either  for  dessert 
or  for  pies.  C.  Or ieiitalis  {or  odor atissi7na)  and  C.  tanaceti- 
folia  also  have  fruit  of  considerable  size.  The  latter  is 
much  eaten  in  Armenia.  G.  Mexicana  has  a  large  fruit, 
like  a  small  apple,  not  eatable,  but  very  ornamental.  The 
wood  of  most  of  the  species  much  resembles  that  of  the 
haw^thorn.  It  is  common  to  graft  the  rarer  species  on  the 
hawthorn. — G.  pyracardha  diff  ers  much  in  appearance  from 
^  most  of  the  genus;  being  a  pretty  evergreen  shrub,  with 
lanceolate  crenate  leaves,  and  rich  clusters  of  red  berries, 
which  remain  on  it  all  winter;  native  of  rocky  places  in 
the  south  of  Europe  and  the  Caucasus.  It  is  often  em- 
ployed in  Britain  as  an  ornamental  covering  for  walls,  and 
is  known  as  the  Pyracantha. 

CRAT^YA,  n.  kra-te'm  [after  Gratmus,  a  Gr.  botanist 
who  lived  about  B.C.  430]:  genus  of  hypogenous  exogens, 
order  Gajiparldacem  (q.v.),  tribe  Gopparece. 

CRATCH,  n  krach  [F.  creiche;  OF.  creche;  It.  craticia, 
a  rack,  a  crib— from  L.  crates,  a  hurdle]:  the  open  frame 
in  which  hay  is  put  for  cattle;  a  hurdle;  a  fold. 

CRATE,  n.  krdt  [L.  crates,  wicker  or  hurdle  work:  It. 
crate,  a  harrow:  Dan.  krat,  copse:  comp.  Gael,  creatach,  a 
hurdle]:  any  open  receptacle  rudely  formed  of  sticks  or 
twifTs;  an  open  case  formed  of  small  bars  or  rods  of  w^ood  in 
which  glass,china,etc.,may  be  packed  for  carriage;  a  hamper, 

147 


CRATER— CRATINUS. 

CRATER,  n.  krd'ter  [L.  crater;  Gr.  krater,  a  cup]:  the 
mouth  of  a  volcano,  so  called  from  its  cup  or  bowl  shaped 
vent  or  aperture;  a  constellation  of  the  s.  hemisphere, 
called  the  cup.  Crateriform,  a.  krd-Ur  i-fawrm  [L. 
forma,  a  shapej .  having  the  form  of  a  crater  —applied  to 
hills  whose  summits  present  bowl-shaped  depressions. 

CRA  TER:  central  cup-shaped  cavity  in  the  summit  of 
a  volcano  (q.  v.),  through  which  the  lava,  stones,  scoria,  etc., 


Crater  of  Kilauea  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  Pacific  Ocean:  Depth 
about  1,500  ft.;  circumference  about  2  miles. 

are  for  the  most  part  ejected.  These  materials  sometimes 
escape  from  immense  rents  in  the  sides  of  the  volcano,  as 
in  the  famous  eruption  of  Hecla,  1783,  when  two  enormous 
streams  of  lava  poured  from  its  side  to  the  distance,  the  one 
of  40,  the  other  of  50  miles.  The  volcanic  materials,  when 
they  escape  through  a  crater,  are  not  always  ejected  through 
the  old  vent  on  the  summit;  some  other  portion  of  the 
mountain  may  yield  more  readily  to  the  pressure  from 
within,  and  thus  one  or  more  lateral  craters  be  formed, 
w^hich,  however,  increase  in  height  from  the  accumulation 
of  ejected  materials,  and  eventually,  if  the  eruption  con- 
tinues, overtop  the  former  cone. 

CRATINUS,  kra-ti'nas:  Greek  comic  poet;  b  about 
B.C.  519.  Next  to  his  younger  contemporaries,  Eupolis 
and  Aristophanes,  he  is  the  most  valuable  representative 
of  the  Old  Attic  comedy.  He  changed  its  outward  form 
considerably,  and  fought  to  add  to  its  vigor  and  power. 
Before  his  time,  the  number  of  actors  had  been  indetinite; 
he  limited  them  to  three.  He  was  the  first  to  make  comedy 
pungent  and  personal.  The  habits,  manners,  institutions 
— in  fact,  the  whole  public  and  private  life  of  the  Athe- 
nians— were  considered  by  C.  a  legitimate  mark  for  censo- 
rious satire.  The  greatest  men  did  not  escape.  Pericles, 
for  instance,  was  frequently  and  fiercely  abused.  C/s  style 
was  very  metaphorical  and  ingenious.  Of  his  21  comedies, 
nine  of  which  obtained  the  first  prize  in  the  public  compe- 
ls 


CRATIPPUS— CRAVEN. 

titions,  only  some  fragments  remain,  collected  by  Meineke 
iu  his  Fragmenia  Comicorum  Orcecoruni  (Berlin  1840). 

A  younger  Cratinus,  contemporary  of  Plato,  belonged 
to  the  school  of  the  Middle  Comedy. 

CRATIPPUS,  kra-tlp'pas:  Peripatetic  philosopher,  in 
the  c.  before  Christ;  b.  JViitylene:  contemporary  of  Cicero. 
He  appears  to  have  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by 
the  great  men  of  his  age.  Cicero  calls  him  the  prince  of  all 
the  philosophers  whom  he  had  known.  Pompey  visited 
him  after  his  defeat  at  Pharsalia,  and  received  at  his  hands 
the  consolations  of  philosophy;  and  Brutus  went  to  Athens, 
to  which  city  C.  had  latterly  betaken  himself,  to  listen  to 
his  prelections,  even  while  making  preparations  to  meet 
Octavius  and  Antony.  Nothing  that  C.  wrote  has  sur- 
vived. 

CRATOXYLON,  n.  krat-oxi-l6n  [Gr.  kratos,  strength; 
xulon,  fire- wood,  timber];  genus  of  hypogenous  exogens, 
order  Hyjoericacece,  tribe  Modem. 

CRAUNCH,  or  Cranch,  v.  kraiisJi  [Dut.  schransen,  to 
eat  greedily — a  word  imitative  of  the  noise] :  to  crush  with 
the  teeth;  to  chew  with  noise.  Craunch'ing,  imp. 
Craunched,  pp.  krdnslit' . 

CRAVAT,  n.  krd-vat'  [F.  cramte,  a  neckcloth:  formerly 
written  crahat — said  to  have  been  introduced  in  1636,  and 
named  after  the  Crahats  or  Cravats,  as  the  Croatians  were 
then  called]:  a  neckcloth;  a  large  necktie. 

CRAVE,  V.  krfiv  [AS.  crafian,  to  ask:  Icel.  krefa  and 
Ar^^'a;  to  demand:  W.  crefu,  \o  desire]:  to  ask  earnestly; 
to  ask  humbly;  to  long  for;  to  beg,  entreat,  or  implore. 
Cra  viNG,  imp. :  N.  a  vehement  or  urgent  desire  to  obtain. 
Craved,  pp.  krCivcl. — Syn.  of  'crave':  to  ask;  seek;  be 
seech;  solicit;  request;  supplicate;  adjure;  require;  demand. 

CRAVEN,  n.  krd-ven  [OE.  cravand  or  cravant,  a  coward 
— anciently  the  exclamation  of  the  party  overcome  in  single 
combat,  when  he  yielded:  prov.  Eng.  cradant;  Scot,  craw 
don,  a  coward]:  a  recreant;  one  cowardly  base;  a  poltroon: 
Adj.  weak-hearted;  spiritless;  cowardly  base:  V.  to  make 
cowardly.  Cra'venly,  ad.  H.  Note. — Cramnd  or  cravant 
is  an  OE.  present  part,  equal  to  craving,  ivomcrave — that  is, 
*one  begging  for  quarter  or  suing  for  mercy.' — See  Skeat. 

CRAVEN,  kravn,  Alfred  Wingate:  1810,  Oct.  20— 
1879,  Mar.  29;  b.  Washington:  civil  engineer.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  College  1829,  studied  civil  engineering, 
and  followed  it  with  distinction  till  his  death.  He  w^as 
largely  employed  in  railroad  construction  and  management 
in  various  parts  of  the  country;  but  his  most  important 
work  w^as  in  New^  York  in  connection  with  its  sewerage, 
its  supply  of  Crotou  water,  and  the  improvement  of  Fourth 
avenue.  From  the  organization  of  the  Croton  Water 
Board  1849  till  1868  he  was  its  engineer,  and  planned  and 
supervised  the  construction  of  the  great  w^orks  of  that 
period.  He  was  a  founder,  director  many  years,  and  pres. 
1869-71  of  the  American  Soc.  of  Civil  Engineers 

CRAVEN,  Thomas  Tingey,  u.s.n.:  1808,  Dec.  30— 

149 


CRAW— CRAW-FISH. 

1887,  Aug.  23;  b.  Portsmouth,  N.  H. :  eldest  son  of  Tunis 
C,  U.S.N.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  1822; 
served  in  the  Pacific  squadron  1823-28;  was  sailing-mas- 
ter of  the  Erie,  W.  India  squadron,  and  was  present  at  the 
capture  of  the  pirate  Fedsral  1828;  was  commissioned 
lieut.  1830;  commanded  Capt.  Wilkes's  flag-ship  in  the  ant- 
artic  exploring  expedition  1838;  appointed  commandant  of 
midshipmen  in  the  naval  acad.  1850;  promoted  commander 
1852,  capt.  1861,  commodore  1862,  and  rear-admiral  1866; 
and  was  given  command  of  the  Pacific  squadron  1868.  He 
was  at  one  time  in  command  of  the  Potomac  flotilla,  and  at 
the  ciDture  of  New  Orleans  was  commander  of  the  Brook- 
lyn. During  1866-68  h3  was  commandant  of  the  Mare  Is- 
land, Ual.,  navy  yard. 

CRAW,  n.  kraw  [Dan.  kro,  the  craw:  Ger.  kragen,  the 
neck  or  throat:  Dut.  kraeye.Xh^  neck:  Sw.  krafwa,  acrawj: 
the  crop  or  first  stomach  of  a  bird. 

CRAW-FISH,  n.  krawfuTi,  or  Crayfish,  kraf  isli  [com- 
paratively modern  corruption  of  Eng.  creveys  or  cremsli — 
from  the  supposition  that  it  was  a  kind  of  fish — from  O.H. 
G.  krebiz;  F.  ecrevisse;  Dut.  krevisse,  a  crawfish:  Ger.  krebs, 
a  crab]:  [Astacus  fluviatilis)  crustacean  or  shell-fish  of  the 
order  Decapoda  (see  Ciiab),  sub-order  Macroura  (i.e.,  long- 
tailed — characterized  by  the  elongation  of  the  abdomen, 
and  its  termination  in  a  sort  of  fin  composed  of  five  pieces 
and  expanded  laterally);  nearly  allied  to  the  lobster,  from 
which,  however,  it  diflers  in  being  smaller,  in  inhabiting 


(Craw-fish  {Astacus  fluviatilis). 

fresh  w^ater,  and  in  having  the  middle  plate  of  the  tail-fin 
transversely  divided  by  a  suture.  It  inhabits  the  rivers  and 
streams  of  many  parts  of  Europe,  making  burrows  in 
clayey  banks,  and  coming  forth  at  night  in  search  of  food, 
which  consists  chiefly  of  mollusks,  small  fishes,  larvse  of 
aquatic  insects,  and  animal  substances  of  almost  any  kind. 
It  is  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  is  readily  attracted  b}^  a 
bait  of  decaying  flesh  or  animal  garbage,  which  being  in- 
closed in  a  net  or  in  a  bundle  of  twigs,  numbers  of  C.  may 
be  captured  at  a  time — Other  species  of  C.  abound  in  some 
warmer  parts  of  the  world.    See  Huxley's  Ci  ay  fish  (1879), 


CRAWFORD. 

CRAWFORD,  Nathaniel  Macon,  d.d.:  1811,  Mar. 
22—1871,  Oct.  27;  b.  Oglethorpe  co.,  Ga.:  educator.  He 
graduated  at  the  U  niv.  of  Ga.,  1829;  studied  law,  but  never 
practiced;  was  prof,  of  mathematics  in  Oglethorpe  Univ. 
1837-41;  was  licensed  to  preach  1843  and  ordained  1844; 
served  pastorates  in  Bapt  churches  in  Washington,  Ga., 
and  Charleston,  S.  C,  1845-6;  was  prof,  of  Biblical  litera- 
ture in  Mercer  Univ.,  Ga.,  l847-o4,  and  pres.  1854-57; 
chosen  prof,  of  theol.  in  the  Western  Bapt.  Theol.  Semi- 
nary, Georgetown,  Ky.,  1857;  was  again  pres.  of  Mercer 
Univ.  1858-65;  and  pres.  of  the  Georgetown  Semiuary 
1865-70.  Dr.  C.  was  also  elected  pres.  of  the  Bible  Revis- 
ion Committee  (Bapt.)  1857,  published  numerous  doctrinal 
works,  and  a  volume.  Christian  Paradoxes,  1858. 

CRAW  FORD,  Thomas:  1814,  Mar.  22-1857,  Oct.  16; 
b.  Xew  York:  sculptor.  When  a  mere  youth  he  worked 
at  wood-carving,  when  19  years  old  entered  the  studio 
of  Frazer  and  Launitz,  monumental  sculptors,  and  when 
21  that  of  Thorwaldsen  in  Roine,  with  whom  he  worked 
several  years.  He  modelled  busts  to  be  put  in  marble, 
copied  in  marble  several  noted  statues,  including  the  Vati- 
can Demosthenes,  and  produced  his  first  original  work, 
Orpheus,  1839.  In  1844  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
found  himself  famous,  modelled  a  bust  of  Josiah  Quincy, 
sr.,  for  Harvard  Univ.  library,  and  secured  valuable  com- 
missions. On  a  second  visit,  1849,  he  received  a  commission 
from  the  state  of  Ya.  to  execute  a  colossal  statue  of  Wash- 
ington for  the  capitol  at  Richmond,  and  commissions  from 
congress  for  marble  and  bronze  statuary  for  the  new  na- 
tional capitol.  Under  the  latter  commission  he  designed 
the  marble  pediment  exhibiting  life  size  hgures  illustrative 
of  American  progress,  the  bronze  doors,  and  the  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  liberty  that  surmounts  the  dome.  He  fin- 
ished upward  of  60  works  (many  colossal),  religious,  his- 
torical, and  mythological  in  character,  and  left  nearly  as 
many  sketches  and  designs. 

CRAW  FORD,  William  Harris:  1772,  Feb.  24—1834, 
Sep.  15;  b.  Amherst  co.,  Va.:  statesman.  In  1783  he  set- 
tled in  Columbia  co.,  Ga.,  1788  began  teaching  school, 
1798  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  entered  on  practice  in 
Lexington.  He  assisted  in  compiling  the  first  digest  of 
state  laws,  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  1802  and  to  the  U. 
S.  senate  to  fill  a  vacancy  1807  (fighting  two  duels  during 
the  canvass),  was  re-elected  for  a  full  term  1811,  was  chosen 
pres.  of  the  senate  pro  tem.  1812,  Mar.,  and,  refusing  the 
secretaryship  of  war,  was  appointed  minister  to  France 
1813.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  sec.  of  war,  and 
the  next  year  sec.  of  the  treasury,  and  held  the  latter  otfice 
till  1825,  Mar.  He  was  urged  as  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency several  times  while  sec .  of  the  treasury,  received  the 
nomination  in  congressional  caucus — then  the  customary 
way — 1824,  Feb.,  and  in  the  election  had  41  electoral  votes. 
No  choice  for  president  having  been  reached,  the  election 
was  decided  in  the  house  of  representatives;  but  mean- 
while C.  had  been  stricken  with  paralysis,  which  precluded 

161 


CRAWFORDSVILLE  -  CiixV  YOX. 

his  effectual  candidacy.  He  at  first  opposed,  then  support- 
ed, the  war  with  Great  Britain,  carried  out  the  views  of 
Jefferson  as  again  the  federalist  policy  while  sec.  of  the 
treasury,  was  unanimously  exonerated  by  a  special  com- 
mittee of  the  senate  from  charges  of  othcial  misconduct 
while  sec,  was  compelled  by  ill  health  to  retire  from  po- 
litical life,  was  elected  a  circuit  judge  in  Ga.  1828,  and  held 
the  office  by  re-elections  till  within  a  short  time  of  his 
death. 

CRAWFORDSVILLE:  city,  cap.  of  Montgomery  co.. 
Ind.,  on  Sugar  creek  and  the  Louisville,  New  Albany  and 
Chicago,  and  the  Logansport  C.  and  Southwestern  rail- 
roads; 28  m.  s.  of  Lafayette,  43  m.  w.n.w.  of  Indianapolis. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Wabash  (Presb.)  College,  founded  1884, 
which  has  10  professors  and  a  library  of  over  12,000  vols. 
It  has  10  churches,  one  national  bank,  4  weekly  news- 
papers, and  several  carriage  and  other  manufactories.  Pop. 
(1870)  3,701;  (1880)  5,251. 

CRAWL,  V.  krawl  [Sw.  kralla,  to  Cicep:  Icel.  krafla,  to 
paw:  F.  grouiller,  to  stir,  to  swarm:  Dut.  krielen,  to  stir 
about,  to  swarm:  Dan.  gryle,  to  swarm,  to  crawl]:  to  have 
an  indistinct  confused  appearance  of  moving  things;  to  move 
feebly  and  irregularly;  to  creep;  to  move  slowly,  as  a  worm; 
to  move  on  the  hands  and  knees,  as  a  child:  IST.  an  inclosure 
on  the  coast  for  fish  [Dut.  kraal,  w^hich  see] :  the  place  set 
apart  for  fish  in  a  fishing-boat.  Crawl'ing,  imp.  Crawled, 
pp.  krawld.  Crawl  er,  d.  one  who.  Crawl'ingly,  ad. 

CRAYER,  krl'yer  F.  krd-yii,  Caspar  de:  Flemish  his- 
torical and  portrait  painter:  1582-1669;  b.  Antwerp.  He 
lived  first  at  Brussels;  afterward  at  Ghent,  where  he  died. 
For  the  churches  at  Ghent  he  executed  21  altar-pieces.  "His 
works  are  found  all  through  Flanders  and  Brabant.  The 
galleries  of  Vienna  and  Munich  also  possess  a  few.  Their 
main  characteristics  are  vigor  and  boldness  of  design,  and 
care  and  truthfulness  in  execution.  Rubens  was  a  great 
admirer  of  Crayer. 

CRAYFISH,  n.  krd'flsh:  for  Craw-fish,  which  see. 

CRAYON,  n.  krct'on  [F.  crayon,  a  piece  of  drawing- 
chalk — from  craie,  chalk:  OF.  croie — from  L.  cretd,  chalk: 
Gael,  creadh,  clayj:  a  kind  of  pencil.  Cray  ons,  n.  plu. 
pieces  of  chalk  of  different  colors  used  for  drawing  with; 
the  drawing  itself  done  with  crayons:  V.  to  sketch  with  a 
crayon.  Cray'oning,  imp.  Cray'oned,  pp.  -and.  Porte- 
crayon,  port-krd'on  [F.  porter,  to  carry]:  a  holder  for  a 
crayon,  consisting  of  a  tube  of  metal  split  at  one  or  both 
ends,  for  the  insertion  of  a  crayon.  Though  used  in 
French,  and  occasionally  in  English,  to  designate  a  pencil 
generally,  including  those  called  Mead  pencils,'  the  word 
C.  is  more  frequently  a])plied,  in  England,  to  one  of  those 
small  cylinders  of  charcoal,  or  of  pipe-clay,  or  of  chalk  col- 
ored with  various  pigments,  which  are  used  for  drawing. 
Cohesiveness  is  given  to  the  paste  of  which  the  cylinders 
are  formed  by  means  of  gum,  wax,  soap,  etc.  C.  drawings 
are  often  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  and  softness  with 

152 


CRAZE— CREAM  OF  TARTAR. 

which  objects  are  represented,  but  the}^  are  deficient  in 
power.    See  Pencil:  Chalk. 

CRAZE,  V.  krdz  [F.  ecraser,  to  crush,  to  bruise:  Dan. 
krase;  Svv.  krasa,  to  crackle],  to  disorder  or  weaken;  to 
impair  the  natural  force  or  energy,  as  of  the  intellect;  to 
bruise  or  crush:  N.  a  weakness  of  mind  in  any  particular 
thing.  Cra  zing,  imp.  Crazed,  pp.  krdzd:  Adj.  applied 
to  the  glaze  on  pottery  that  has  a  cracked  appearance, 
arising  from  improper  tiring.  Crazy,  a.  krd'zi,  broken; 
feeble;  weak;  shattered  in  mind.  Cra'zily,  ad.  -D. 
Cra'ziness,  n.  the  state  of  being  broken  or  weakened  in 
intellect,  or  in  a  thing.  Crazing-mill,  a  mill  for  crushing 
or  grinding  tin. 

CREAK,  V.  krek  [a  word  imitative  of  a  more  acute  sound 
than  that  represented  by  crack:  F.  criquer,  to  creak:  It. 
criccare,  to  rattle :  Dut.  krick,  a  crash,  a  creak] :  to  make  a 
sharp,  harsh,  grating  noise.  Creaking,  imp.:  Adj.  mak- 
ing a  harsh  grating  noise:  N.  a  harsh  grating  noise. 
Creaked,  pp.  krekt. 

CREAM,  n  krem  [F.  creme;  It.  crema,  cream;  cremore, 
the  simmering  of  milk  beginning  to  boil:  Icel.  krauma, 
cream— from  kraumr,  the  lowest  point  of  boiling:  AS.  and 
Scot,  rearn]:  thick  oily  scum,  being  the  butyraceous  and 
richer  portion  of  milk,  which  as  lighter  rises  and  settles  on 
the  surface  when  the  milk  has  stood  for  a  time:  see  Milk. 
The  term  C.  is  applied  in  a  variety  of  ways,  indicative  of 
something  superior  in  quality;  e.g.  (colloq.)  'the  cream  of 
the  joke  ' ;  thus  the  French,  referring  to  persons  in  the  height 
of  fashion  speak  of  La  creme  de  la  creme — The  cream  of 
cream.  Cream,  v.  to  skim;  to  take  off  the  best  part  of 
anything.  Creaming,  imp.  Creamed,  pp.  kremd. 
Cream  y,  a.  4,  full  of  cream.  Cream-faced,  pale;  having 
a  coward  look.  Cream  iness,  n.  -l-nes.  Cold  cream  (see 
that  title). 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR:  compound  of  tartaric  acid  and 
potassa.  It  exists  naturally  in  grape- juice,  but  being  insol- 
uble in  alcohol,  it  is  gradually  deposited,  in  the  form  of 
argol,  as  the  sugar  of  the  juice  becomes  converted  into  al- 
cohol by  fermentation.  In  the  preparation  of  C.  of  T.,  the 
argol  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  to  which  charcoal  or  fine 
clay  is  added,  to  take  up  the  coloring  matter;  by  boiling 
and  filtering,  a  clear  colorless  solution  is  obtained,  from 
which,  on  cooling,  the  C.  of  T.  separates  as  crystals.  Some 
of  the  crystals  form  at  the  bottom;  others  form  a  crust  on 
the  top,  like  cream,  whence  the  name,  cream  of  tartar.  In 
chemjcal  composition,  it  is  the  Bitartrate  of  Potash  (KO, 
HO,  T),  and  contains  potash,  water,  and  tartaric  acid.  It  is 
readily  soluble  in  hot  water,  though  it  takes  60  parts  of 
cold  water  to  dissolve  one  part  of  the  cream  of  tartar.  It 
has  an  acid  taste,  and  gritty  feel.  When  taken  repeatedly 
in  small  doses  of  a  scruple  to  a  drachm,  it  acts  as  a  refrig- 
erant and  diuretic;  in  doses  of  one  to  two  drachms,  it  is 
useful  as  an  aperient;  and  in  larger  doses  of  from  two  to 
three  drachms,  it  acts  as  a  purging  agent,  accompanied  by 
flatulence  and  griping.    Imperial  liquid  is  prepared  by  dis- 


CREASE— CREASY. 

solving  about  a  drachm  of  C.  of  T.  in  a  pint  of  boiling 
water,  and  adding  a  little  lemon-peel  and  sugar  to  flavor  it; 
when  an  agreeable  refrigerant  drink  is  obtained,  service- 
able in  allaying  thirst  in  feverish  cases.  C.  of  T.  whey  is 
obtained  by  adding  two  drachms  of  the  salt  to  a  pint  of 
milk. 

CREASE,  n.  kres  [Bret.  kHz,  a  wrinkle,  a  tuck  in  a 
garment:  W.  crych,  a  wrinkle,  a  ripple:  F.  cjrisser,  and 
crisser,  to  crackle] :  a  line,  mark,  or  wrinkle  made  in  cloth 
in  folding  it:  V.  to  mark  by  a  fold  like  a  furrow.  Creas'- 
iNG,  imp.    Creased,  pp.  krest. 

CREASOTE,  or  Kreasote,  n.  kre'd-sot  [Gr.  kreas, 
flesh;  sozo,  I  preserve]:  artificial  organic  substance,  gener- 
ally obtained  from  the  products  of  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood.  It  is  procured  incidentally  as  one  of  the 
constituents  of  wood-tar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
tedious  process.  The  principal  supplies  are  obtained  from 
Stockholm,  Archangel,  and  from  America.  In  the  pure 
condition,  C.  is  a  colorless  oily  liquid,  with  high  refractive 
powers;  but  the  commercial  specimens  are  generally  col- 
ored yellow  or  light  brown.  It  boils  at  398'  F. ;  does  not 
readily  inflame;  but  when  set  fire  to,  burns  with  a  smoky 
flame.  It  has  an  odor  of  smoke,  a  hot  burning  taste,  and 
is  very  poisonous  to  plants  and  animals.  It  has  a  great 
power  of  coagulating  albumen,  and  hence  may  be  em- 
ployed with  advantage  in  toothache;  a  drop  placed  on  the 
exposed  nerve  coagulates  the  albuminous  tissues,  and  de- 
stroys its  vitality  and  sense  of  pain.  The  most  important 
property  possessed  by  C,  however,  is  its  antiseptic  or  pre- 
serving power  over  vegetable  and  animal  organs  and  struct- 
ures. Thus,  ordinary  meat  treated  with  only  one-hun- 
dreth  of  its  weight  of  C,  and  exposed  to  the  air,  does  not 
putrefy,  but  becomes  hard  and  dry,  and  assumes  the  taste 
and  odor  of  smoked  meat.  Again,  timber  treated  with  C. 
does  not  suffer  from  dry-rot  or  other  disease;  and  thus  C, 
in  a  crude  form,  is  employed  in  the  preservation  of  wood 
(q.v.).  The  crude  pyroligneous  acid  of  commerce,  often 
used  in  the  curing  of  hams,  etc.,  owes  part,  at  least,  of  its 
preserving  powers  to  the  presence  of  a  trace  of  C,  which 
leaves  its  characteristic  odor  so  well  known  as  obtauied 
from  the  burning  of  wood  for  the  smoking  of  hams,  etc. 
When  used  medicinally,  C.  acts  externally  by  destroying 
the  cuticle;  internally,  in  small  doses  of  a  drop  or  two,  it 
is  serviceable  in  arresting  obstinate  vomiting;  while  in 
large  doses  it  produces  nausea  and  severe  vomiting,  and,  in 
many  cases,  fatal  results. 

CREASY,  kre'si,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd  :  1812- 
1878,  Jan.  27;  b.  Bexley,  Kent,  England:  lawyer  and  his- 
torian. He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College;  was 
called  to  the  bar  1837,  appointed  prof,  of  modern  and  an- 
cient history  in  the  Univ.  of  London  1840,  and  chief  jus- 
tice of  Ceylon  1 860.  He  was  author  of  2 he  Fifteen  Decisive 
Battles  of  the  World  (1852);  The  Rise  and  Pi^ogress  of  the  Brit- 
ish Constitution;  A  Hisiory  of  the  Ottoman  Turks;  a  History 

]54 


CREATE— CKEATIX. 

of  England  {18(59-^0};  and  The  Imperial  and  Colonial  Con- 
sti'tuiions  of  the  Britannic  Empire  (1872). 

CREATE,  V.  krt-O.t'  [L.  crtdtus,  created— allied  to  Sks. 
kri,  to  make:  It.  creare:  F.  crter:  comp.  Gael,  cruth,  a 
form  or  shape]:  to  give  birth  to;  to  form  out  of  nothing;  to 
bring  into  existence  by  inherent  power;  to  produce  from 
existing  materials  a  body  invested  with  new  powers  and 
qualities:  to  generate;  to  form  anew;  to  invest  with  a  new 
character  or  dignity;  to  produce  or  cause.  Crea'tln^g, 
imp.  Created,  pp.  Creator,  n.  -ttr,  the  Deity;  one 
who  creates.  Crea  tion,  n.  -0.  shUn,  the  act  of  creating  the 
world;  the  world  itself;  the  universe.  Crea  tive,  a."^/r, 
that  has  a  power  or  tendency  to  create.  Crea  ttvely,  ad. 
-l'>.  Crea  TivENESs,  n.  Creature,  n.  hrt  tiir,  often  -ch(n\ 
every  living  thing  except  God,  the  Creator — applied  also  to 
inanimate  substances;  an  animal;  a  human  being  in  con- 
tempt or  pity;  anything  produced  or  imagined;  a  dependant 
or  tool.  Crea  TURELY,  ad.  Crea  tureship,  n.  state 
of  a  creature.  Creature-comforts,  those  things  which 
minister  to  the  comforts  of  the  body.— Syn.  of  'create': 
to  make;  form;  cause;  occasion;  produce;  constitute;  ap- 
]X)int. 

CREATIX,  or  Kreatine,  n.  kre'a-tUi  [Gr.  kriOs,  flesh, 
kri'itos,  of  fle.sh]:  substaaice  from  the  juice  of  flesh,  discov- 
ered 18oo  by  Chevreul;  little  known  till  Liebig  published 
his  Researches  on  the  Chemistry  of  Food,  1S47  From  his  in- 
vestigations, and  those  of  subsequent  chemists — especially 
the  late  Dr.  William  Gregory  of  Edinburgh — the  following 
facts  regarding  its  properties  and  occurrence  have  been  es- 
tablished. 

C.  forms  transparent,  glistening  crystals,  belonging  to 
the  clinorhombic  system,  and  usually  occurring  in  groups, 
the  character  of  which  is  exactly  similar  to  that  of  sugar 
of  lead.  Although  usually  grouped  among  the  basic  bodies, 
it  is  neutral  in  its  reaction.  It  dissolves  in  74  4  pa*rts  of 
cold  water,  and  in  boiling  Avater  in  such  quantity  that  the 
solution  on  cooling  solidities  into  a  mass  of  delicate  need- 
les. These  crystals  contain  two  atoms  of  water  and  one 
atom  of  anhydrous  C,  whose  composition,  according  to 
Liebig,  is  represented  by  the  formula  C-H9X3O4.  There 
is  no  direct  chemical  test  for  the  detection  of  C. ,  and  the 
methods  employed  to  obtain  it  are  complicated. 

C.  is  constantly  present  in  the  juice  both  of  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles.  The  quantity  differs  in  the 
flesh  of  dilierent  kinds  of  animals,  and  even  in  difl:'erent 
muscles  of  the  same  animal,  but  is  always  very  small;  and 
lean  animals  yield  relatively  more  than  fat  ones.  Accord- 
ing to  Liebig,  the  flesh  of  hens  yields  the  largest  amount, 
viz.,  0'3*2  per  cent.,  the  average  quantity  froni  horse  or  ox 
flesh  being  0.07  per  cent.  Gregory  determined  its  amount 
in  the  flesh  of  various  mammals,  birds,  and  fishes;  and 
Schlossberger  found  0  067  per  cent,  in  human  flesh.  It  has 
likewise  been  detected  in  very  small  quantity  in  the  blood 
of  oxen,  aLso  in  the  liquor  amnii'of  women  who  have  died 
in  advanced  pregnancy,  and  it  can  usually  be  obtained 

155 


CREATIKIK— CREBILLON. 

from  the  urine,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  a  normal 
constituent  of  that  fluid.  It  does  not  exist  in  the  liver  or 
kidneys,  but  has  been  found  among  the  soluble  constitu- 
ents of  the  brain. 

Although  the  view  has  been  advocated  that,  from  its  oc- 
currence in  tiesh,  and  from  its  large  amount  of  nitrogen 
(32*06  per  cent.),  it  must  be  an  important  nutritive  agent, 
there  are  most  decisive  reasons  for  opposing  this  opinion, 
and  for  ranking  it  among  the  products  of  excretion;  for,  in 
the  first  place,  if  it  could  be  employed  with  further  ad- 
vantage in  the  organism,  it  (or  its  near  ally,  creatinin) 
would  not  be  allowed  to  escape  by  the  kidneys;  secondly, 
the  readiness  with  which  it  may  be  converted  into  un- 
questionable products  of  excretion  (as,  for  instance,  into 
urea,  by  the  action  of  heat  and  baryta  water),  proves  its 
approximation  more  nearly  to  these  substances,  than  to 
such  bodies  as  albumen  or  fibrin;  thirdly,  there  is  no  in- 
stance of  a  tissue-forming  food  in  crystalline  form. 

CREATINIX,  or  Creatinine,  n.  -dt'l-nm,  substance  in 
the  form  of  prismatic  crystals  containing  an  atom  less  of 
water  than  creatin;  closely  allied  in  its  chemical  and  phys- 
iological relations  to  creatin.  Liebig  found  that,  w^hen 
heated  with  a  strong  mineral  acid,  a  solution  of  creatin  no 
longer  yields  crystals  of  that  substance,  but  a  new  body  of 
totally  different  chemical  properties,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  creatinin.  Its  chemical  composition  is  represent- 
ed by  the  formula  CsHgNsOs,  and  on  comparing  this  for- 
mula with  that  for  creatin,  we  see  that  the  conversion  of 
the  latter  into  the  former,  by  the  action  of  mineral  acids, 
depends  upon  the  separation  of  the  elements  of  water. 
Liebig  shortly  afterward  detected  C.  as  a  constituent  of  the 
muscular  juice.  In  the  latter  fluid,  it  occurs  in  less  quan- 
tity than  creatin;  while  in  the  urine,  where  also  it  is 
found,  it  is  the  more  abundant  of  the  two.  Traces  of  it 
have  Been  found  also  in  the  blood  and  in  the  liquor  amnii. 

C.  crystallizes  in  oblique  rhombic  prisms;  is  a  most  de- 
cided alkaloid,  reacting  strongly  on  vegetable  colors,  and 
having  almost  as  caustic  a  taste  as  ammonia;  it  further 
differs  from  creatin  in  its  far  greater  solubility  in  w^ater, 
alcohol,  and  ether.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  C.  takes 
its  origin  from  creatin. 

CREATIONISM,  kre-d'sMin-izm:  in  theology,  a  term  in 
use  from  ancient  times,  denoting  the  theory  that  the  spirit- 
ual essence  in  every  individual  man  is  produced  not  like 
his  body  by  generation,  but  immediately  as  an  inbreathing 
into  him  from  the  creative  Spirit  of  God.  It  is  thus  op- 
posed to  Traducianism  (q.v.).  In  recent  years  it  has  been 
applied  as  indicating  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  human 
race  by  God's  direct  creative  act,  as  opposed  to  evolutionism, 
which  afiirms  that  humanity  is  developed  from  or  through 
some  preceding  animal  forms:  see  Darwinian  Theory: 
Evolution. 

CREBILLOK,  krd  he-yong' ,  Claude  Prosper  Jolyot 
DE,  the  younger:  1707,  Feb.  14—1777,  Apr.  12;  b.  Paris; 
son  of  Prosper  Jolyot  de.  In  an  age  of  licentious  manners, 

156 


CREBILLON— CREDENCE. 

he  acquired  popularity  by  a  series  of  romances,  remarkable 
chiefly  for  violation  of  decency;  the  principal  of  which  are 
Le  SopJia,  Le  Hasard  du  Coin  du  Feu,  Les  Egarements  du 
C(£ur  et  de  V Esprit. 

CREBILLON,  Prosper  Jolyot  de:  1674-1762,  June 
17;  b.  Dijon:  French  dramatist.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  to 
study  law,  but  turned  to  poetical  pursuits.  His  first  piece, 
La  Mori  des  Enfants  de  Brutus,  was  rejected  by  the  actors; 
but  the  succeeding  dramas  of  Idomenee  (1705)  and  Atree 
(1707)  were  successful.  Rhadamiste  (171 1),  a  tragedy  of  the 
dismal  kind,  was  reckoned  C.'s  masterpiece,  and  established 
his  reputation.  After  producing  some  other  pieces,  C.  fell 
into  pecuniary  difficulties  and  neglect,  and  for  more  than 
20  years  produced  nothing.  His  talents  w^ere  then  called 
again  into  requisition  by  Madame  de  Pompadour,  who 
wished  to  humble  Voltaire.  He  received  from  the  king  a 
pension  of  1,000  francs,  and  completed  the  tragedy  of 
Catilina,  for  which  the  king  himself  supplied  all  the  prop- 
erties. When  81  years  old,  C.  wrote  his  tragedy  The 
Triumvirate,  and,  still  latter,  commenced,  but  did  not 
finish,  another  called  Cleomede.  Louis  XV.  erected  a 
monument  to  his  memory.  C,  in  general,  displays  little 
skill  in  the  conduct  of  his  plots;  the  monologues  of  the 
speakers  are  too  numerous  and  too  long;  but  in  the  opinion 
of  his  countrymen  he  is  surpassed,  in  *  the  grandeur  of  his 
sentiments,'  only  by  the  author  of  the  Gid  -c^ndi  Horace.  The 
best  edition  of  C.  's  works  is  that  published  by  Didot  (2  vols. 
Paris  1818). 

CRECHE,  n.  kmsh  [F.  creche,  a  crib]:  a  house  for  the 
temporary  accommodation  of  young  children  during  the 
time  their  mothers  are  at  work;  a  cheap  day  boarding- 
house  for  very  young  children  and  infants,  conducted  from 
benevolent  motives. 

CRECY  or  Cressy,  kres'sl,  F.  krd-se  :  small  town  of 
France,  dept.  of  Somme,  on  the  Maye,  about  12  m.  n.  of 
Abbeville.  C.  is  notable  chiefly  for  the  brilliant  victor}^ 
1846,  Aug.  26,  of  Edward  III.,  with  40,000  English  sol- 
diers, over  a  French  army  amounting,  according  to  Frois- 
sart,  to  100,000  men,  under  the  Count  of  Alen^on.  In  this 
great  battle,  one  of  the  most  honorable  to  English  prowess 
recorded  in  history,  the  flower  of  French  chivalry  was 
slain,  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Bohemia  and  Majorca,  w^ho 
w^ere  fighting  on  the  side  of  France.  Altogether,  about 
30,000  of  the  French  army  fell.  In  this  battle  the  Black 
Prince,  who  greatly  distinguished  himself,  gained  his 
spurs;  and  the  crest  of  the  slain  Bohemian  king,  composed 
of  three  ostrich  feathers,  with  the  motto,  Ich  Dien, '  I  serve,' 
was  adopted  b}^  him  in  memory  of  the  victory,  and  con- 
tinues to  be  borne  by  the  Prince  of  Wales.  C.  is  an  ancient 
place.    Pop.  abt.  1,500. 

CREDENCE,  n.  kre'dens  [L.  credensor  creden'tem,  trust- 
ing or  confiding  in— allied  to  Sks.  crat,  faith:  It.  credenza, 
belief:  comp.  Gael,  creideas,  faith,  credence]:  belief ;  credit; 
confidence.  Credendum,  n.  kre-den'dum.  Creden'da, 
n.  pla.  -do  [L.J:  a  thing  to  be  believed;  an  article  of  faith. 

15T 


CMDENCE—CREDIT. 

Credent,  a.  kre'dent,  in  OE.,  believing;  not  to  be  ques^ 
tioned.  CREDEN  TiAr.,  a.  -slialy  giving  a  title  to  credit. 
Creden  tials,  n.  plu.  -sJidlz,  that  which  gives  a  title  to 
credit;  the  letters  or  written  documents  on  which  a  claim 
to  hospitality  or  official  status  is  founded  at  a  foreign 
court. 

(CREDENCE  or  Credence-table,  n.  kredens-td'hl  [F. 
credence — from  It.  credema — from  mid.  L.  credential  the 
bulfet  or  sideboard  at  which  the  king's  taster,  credentuirms, 
proved  all  dishes  by  tasting  them  before  they  were  set  on 
table  (see  Credence}]:  small  table  at  the  side  of  the  altar 
or  communion-table,  on  which  the  bread  and  wine  are  laid 
before  being  consecrated.  It  is  a  sort  of  side-altar  in  the 
Greek  Church  called  Trapeza  Prothesis.  Abp.  Laud  was  a 
great  stickler  for  the  C,  and  pleaded  the  authority  of  Bp. 
Andrew^s  and  other  bishops  for  its  use.  There  are  cre- 
dences in  various  Anglican  churches;  among  others,  in  the 
Collegiate  and  St.  John's  Churches,  Manchester;  and  in  the 
parish  church  at  Ludlow,  where  they  have  been  in  use 
from  time  immemorial.  Sometimes  the  place  of  the  C. 
was  supplied  by  a  mere  shelf  across  the  fenestella  (q.  v.). 
The  introduction  of  the  C.  is  one  of  the  restitutions  of  old 
usages  which  marked  the  movement  in  the  English  Church 
known  as  Puseyism:  see  Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie. 

CREDIBLE,  a.  kred'l-U  [L.  credibUls,  credible — from 
credere,  to  trust,  to  confide  in]:  worthy  of  credit  or  belief. 
Cred'ibly,  ad.  -Ml.  Cred'ibil'ity,  n.  -bU'i-ti  [F.  credibil- 
ite — from  L.  credWilitdtem]:  the  state  of  a  thing  which 
renders  it  possible  to  be  believed;  strong  claim  to  credit. 
Cred'ibleness,  n.  -bl-n'es. 

CREDIT,  n.  kred'U  [F.  credit — from  L.  credltum,  a  loan: 
L.  credit,  he  confides  or  trusts  in:  It.  credito,  credit]:  trust 
or  confidence  in;  reliance  on  the  truth  of  words  spoken; 
confidence  in  the  sincerity  of  intentions  or  actions;  good 
opinion  derived  from  character  or  social  position;  power; 
influence;  sale  of  goods  on  trust;  time  allowed  for  payment 
of  goods  not  sold  for  ready  money;  in  book-keeping,  one  side 
of  an  account  is  called  the  credit  (Cr.)  side,  the  other  the 
debtor  (Dr.)  side — by  is  the  sign  of  entry  of  the  former,  and 
to  of  the  latter:  V.  to  confide  in;  to  believe;  to  trust;  to  sell 
goods  on  trust;  to  do  honor  to;  to  put  a  payment  to  an  ac- 
count to  lessen  its  amount.  Cred  iting,  imp.  Cred  ited, 
pp.  Cred  itable,  a.  -i-ta-bl,  worthy  of  praise  or  com- 
mendation; honorable.  Cred  itably,  ad.  -ta-bll.  Cred'- 
ITABLENESS,  n.  -td-bl-nes,  the  quality  of  being  creditable; 
reputation.  Cred  itor,  n.  44er,  one  who  has  a  just  claim 
on  another  for  money;  in  OE.,  one  who  credits;  a  believer: 
see  Debtor:  Bankrupt. — Cash  credit:  see  Cash  ac- 
count.— Syn.  of  '  credit,  n.':  belief;  trust;  faith;  character; 
reputation;  esteem;  honor;  estimation;  authority;  confidence; 
interest. 

CREDTT,  in  Political  Economy:  one  of  many  terms  in 
that  science,  which  are  not  as  yet  scientifically  defined. 
However,  the  practical  meaning  of  the  word  is  thoroughly 
known,  when  economists  speak  of  the  extent  to  w^hich  C, 

158 


CKEDIT. 

is  safe  or  proper,  unsafe  or  improper,  iu  this  or  that  class 
of  cases.  Thus  far  there  has  been  approximation  to  a 
scientific  notion  of  the  nature  of  C;  it  is  known  that  while 
it  serves  the  purpose  of  capital,  it  can  do  so  only  while 
there  is  capital  ready  to  come  and  take  its  place  if  neces- 
sary. Credits  which  are  not  in  this  position— though  they 
may  happen  to  serve  their  turn,  as  a  ship  may  sail  some 
distance  unwrecked  w^itliout  a  steersman — do  not  ac- 
complish the  purpose  of  capital.  The  real  power  of  C, 
p  operly  resting  on  capital,  is  that  it  enables  that  capital  to 
be  devoted  to  more  than  one  purpose.  A  bank  is  a  great 
emporium  of  C  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  consists  of  a  certain 
amount  of  capital,  which  can  be  operated  on  by  a  whole 
community — not  all  at  one  time,  but  by  individuals  as  oc- 
casion requires.  Thus,  a  comparatively  small  stock  of 
money  can  be  made  to  do  duty  for  carrying  on  numerous 
transactions.  But  it  is  indispensable  for  insuring  a  safe  - 
system  of  C.  that  money  must  be  instantly  available  when 
wanted;  aud  this  principle  applies  not  only  to  banking, 
but  to  every  species  of  transaction  in  which  postponed  pay- 
ment is  concerned.  Unfortunately,  this  principle  is  often 
set  aside,  and  C.  is  grossly  abused.  The  facts  brought  out 
in  great  bankruptcies  generally  teach  the  moral,  that  men 
who  have  every  element  of  financial  prosperity  in  their 
power,  ruin  their  prospects  by  trying  to  make  $80,000  do 
the  work  of  $100,000.  In  many  bankruptcies,  too,  there 
is  a  curious  illustration  of  the  power  of  C.  as  a  represent- 
ative of  capital,  in  enabling  men  to  keep  up  for  a  consider- 
able time  the  appearance  of  being  w^ealthy  traders,  though 
they  never  had  a  farthing  which  they  could  honestly  call 
their  own.  In  the  fe  >v  instances  where  such  projects  suc- 
ceed, there  is  the  kuid  of  applause  w^hich  is  given  to  the 
successful  winner  in  any  game  of  chance;  and  it  is  natu- 
rally felt  that  if  the  successful  are  applauded,  it  is  hard  to 
condemn  the  unsuccessful;  hence  arises  a  dangerous  leni- 
ency in  public  opinion  toward  speculators  on  credit. 

In  a  modified  shape,  C.  is  a  thing  which,  to  all  appear- 
ance, can  never  be  abolished.  There  is  scarcely  a  human 
being  in  a  civilized  country,  w^ho  does  not  transact  a  piece  of 
credit  business  almost  every  day  of  his  life.  The  workman 
hired  by  the  wx^ek,  and  paid  at  its  end,  gives  his  employer 
C.  from  Monday  morning  to  Saturday  evening.  The  same 
workman,  when  getting  a  coat  made  for  himself,  even  al- 
though he  engaged  to  pay  ready  money  on  delivery,  gets  C. 
from  the  tailor  during  the  making,  It  is  necessary  to  consider 
these  things,  because  a  course  of  C.  is  often  so  hurtful  to 
people  of  the  w^orking-classes,  by  fastening  ruinous  obliga- 
tions on  them,  that  some  people  have  proposed  to  abolish  all 
C.  where  they  are  concerned,  by  rendering  them  free  from 
all  legal  procedure  for  the  recovery  of  debts.  The  answer 
to  this  is,  that  although  it  is  practicable  to  relieve  any  class 
from  obligations,  and  their  legal  enforcement,  it  is  impos- 
sible in  a  trading  country  to  suppress  debt  and  credit.  It 
is  practicable,  however,  so  far  to  modify  the  legal  reme- 
dies against  debtors  of  the  poorer  class,  that  there  may  not 
be,  as  there  loo  often  is,  a  temptation  to  traders  to  transact 

159 


CREDIT— CREDIT  MOBILIER. 

a  special  business,  in  holding  out  temptations  to  working- 
people  to  purchase  on  credit. 

CREDIT,  Letter  of:  banker's  written  authority  and 
request  to  another  banker  or  person,  to  pay  the  sum  therein 
specified  to  the  bearer  of  the  letter,  or  to  some  other  third 
party  named  in  it,  and  authorizes  him  to  re-imburse  him- 
self for  such  payment,  either  by  debiting  it  in  account  be- 
tween the  parties,  or  by  drawing  on  the  first  party  for  the 
amount.  This  aiTangement  may  take  place  between  mer- 
chants or  others,  but  in  general  it  occurs  between  hankers 
residing  in  different  places, — A  small  charge  is  made  by 
the  bank  issuing  the  letter,  termed  the  exchange  or  com- 
mission. Sometimes  the  letter  is  addressed  to  all  or  several 
of  the  correspondents  of  the  bank  issuing  it,  in  which  case 
it  is  termed  a  Circular  Credit;  and  any  of  them  may  pay 
the  sum  mentioned,  or  sums  to  account  as  desired,  taking 
the  holder's  receipt,  or  his  draft  on  the  granter,  in  exchange; 
and  the  sums  so  paid  are  indorsed  on  the  letter,  to  show 
how  far  the  credit  has  been  used.  If  the  party  holding  a 
circular  letter  can  be  properly  introduced,  even  at  a  place 
where  the  granter  has  no  correspondent,  little  difficulty 
will  be  experienced  in  obtaining  money  upon  it;  and  the 
practice  is  to  re-imburse  any  one  who  has  given  the  money, 
if  within  the  amount  of  the  credit.  The  system  is  a  great 
convenience  to  persons  travelling,  especially  in  foreign 
countries. 

Some  bankers,  having  an  extensive  correspondence 
abroad,  issue  what  are  called  Circular  Notes,  usually  of  the 
value  of  $50  or  $100  each,  which  any  of  the  granter's 
correspondents,  or  indeed  any  one  else,  may  cash  to  the 
holder,  on  his  'indorsation;'  but  a  third  party  must  take 
his  risk  of  its  being  questioned.  For  this  kind  of  credit, 
the  receiver  at  once  re-imburses  the  granter;  whereas  for 
the  ordinary  letter  of  C,  he  is  only  re-imbursed  when  the 
drafts  under  it  are  advised  to  him,  the  holder  continuing 
during  the  interval  to  raise  interest  on  his  money  deposited 
for  covering  it :  see  Circular  Notes. 

CREDIT  FONCIER,  krd-de  fong'sya:  peculiar  method 
of  borrowing  money  in  France  on  the  security  of  landed 
property;  established  by  an  edict  of  1852,  Feb.  28.  The 
repayment  of  the  loan  is  by  an  annuity  terminable  at  a 
certain  date;  the  date  and  the  amount  of  annuity  being  so 
calculated,  that  when  the  last  payment  is  made,  the  loan 
and  the  interest  on  it  will  be  extinguished.  Another 
method  of  describing  it  is  as  a  loan  repayable  by  instal- 
ments. The  transaction  is  precisely  regulated  by  the  edict, 
which  prohibits  an  advance  on  more  than  a  half  of  the 
value  of  the  property  pledged  or  hypothecated.  Three 
several  companies  were  established  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, with  the  privilege  of  making  such  advances. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER:  see  Mobilier. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  of  America,  kra-de  mbU-lyd: 
corporation  originally  chartered  by  the  legislature  of 
Penn.,  as  the  Penn.  Fiscal  Agency,  1859,  organized  for  the 
transaction  of  a  loan  and  contract  business  1863,  and,  on 

ISO 


CREDITON— CREED3I00R. 

the  purchase  of  its  franchises  hy  Thomas  C.  Durant  and 
others,  reorganized  as  a  corporation  to  construct  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad,  1864.  The  capital  stock  was  then  increased 
from  $2,500,000  to  $3,750,000,  and  as  the  new  company 
paid  large  dividends  the  shares  soon  reached  a  high  figure. 
In  1872  it  was  publicly  charged  that  the  vice-pres.,  the 
vice-pres. -elect,  the  sec.  of  the  treasury,  the  speaker  of  the 
house,  and  several  U.  S.  senators  and  representatives  had 
accepted  presents  of  stock  tendered  to  iuiiuence  them  in 
favor  of  the  railroad  company.  A  committee  of  investi- 
gation was  appointed  hy  the  house  1872,  Dec,  and  it  re- 
ported 1873,  Feb.  18,  recommending  the  expulsion  of 
Oakes  Ames,  of  Mass.,  and  James  Brooks,  of  N.  Y.,  the 
first  for  having  sold  stock  below  value  to  members  of  con- 
gress from  improper  motives,  the  other  for  having  indi- 
rectly purchased  some.  The  house  voted  to  censure  in- 
stead of  expel  the  members  named;  and  a  similar  senate 
committee  recommended  the  expulsion  of  one  senator,  but 
no  action  was  taken  by  the  senate. 

CREDITOK,  kredi-ton,  or  Kiiik'ton:  borough  in  the 
middle  of  Devonshire,  England,  on  the  Creedy,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Exe,  8  m.  n.w.  of  Exeter.  It  lies  in  a  narrow 
vale  between  two  steep  hills.  At  C.  was  born  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Winfred,  or  St.  Boniface,  the  first  to  preach  Chris- 
tianity in  Central  Germany,  founder  of  the  monastery  of 
Fulda,  and  archbishop  of  Mainz.  C.  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  909-1050,  when  the  sees  of  Devon  and  Cornwall 
were  united  and  placed  at  Exeter.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures were  formerly  woolens  and  serges,  but  now  shoes. 
C.  w^as  much  injured  by  fires  1743  and  '69.  Pop.  (1881) 
4,581. 

CREDO,  kredd  [L.  I  believe]:  part  of  the  service  of  the 
mass,  beginning  with  the  words,  Credo  in  unum  Deum. 

CREDULOUS,  a.  kred'u-liis  [F.  credule—irom  L.  cred- 
uluSy  easy  of  belief — from  credo,  I  believe:  It.  credulo\.  too 
easy  of  belief;  unsus])ecting;  easily  deceived.  Credu- 
lously, ad.  -U.  Cred  ULousNESs,  n.  Credulity,  n.  kre 
dii'li-ti,  excessive  easiness  of  belief;  unsuspecting  trust. 

CREED,  n.  kred  [L.  credo,  I  believe,  being  the  first  word 
of  the  L.  version] :  a  brief  summary  of  the  essential  articles 
of  religious  belief;  any  system  of  principles  professed  or 
believed. 

CREEDMOOR,  kred'mor:  field  for  rifle  practice,  largest 
and  most  complete  rifle-range  in  the  United  States;  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Long  Island  railroad,  11  m.  e.  of  New  York, 

161 


CREEDS  AND  CONFESSIONS. 
CREEDS  AND  CONFESSIONS:  authorized  expression 
of  Christian  doctrine  set  forth  by  the  church  at  large,  or 
by  the  several  sections  into  which  it  is  divided.  Su» 
statements  of  doctrine  sprang  up  naturally  in  the  church  s 
progress.  As  the  simple  truths  taught  by  Christ  in  practi 
cal  and  mostly  concrete  form  became  the  subjects  of 
thought,  of  argument,  of  controversy,  they  could  not  fail 
to  receive  a  more  detined  intellectual  expression,  and  to  be 
dravs^n  out  into  more  precise  dogmatic  statements — prod- 
ucts of  a  Christian  rationalism.  Hence,  the  great  creeds, 
as  they  rise  in  succession,  and  mark  the  climax  of  succes- 
sive controversial  epochs  in  the  cliurch,  are  nothing  else 
than  the  varying  expressions  of  the  Christian  consciousness 
and  reason,  in  their  etforts  more  fully  to  realize,  compre- 
hend, and  express  the  originally  simple  elements  of  truth 
recorded  in  Scripture.  The  study  of  the  creeds  would  be 
nothing  else  than  the  study  of  the  science  of  theology  in 
its  highest  historical  development — in  its  reflex  settlements 
after  the  great  agitations  of  Christian  thought  had  run 
their  course. 

Corresponding  to  this  view%  the  creeds  of  Christendom 
grow  in  complexity,  in  elaborate  analysis  and  inventive- 
ness of  doctrinal  statement,  as  they  succeed  one  another. 
The  first  are  comparatively  brief  and  simple  in  sense  and 
form;  the  last  are  prolix  and  largely  didactic.  From  the 
Apostles'  Creed  to  the  decrees  of,.the  council  of  Trent,  or 
the  chapters  of  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  there 
is  a  wide  change,  during  which  the  christian  consciousness 
has  grown  from  a  childlike  faith  to  a  critical  opinionative- 
ness. 

What  has  been  called  the  Apostles'  Creed  is  the  earliest 
form  of  Christian  creed  extant  unless  precedence  be  given 
to  the  baptismal  formula  at  the  close  of  Matthew's  Gospel, 
out  of  which  many  suppose  the  Apostles'  Creed  to  have 
grown.  There  w^ere  in  the  early  church  differing  forms  of 
this  primitive  creed;  that  which  is  received  and  repeated 
in  the  service  of  the  Church  of  England,  has  come  through 
the  Latin  Church;  and  in  several  of  its  clauses,  as,  for  in- 
stance, *  He  descended  into  hell,'  and  again,  *The  com- 
munion of  saints, '  is  supposed  to  have  been  interpolated 
according  to  later  notions.  A  great  variety  of  opinions  has 
been  held  as  to  the  origin  of  this  creed.  The  Rom.  Cath. 
Church  has  not  only  attributed  it  to  the  apostles  directly, 
but  professes  to  settle,  on  the  authority  of  a  spurious  ser- 
mon of  St.  Augustine,  the  clauses  respectively  contributed 
by  the  several  apostles:  '  Petrus  dixit,  Credo  in  Deum  Pa- 
trem  omnipotentem.  Joannes  dixit,  Creatorem  coeli  et 
terrse.  Jacobus  dixit,'  etc.  The  earliest  account  of  its 
origin  we  have  from  Rufinus,  historical  compiler  and 
traditionalist  of  the  4th  c.  His  statement  is,  that  the  apos- 
tles, when  about  to  separate  to  preach  the  truth  to  different 
nations,  agreed  upon  a  *  form  of  sound  words '  which  should 
express  the  sum  of  their  common  teaching.  '  When  met 
together,  and  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  composed 
this  compend  of  whfit  they  were  to  preachy  each  one  con- 
tributing hie  sharfe  tid  tk«  dmfe  composition,  which  they  re- 

162 


CREEDS  AND  CONFESSlOKiS. 

solved  to  give  as  a  rule  of  faith  to  those  who  should  be^ 
lieve. '  No  great  weight  belongs  to  this  testimony;  Rufinua 
is  no  historical  authority.  It  is  not  improbable  in  itself, 
however,  that  even  in  the  age  of  the  apostles  some  simple 
formula  of  belief  existed.  The  exact  form  of  the  present 
creed  cannot  pretend  to  be  nearer  to  the  apostles  than  four 
hundred  years,  but  a  form  not  much  different  from  it  was 
in  use  long  before.  Irenseus,  scholar  of  Polycarp,  who  was 
the  disciple  of  the  apostle  John,  when  he  repeats  a  creed 
not  much  unlike  the  present,  declares  that  *  the  church 
dispersed  throughout  the  whole  world  had  received  this 
faith  from  the  apostles  and  their  disciples;'  and  Tertullian 
affirms  that  a  similar  creed  had  been  *  prevalent  as  a  rule 
of  faith  in  the  church  from  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel.' 
The  same  thing  is  proved  by  the  creeds  administered  to  the 
candidates  for  baptism  in  the  2d  and  3d  c.  They 
correspond,  with  slight  variations,  to  the  Apostles'  Creed. 
The  true  view  of  this  formula  of  church  belief,  therefore, 
seems  to  be  that  which  regards  it  as  the  Roman  or  Latin 
form  in  extension  of  the  creed  which  prevailed  in  all  the 
early  churches.  It  is  not  strictly  apostolic — certainly  not 
in  the  order  of  words  derived  through  the  Latin  Church,  in 
which  it  is  now  received  and  repeated;  but  it  may  be 
deemed  substantially  apostolic — fairly  representative  of 
the  different  elements  of  Christian  faith  as  handed  down 
from  the  apostles,  and  therefore  not  without  a  claim  in  its 
substance  on  the  credence  of  the  universal  Christian  church. 
Since  the  Reformation  in  England,  it  has  been  the  usage  to 
exhibit  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  Ten  Commandments  in 
legible  characters  on  boards  near  the  communion-table  in 
churches,  that  they  might  be  seen  and  repeated  by  the  com- 
mon people  who  were  unprovided  with  books. 

The  Nicene,  or  rather,  the  Niceno-Constantinopolitan 
Creed,  is  the  next  great  expression  of  doctrinal  truth  in  the 
history  of  the  church:  see  Nicene  Creed.  It  sprang  out 
of  the  conflict,  which  had  begun  even  in  the  2d  c. ,  as  to 
the  dignity  and  character  of  Christ.  From  the  beginning, 
Ebionitism  had  looked  upon  Christ  as  merely  a  Jewish 
teacher  of  distinction;  Theodotus  and  Artemon  openly 
taught  such  a  doctrine  in  Rome  toward  the  close  of  the  2d 
c.  Others,  at  a  contrary  extreme,  taught  a  doctrine  which 
identified  Christ  with  God  absolutely  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  destroy  all  distinction  of  the  three  personalizations  in  the 
Godhead.  Monarchianism,  which  held  rigorously  and  for- 
mally to  the  unity  of  God,  was  the  ruling  principle  of  both 
doctrines,  opposite  as  were  the  expressions  that  it  assumed 
in  the  two  cases. 

The  controversy  thus  begun  in  the  2d  perpetuated  itself 
in  the  3d  c,  under  various  modifications.  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata  carried  out  the  Unitarian  tendency,  which  reduced  Christ 
to  the  level  of  a  mere  man;  Sabellius  carried  out  the  same 
tendency  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  made  Christ  not 
merely  divine,  of  the  same  substance  with  the  Father,  but 
looked  upon  him  as  merely  a  manifestation  of  the  Father, 
without  any  distinct  personalization.  Sabellianism  recog- 
nized a  Trinity  of  manifestations,  but  not  a  Trinity  of  es- 

W.'. 


CREEDS  AND  CONFESSIONS. 

sences,  nor  even  of  distinct  actual  personalizations.  God 
was  one  and  all-comprehending,  and  tbe  Son  and  the  Spirit 
were  merely  names  or  expressions  for  the  different  modes 
in  which  he  reveals  himself.  Sabellius  lived  about  the 
middle  of  the  3d  c,  and  Paul  of  Samosata  somewhat  later. 
Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  grew  up  in  the  midst  of 
these  divisive  influences,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Alexandrian  church  for  his  advocacy  of  the  doctrine 
that  Christ,  though  in  a  true  sense  divine,  or  the  Son  of  God, 
was  yet  not  the  very  God.  He  denied  that  he  was  '  of  the 
substance  of  God,'  or  '  without  beginning; '  he  was  only  the 
highest  of  created  beings,  in  a  sense  divine,  but  not  the 
same  in  substance  with  the  Father,  nor  equal  with  him  in 
power  and  glory.  Athanasius  came  forward  as  the  oppo- 
nent of  Arius,  and  the  contest  between  them  raged  keen  and 
wide  throughout  the  church. 

The  Council  of  Nicsea  was  summoned  325  by  Constantine, 
with  the  view  of  settling  this  controversy;  and  the  Nicene 
Creed  was  the  result:  see  Nice  or  Nic^a:  Nice,  Councils 
OF.  There  were  these  three  parties  in  the  council — the 
Athanasians,  or  extreme  orthodox  party;  Ihe  Eusebians,  or 
middle  party;  and  the  Arians,  or  heretical  party.  The 
Arians  were  few  in  number,  and  had  little  influence;  but 
the  Eusebians  were  a  strong  party,  and  for  some  time  re- 
sisted certain  expressions  of  the  orthodox  or  Athanasians, 
which  seemed  to  them  extreme  and  unwarranted;  but  at 
length  the  Homoousians,  as  they  were  called,  carried  the 
day;  and  Christ  was  declared  not  merely  to  be  of  like  sub- 
stance (homoiousios),  but  of  the  same  substance  (homdousios) 
with  the  Father.  At  the  later  Council  of  Constantinople 
(see  Constantinople,  Councils  of),  the  additional  tenet 
of  the  divinity  of  the  Spirit  was  added,  and  the  Nicene 
Creed  completed  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  familiar  in  the 
communion  service  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  It 
confesses  the  holy  and  undivided  Trinity,  and  distinctly 
owns  the  divinity  of  each  person.  It  commemorates  the 
creation  of  the  world  by  '  God  the  Father  Almighty; '  it 
acknowledges  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  '  Lord  '  '  begotten  ' 
from  all  eternity,  *  of  one  substance  with  the  Father,'  and 
with  him  Creator  of  all  things;  it  acknowledges  that  '  for 
our  salvation  he  came  down  from  heaven,  was  made  man, 
and  suffered  and  died  for  us.'  It  commemorates  his  res- 
urrection, ascension,  and  sitting  at  God's  right  hand;  ex- 
presses the  expectation  of  his  second  coming;  and  declares 
that  *  his  kingdom  shall  have  no  end. '  It  acknowledges 
*one  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins,'  and  looks  *for 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  '  and  *  the  life  of  the  world  to 
come.' 

The  next  remarkable  monument  of  doctrinal  truth  in  the 
church  is  called  the  Athanasian  Creed,  a  product  of  the 
5th  c,  much  later  than  Athanasius  himself,  but  represent- 
ing, with  great  formal  minuteness  and  fidelity,  his  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  as  apprehended  and  elaborated  by  the  West- 
ern Church:  see  Athanasian  Creed. 

The  Apostles',  the  Nicene,  the  Athanasian,  are  often 
called  the  great  catholic  or  universal  creeds  of  the  church; 

164 


CREEDS  AND  CONFESSIONS, 
though  this  statement  must  be  taken  in  a  general  sense. 
After  the  time  of  the  last-mentioned  formula,  there  is  no 
general  symbol  of  faith  that  claims  attention,  till  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Reformation.  Theology  continued  to  be  culti- 
vated during  the  middle  ages,  especially  during  the  12th 
and  13th  c,  \vith  great  assiduity.  Scholasticism  is  nothing 
else  than  the  vast  expression  of  the  intellectual  labor  be- 
stowed upon  this  subject  during  these  ages,  when  scarcely 
any  other  subject  can  be  said  to  have  engaged  men's  minds. 
It  was  characteristic  of  scholasticism,  however,  to  work 
mainly  upon  the  doctrinal  data  already  adopted  and  au- 
thorized by  the  Church,  developing  these  data  in  endless 
sentences  and  commentaries.  There  was,  withal,  no  real 
freedom  of  inquiry,  nor  life  of  speculation.  But  as  soon 
as  the  eye  of  free  criticism  and  argument  was  turned  upon 
Scripture  by  the  Reformation,  new  Creeds  and  Confessions 
began  to  spring  up.  On  one  hand.  Protestantism  had  to 
defend  its  position  and  its  scriptural  authority  by  appeal  to 
its  system  of  belief;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Church  of 
Rome,  after  many  delays,  gave  forth  at  the  Council  of 
Trent  (1545-63),  a  more  extended  and  detailed  statement  of 
its  doctrine  than  was  to  be  found  in  any  previous  creeds. 
The  Decrees  of  Trent  are  the  tixed  authoritative  symbol  or 
confession  of  faith  of  the  Church  of  Rome:  see  Trent, 
Council  of. 

Of  the  Protestant  churches,  the  most  notable  confessions 
of  faith  are  the  Lutheran;  the  continental  Calvanistic  or 
Reformed;  the  Anglican,  or  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the 
Church  of  England;  and  the  Puritan,  or  Westminster  Con- 
fession of  Faith. 

The  Lutherans  call  their  standard  books  of  faith  and  dis- 
cipline Libi'i  Symholici  Ecclesim  Evangelicm;  and  reckon 
among  them,  besides  the  three  catholic  creeds,  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  (q.v.),  the  Apology  for  that  confession  by 
Melanchthon  the  Articles  of  Smalkal  ddrawn  up  by  Luther, 
Luther's  Catechisms;  and  in  some  churches,  the  Formula 
of  Concord,  or  the  Book  of  Torgau. 

Of  the  continental  Calvanistic  or  Reformed  Churches, 
there  are  numerous  confessions,  the  principal  of  which  are 
—  1.  The  Helvetic  Confessions — that  of  Basel,  1530,  and 
Bullinger,  Exposito  Simj)lex,  1566;  2.  The  Tetrapolitan  Con- 
fession, 1531;  3.  The  Gallic  Confession,  1559;  4.  The  Pala- 
tine or  Heidelberg  Confession,  1575;  5.  The  Belgic  Con- 
fession, 1559. 

The  Thirty -nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  (see 
Articles)  were  originally  forty-two,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  composed  chietiy  by  Cranmer.  In  1571,  they 
were  revised  and  approved  by  convocation  and  parlia- 
ment. 

The  "Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  was  the  product  of 
the  great  Puritan  agitation  of  the  1 7th  c.  As  soon  as  the 
Long  Parliament  assembled  1640,  it  set  itself  to  consider 
the  reformation  of  religion.  It  carried  resolution  after 
resolution  against  the  existing  government  of  the  Church 
of  England;  and  at  length,  ^641,  Nov.  23,  it  passed  the 
famous  Remonstrance,  in  which  it  proposed  that,  'in order 

165 


CREEDS  AND  COKFESSIOKS. 

the  better  to  .effect  the  reformation  in  the  church,  there 
should  be  a  general  synod  of  grave,  pious,  learned,  and 
judicious  divines,  who  should  consider  all  things  necessary 
for  the  peace  and  good  government  of  the  church.'  Out 
of  this  proposal  sprang  the  Westminster  Assembly,  though 
the  parliamentary  ordinance  actually  summoning  the  As- 
sembly was  not  issued  till  a  year  and  a  half  later — 1643, 
June  12.  According  to  this  ordinance,  the  Assembly  was 
to  consist  of  121  clergymen,  assisted  by  10  lords  and  20 
commoners  as  lay  assessors.  Many  of  these  appointed 
members,  however,  never  took  their  seat  in  the  Assembly. , 
The  bishops  were  prevented  from  doing  so  by  a  counter 
ordinance  of  the  king. 

Among  the  most  notable  divines  who  did  assemble  were 
Burgess,  Calamy,  Gataker,  and  Reynolds,  and  Gillespie,! 
Henderson,  Baillie,  and  Samuel  Rutherford,  the  commis-' 
sioners  from  Scotland,  of  the  Presbyterian  party;  Good-J 
win,  Nye,  and  Burroughs,  of  the  Independent  or  Congre- 
gational party;  and  Lightfoot  and  Coleman,  with  Selden, 
of  the  Erastians.  The  Presbyterians  greatly  predominated, 
and  the  acts  of  the  assembly  bear  throughout  the  stamp  of 
Calvinistic  Presbyterianism.  It  began  its  sittings  in  the 
autumn  of  1643,  and  sat  till  1649,  Feb.  22,  upward  of  five 
years  and  a  half,  and  met  1,163  times. 

Its  most  important  labors  were  the  Directory  of  Public 
Worship  and  the  Confession  of  Faith.  This  latter  docu- 
ment was  completed  in  the  third  year  of  its  existence  (1646), 
and  laid  before  parliament  in  the  same  year.  It  was  ap- 
proved by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
1647,  and  again  1690,  on  the  renewed  establishment  of 
Presbyterianism  after  the  revolution. 

The  Confession  of  Faith,  as  it  is  the  latest  of  the  great 
Protestant  creeds,  so  it  is  one  of  the  most  elaborate.  It 
extends  to  33  chapters,  beginning  with  Holy  Scripture, 
and  ending  with  The  Last  Judgment.  Of  these  chapters, 
21  may  be  said  to  be  distinctly  doctrinal — the  first  nineteen 
and  the  last  two.  The  others  concern  such  subjects  as 
Christian  Liberty,  Religious  Worship,  Oaths  and  Vows,  the 
Civil  Magistrate,  the  Church,  the  Sacraments,  Synods  and 
Councils.  The  tone  of  the  doctrinal  chapters  is  that  of  the 
later  and  formal  Calvinism  which  spread  from  Holland 
among  the  English  Puritans  The  ecclesiastical  spirit  is 
Puritan-Presbyterian.  *  God  alone '  is  declared  to  be  '  Lord 
of  the  conscience;'  3^et  the  '  publishing  of  opinions  contrary 
to  the  light  of  nature,  or  to  the  known  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity, '  is  at  the  same  time  declared  matter  of  censure  by 
the  church,  and  of  punishment  by  the  civil  magistrate.  In 
composition,  the  Confession  is  an  able  and  comprehensive 
summary  of  theological  truth,  showing  great  logical  skill 
in  the  deduction  of  particular  doctrines  from  certain  main 
principles.  The  third  chapter,  Of  God's  Eternal  Decree, 
may  be  said  to  be  the  key-note  from  which  its  most  char- 
acteristic doctrines  follow  in  immediate  sequence  and 
harmony.  It  is  well  deserving  the  attention  of  all  students 
of  theology,  not  only  as  a  remarkable  monument  of  Chris- 
tian learning,  but  as  the  most  representative  expression  of 
m 


CREEK— CREEL. 

a  great  spkitual  and  intellectual  movement  which  has  deep- 
ly tinged  the  national  thought  of  Britain,  and  modified  the 
course  of  its  history.  It  is  the  authoritative  standard  of  the 
Presbyterian  churches  of  Britain  and  America;  but  of 
course  not  recognized  as  authority  in  Episcopal  (including 
Meth.  Episc),  or  in  Congregational  (including  Bapt.) 
churches. 

CREEK,  n.  krek  [Dut.  kreek,  a  crooked  ditch,  a  small 
stream  having  an  elbow:  Icel.  kryki,  a  corner:  F.  crique,  a 
small  natural  haven :  AS.  crecca,  a  creek]:  a  narrow  inlet 
of  water  from  the  sea  into  the  land;  a  sudden  bend  of  a 
river;  a  pool  in  a  deserted  river-course;  a  brook;  in 
Australia,  a  dry  river-bed;  in  the  western  United  States, 
the  term  is  applied  to  small  inland  rivers.  Creek'y,  a.  -i, 
full  of  creeks ;  winding. 

CREEKS,  kreks:  nation  of  American  Indians,  known 
among  themselves  as  Muskogees,  found  by  whites  first  in 
Ala.  and  Fla.  Their  traditions  asserted  that  they  sprang 
from  the  earth  in  the  distant  northwest  and  were  led  on  a 
long  trail  to  Fla.  by  the  Cussitaw  tribe.  They  settled  in  a 
district  with  numerous  creeks  and  streams,  whence  the 
whites  gave  them  the  name  of  C.  After  several  tribes  had 
settled  in  upper  Fla.  and  Ala.,  those  that  remained  in  the 
everglades  became  known  as  Seminoles.  Both  the  C.  and 
the  Seminoles  were  very  numerous  and  warlike.  The 
former  were  hostile  to  the  American  cause  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  revolutionary  war,  through  the  influence  of 
royalists  and  traders.  At  the  close  of  the  war  congress 
offered  them  a  choice  between  a  treaty  of  peace  and  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  as  a  result  they  signed  a  treaty  in 
New  York  1790.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1812, 
they  were  again  roused  to  hostility  by  the  English,  and 
killed  400  men,  women,  and  children  at  Fort  Mimms,  1813, 
Aug.  30.  This  led  to  direct  war  with  the  Federal  govt., 
and  Gens.  Coffee,  White,  Claiborne,  Floyd,  and  Jackson, 
defeated  them  in  severe  encounters  in  1813,  Nov.  and  Dec, 
and  in  1814,  Jan.  and  Mar.  They  signed  a  new  treaty 
1814,  Aug.,  and  another  1825,  Feb.  25;  in  the  latter  ceding 
their  Ga.  and  Ala.  land  for  an  equal  quantity  in  the  Indian 
Terr,  and  $400,000  in  money;  but  this  treaty  was  subse- 
quently repudiated  by  them,  and  the  Govt,  was  compelled 
to  remove  them,  1836.  Of  the  total  number  24,594  were 
removed  beyond  the  Mississippi  river,  and  744  left  e.  of  it. 
During  the  civil  war  one  portion  of  the  C.  remained  loyal 
to  the  govt.,  defeated  the  Confederate  troops  in  two  battles, 
and  were  themselves  almost  annihilated  in  a  third,  while 
another  portion  under  the  head  -  chief  joined  the  Confederate 
army.  Their  present  country  is  divided  into  independent 
towns,  and  governed,  by  the  constitution  of  1868,  by  a  first 
and  second  chief,  a  house  of  warriors,  and  a  house  of  kings. 
Missions  have  been  established  among  them  by  the  Presb., 
Meth.,  Episc,  and  Bapt.  churches,  and  a  moderate  degree 
of  civilization  attained.  By  1884  they  had  decreased  in 
numbers  to  14,000. 

CREEL,  n.  kr^  [Sciot.:  Icel.  krili,  a  basket]:  a  small 

167 


CREEP— CREEPER. 

wicker-basket  used  by  anglers;  a  larger  basket  used  by 
women  to  carry  fish  in  on  the  back. 

CREEP,  V.  krep  [AS.  creopan;  Dut.  kruipen;  Ger. 
kriechen,  to  creep:  Icel.  kriupa,  to  kneel:  comp.  Gael. 
cTub,  to  crouch]:  to  move  forward  on  the  belly,  as  an 
animal  without  feet;  to  crawl,  as  on  the  hands  and  knees; 
to  move  slowly,  feebly,  secretly,  or  insensibly,  as  time;  to 
grow  along,  as  a  plant;  to  trail.  Creep'ing,  imp.:  Adj. 
having  a  tendency  to  creep  or  the  habit  of  creeping.  Crept, 
pt.  and  pp.  krept.  Creep  er,  n.  -er,  a  climbing  or  trailing 
plant;  an  instrument  with  iron  hooks  or  claws  for  dragging 
at  the  bottom  of  water;  a  little  climbing  bird  like  a  vvood- 
pecker.  Creep'hole,  n.  -Jiol,  an  excuse;  a  subterfuge. 
Creep'ingly,  ad.  -li  Creeping-sheet,  the  feeding  apron 
of  a  carding  machine. 

CREEP  ER  {Certhia):  genus  of  birds,  type  of  the  family 
Certhiadce;  having  a  longish,  slender,  arched,  and  pointed 
bill;  a  long,  narrow,  sharp-pointed  tongue,  jagged  near  its 
tip;  the  tail  rather  long,  and  the  tips  of  the  tail-feathers 
firm  and  pointed,  extending  beyond  the  webs.  The  feet 
are  rather  slender;  the  hinder  toe  about  as  long  as  the  other 
toes.  Of  this  conformation  of  feet  and  tail  great  use  is 
made  in  climbing  trees,  the  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail  being 
used  for  support.  Although  the  family  is  large,  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  genus  contains  more  than  one  true  species,  the 
Common  C.  (C.  familiaris),  a  bird  found  in  all  temperate 


Common  Creeper  {Certhia  familiaris). 


parts  of  the  n.  hemisphere  wherever  wood  abounds.  It 
searches  for  insects  and  their  larvae  in  the  crevices  of  the 
bark,  and  generally  ascends  from  the  root  to  near  the  top  of 
a  tree  before  it  flies  off  to  another  tree  or  branch.  It  usually 
builds  its  nest  in  a  hole  of  a  decayed  tree.  It  is  a  small 
bird,  though  considerably  larger  than  the  wren.    Its  note 

168  V  ■ 


CREEPS— CREMATION, 
is  monotonous,  and  often  repeated.  Its  prevalent  color  is 
reddish-brown  above,  different  shades  being  beautifully 
intermingled,  and  speckled  with  white;  the  under  parts 
white.  In  Scotland,  it  is  frequently  called  Bark-speeler 
(Anglice,  Bark-climber). — The  Wall  C.  {Tichodroma  mu- 
raria)  of  the  south  of  Europe,  frequents  walls  and  the 
faces  of  rocks;  it  has  a  more  slender  bill,  and  the  tail- 
feathers  are  not  pointed. 

CREEPS,  kreps:  miner's  term  for  the  depression  which 
results  on  the  surface  from  the  removal  of  beds  of  coal  be- 
neath. Masses  of  the  coal-seam,  like  huge  pillars,  are  left 
by  the  miners  for  the  support  of  the  superincumbent 
strata;  the  pressure,  however,  of  these  beds  is  so  great 
that,  in  course  of  time,  the  ceiling  gradually  sinks,  or,  as 
is  more  frequently  the  case,  because  of  the  ceiling  consist- 
ing of  hard  rock,  the  softer  shale  pavement  rises,  until  the- 
intervening  spaces  between  the  pillars,  left  by  the  removal 
of  the  coal,  are  filled  up.  A  consequent  depression  takes 
place  in  the  beds  above,  as  also  an  alteration  of  the  surface- 
level.  But  this  being  gradual  is  seldom  noticed,  except 
when  evident  from  the  accumulation  of  surface-water,  or 
where  railways  pass  over  the  coal-fields. 

CREESE,  D.  kres:  a  Malay  dagger— also  written  Kris. 

CRE'FELD:  see  Krefeld. 

CREMA,  krd'mci :  town  of  Lombardy,  province  of  Cre- 
mona, on  a  plain  25  m.  e.s.e.  of  Milan.  C.  has  an  old 
castle  and  cathedral.    Pop.  (1881)  9,111. 

CREMAILLERE,  n.  krem'dlydr'  [F.  a  pot-hanger]:  in 
fort.,  lines  having  an  indented  or  zigzag  outline,  somewhat 
resembling  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

CREMATION,  n.  kre-md'sMin  [L.  cremdtwnem,  a  con- 
suming by  fire — from  cremo,  I  burn]:  a  burning;  the  burn- 
ing of  the  dead.  Cremate,  v.  kre-mdt ,  to  burn  a  dead 
body  instead  of  interring  it.  Crema'ting,  imp.  Cre- 
mated, pp.  Crematorium,  n.  krem  d-to  ri-um,  a  furnace 
in  which  the  dead  may  be  consumed  to  ashes. — Cremation 
was  a  very  early  and  widespread  usage  of  antiquity.  The 
early  Aryans,  as  opposed  to  the  non- Aryan  aborigines  of 
India,  Greeks,  Romans,  Slavs,  Celts,  and  Germans,  burned 
their  dead,  so  that  cremation  may  be  regarded  as  the  uni- 
versal custom  of  the  Indo-European  races.  (See  also  1 
Sam.  xxxi.  12.)  The  graves  of  n.  Europe  throughout  the 
Vbronze  age  '  contain  only  jars  with  ashes.  It  was  Chris- 
tianity that  gradually  suppressed  cremation.  In  India  it  is 
still  a  usual  method  for  disposing  of  corpses,  and  is  prac- 
ticed by  numerous  uncivilized  peoples  of  Asia  and  America 
(see  Burial).  A  return  to  the  practice  has  been  strongly 
insisted  on  in  Europe  and  America  by  many  in  recent 
years.  This  is  opposed  mainly  on  grounds  of  sentiment,  and 
for  religious  reasons,  connected,  though  very  vaguely,  with 
the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  Advocates  of 
cremation  assert  that  these  are  prejudices  founded  on  mis- 
apprehension, and  that  the  question  is  solely  a  sanitary 
one;  inasmuch  as  burning  merely  produces  in  two  or  three 


CREMATION. 

hours  what  putrefaction  accomplishes  through  a  long 
period.  The  damage  to  the  health  of  those  who  live  near 
churchyards  and  cemeteries,  from  the  exhalations  of 
noxious  gases  and  the  poisoning  of  water  supplies,  is  an 
indisputable  fact,  and  is  in  many  cases  quite  inevitable. 
By  burning,  the  body  is  reduced  more  swiftly  to  its  con- 
stituent elements,  without  disrespect  to  the  dead,  or  hurt 
to  the  living.  As  for  interference  with  the  resurrec- 
tion which  is  the  object  of  Christian  faith,  reference  is 
made  to  the  burning  at  the  stake  of  eminent  saints  and 
martyrs,  e.g.,  Polycarp,  Huss,  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  mul- 
titudes of  others.  In  Italy  cremation  has  been  legal  since 
1877,  and  is  not  unusual  at  Milan,  Lodi,  and  elsewhere.  In 
Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Leipzig  there  has  been  strong  agita- 
tion in  favor  of  it;  and  at  Gotha  there  is  a  large  mortuary 
and  crematorium,  where  between  1878  and  '81  upward  of  50 
dead  bodies  were  consumed  by  fire.  Societies  for  securing 
the  legalization  or  furthering  the  practice  of  cremation 
exist  in  Holland,  Belgium,  France,  England,  and  the 
United  States.  Interest  in  this  movement  was  awakened 
in  England,  1874,  by  Sir  Henry  Thompson:  the  council  of 
the  society  established  in  that  year  purchased  ground  at 
Woking,  Surrey,  1878,  and  there  erected  a  crematory  on 
the  principle  of  that  at  Lodi.  This  apparatus  reduced 
part  of  the  carcass  of  a  horse  weighing  140  lbs.  to  6  lbs.  of 
white  ashes  in  two  hours;  but  a  special  act  legalizing 
cremation  of  human  corpses  is  still  awaited  by  the  society. 
The  human  body  consists  of  60  per  cent,  of  water  and  40 
per  cent,  of  solid  matter;  and  quickly  to  reduce  this  to 
ashes  requires  a  strong  furnace.  A  special  form  of  Sie- 
mens' regenerator  furnace  is  that  which  has  found  most 
favor.  Cremation  was  performed  in  the  United  States  by 
scientific  process  first  in  1876  at  Washington,  Penn.  The 
New  York  Theosophical  Soc.  had  for  several  years  urged 
the  establishment  of  a  crematory  for  sanitary  reasons,  and 
one  of  its  members,  Joseph  Henry  Louis  Charles,  Baron  de 
Palm,  a  former  aide  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and  a  mason 
of  high  degree,  had  signified  a  desire  that  his  mortal  re- 
mains should  be  cremated,  and  set  apart  a  sum  of  money 
as  a  contribution  toward  the  expense  of  erecting  the  neces- 
sary building  and  furnace.  In  the  latter  part  of  1876,  F. 
J.  LeMoyne,  a  physician  of  Washington,  Penn.,  under- 
took the  erection  of  a  crematory  on  the  general  Martin- 
Siemens'  plan  for  the  cremation  of  his  own  remains.  Be- 
fore its  completion  Baron  de  Palm  died;  his  remains  were 
embalmed  and  kept  in  New  York  till  Dec,  when  Dr. 
LeMoyne  having  finished  the  furnace, the  body  was  removed 
to  Washington  by  the  Theosophical  Soc,  and  on  Dec.  6,  in 
the  presence  of  a  large  concourse  of  people,  including  the 
olficers  of  many  state  and  local  boards  of  health,  physicians 
and  sanitary  engineers  from  all  parts,  and  representatives 
of  the  press  of  the  United  States,  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  it  was  cremated,  with  the  consumption  of  40 
bushels  of  coke  and  at  a  total  cost  of  $7.04.  Dr.  LeMoync's 
crematory  consists  of  a  brick  and  fire-brick  structure,  10 
ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide,  and  6  ft.  high,  including  a  fire-clay  re- 
no 


CRfeMIEUX— CREMOCARP. 

tort  of  semi-cylindrical  shape  7  ft.  long,  24  inches  wide, 
and  20  inches  in  height,  into  which  the  body  to  be  cre- 
mated is  pushed  on  an  iron  cradle  or  bier,  after  the  retort 
is  sufficiently  heated  by  the  fire  beneath.  An  escape  flue 
carries  ofii^iuto  a  tall  chimney  the  carbon  gases  generated 
from  the  body  during  cremation.  Beside  the  furnace-room 
there  is  a  reception-room  for  the  temporary  deposit  of  the 
remains  during  any  religious  service  that  may  be  desired, 
and  a  columbarium  for  the  urning  and  permanent  deposit 
of  the  ashes.  The  publicity  given  to  this  first  scientific 
cremation  led  to  a  profound  discussion  of  the  subject  of 
the  final  disposition  of  the  dead,  and  cremation  societies 
sprang  up  in  several  of  the  large  cities.  Many  were  short 
lived,  but  others  have  continued  and  increased  in  member- 
ship. The  New^  York  Cremation  Soc,  incorporated  1881, 
Mar.,  has  erected  a  crematory  on  Mt.  Olivet,  just  beyond 
the  corporate  limits  of  Brooklyn,  a  St.  Louis  Soc.  has  one 
in  the  suburbs  of  that  city,  and  there  is  one  also  in  New 
Orleans.  Besides  these  there  is  The  United  States  Cre- 
mation Co.,  Limited,  which  is  prepared  to  erect  and  equip 
crematories  wherever  desired.  The  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject is  extensive:  see  Thompson,  The  Treatment  of  the  Body 
after  Death  (1874);  Eassie,  Cremation  of  tlie  Dead  (1875); 
ullersperger,  Urne  oder  Grab  (1874). 

CREMIEUX,  kra-me-eh\  Isaac  Adolphe:  1796  Apr. 
30—1880,  Feb.  10;  b.  Nimes,  France,  of  Jewish  parents: 
lawyer  and  statesman.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  his 
native  town  1817,  removed  to  Paris  1830,  and  became  an 
advocate  to  the  court  of  cassation.  He  soon  attained  dis- 
tinction as  counsel  in  political  cases;  was  summoned  to 
Damascus  to  defend  the  grand  rabbi  and  others  accused  of 
the  murder  of  a  Rom.  Cath.  priest,  and  secured  their 
acquittal  1840;  and  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
taking  his  seat  with  the  radical  party,  1842.  After  the  rev- 
olution of  1848  he  proposed  a  provisional  govt.,  and 
on  its  establishment  became  minister  of  justice.  He  soon 
withdrew  from  the  govt,  on  account  of  the  institution  of 
proceedings  against  Louis  Blanc,  whom  he  defended,  but 
retained  his  seat  in  the  assembly.  He  favored  the  election 
of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the  presidency,  but  afterward  op- 
posed his  measures  in  the  assembly;  was  arrested  at  the 
coup  d'etat  1851,  Dec.  2,  but  shortly  released;  and  held 
aloof  from  political  afl!airs  till  1869,  when  he  was  elected 
to  the  corps  legislatif .  In  1870  he  opposed  the  plebiscite, 
and  after  Sedan  became  minister  of  justice  in  the  govt,  of 
national  defense;  1873  was  elected  a  member  of  the  na- 
tional assembly;  and  1875  a  life  senator  of  the  republic. 
He  v^as  the  author  of  the  decree  which  naturalized  30,000 
Jews  in  Algeria,  subscribed  100,000  f  r.  toward  the  German 
indemnity,"and  was  the  friend  of  Jews  throughout  the 
world. 

CREMOCARP,  n.  krem'd-kdrp  [Gr.  kremdb,  I  suspend; 
karpos,  fruit] :  the  fruit  of  the  umbelliferae,  consisting  of 
two  one-seeded  carpels  suspended,  when  ripe,  from  a  forked 
carpophore. 

\^^ 


CREMOLOBUS— CREOLE. 

CREMOLOBUS,  d.  kre  mol'o-'bua  [Gr.  kremannumi,  to 
hang;  lohos,  the  lobe  of  the  ear;  so  called  because  the  fruit, 
a  sillcule,  is  suspended]:  genus  of  Brassicacem,  type  of  the 
family  GremolohidcB.  The  species  have  racemes  of  yellow 
flowers  and  are  natives  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

CREMONA,  kre-mb'na,  It.  krd-mond:  province  of  Lom- 
bardy,  n.  Italy,  between  the  rivers  Oglio  and  Adda,  n. 
of  the  Po.  It  is  abt.  50  m.  long  from  n.w.  to  s.e.,  and  15 
wide;  632  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Silk  is  an  extensive  production.  Pop.  (1871)  300,595;  (1881) 
302,064. 

CREMONA:  important  city  of  n.  Italy,  cap.  of  the  prov- 
ince of  C. ;  on  the  n.  bank  of  the  Po,  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge,  about  48  m.  s.e.  of  Milan.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls  with  flanking  towers  and  wet  ditches,  its  circumfer- 
ence being  nearly  5  miles.  A  canal  uniting  the  Oglio  and 
the  Po  passes  through  the  city;  and  the  latter  river  is 
navigable  for  large  boats  from  this  point  to  the  sea.  The 
streets  of  C.  are  wide  and  regular,  and  it  has  some  fine 
buildings —the  principal  of  which  are  the  cathedral,  dating 
partly  from  1107,  but  in  various  styles  of  architecture; 
several  other  churches;  the  Palazzo  Publico,  Campo 
Santo,  and  the  Torazzo  or  belfry — one  of  the  loftiest  and 
finest  towers  in  Italy,  396  ft.  high,  commanding  magnif- 
icent views  over  the  fertile  plains  of  Milan.  By  means  of 
the  Po,  C.  carries  on  considerable  trade  in  the  produce  of 
the  district;  and  it  has  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton, 
earthenware,  and  chemicals.  It  was  formerly  greatly 
celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  violins,  the  most  famous 
maker  being  Amati,  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.  Pop. 
(1881)  31,930. 

CRENATE,  a.  kre'ndt,  or  Cre'nated,  a.  [mid.  L.  crenay 
a  notch;  crendtus,  notched:  F.  crene]-.  notched;  in  hot.^ 
having  a  series  of  rounded  marginal  prominences.  Crena- 
TURE,  n.  kren'd-tur,  in  hot.,  a  notch  in  a  leaf  or  style. 
Crenelate,  v.  kren'e-ldt  [mid.  L.  crenelldtus,  furnished 
with  loopholes:  F.  crenele,  embattled):  to  provide  with 
loopholes,  as  in  a  castellated  building,  through  which  mis- 
siles might  be  shot;  to  furnish  with  a  parapet.  Cren'- 
ELATED,  a.  furnished  with  loopholes;  in  arch.,  applied  to  a 
kind  of  indented  molding.  Crenelle,  n.  kren-el,  some- 
times a  battlement;  usually  the  embrasures  in  a  battlement 
(q.v.).  Crenelle,  a.  kren-el-ld,  in  heraldry,  applied  to 
any  ordinary  drawn  like  the  battlements  of  a  wall.  Cren  - 
ULATE,  a.  -u-ldt,  in  hot.,  having  the  edge  slightly  scalloped 
or  notched. 

CRENIC  ACID,  n.  kren'ik  [Gr.  krene,  a  spring]:  one  of 
the  constituents  of  vegetable  mold;  produced  wherever 
leaves  and  other  plant  matter  are  decaying,  especially  in 
peat-bogs  and  marshes. 

CRENILxiBRUS,  n.  kre-ni-lahriis  [L.  crena,  a  notch; 
lahrus,  an  unknown  fish] :  genus  of  spiny  fishes  belonging 
to  the  family  Lahridce. 

CREOLE,  n.  kre'dl  [F.  creole] — from  Sp.  criollo,  a  Creole, 


CREOPHILUS— CRESCENT, 
properly,  nursed,  grown  up — from  criar,  I  breed]:  iu 
Louisiana,  Sp.  America,  W.  Indies,  and  Mauritius,  denotes 
iu  its  widest  sense,  any  one  born  in  the  country,  but  of  a 
race  not  native  to  it.  It  is  usually  applied,  however,  to 
persons  born  in  the  colony  or  country,  of  pure  European 
blood,  as  distinguished  both  from  immigrant  Europeans, 
and  from  the  oltspring  of  mixed  blood.  In  Brazil,  a  na- 
tive, but  of  African  parents. — Creole  Languages  are 
corruptions  of  Dutch,  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Eng- 
lish, arising  in  various  colonies. 

CREOPHILUS,  n.  kre-ofil-us  [Gr.  kreas,  flesh;  pMlos, 
a  friend] :  genus  of  beetles  belonging  to  the  order  Staphyli- 
nidce, 

CREOSOTE:  see  Creasote. 

CREPANE,  n.  kre'pdn,  or  Cre'pance,  n.  -pans  [L.  cre- 
pdrej  to  crack] :  a  chop  or  scratch  in  a  horse's  leg  caused  by 
the  shoe  on  one  hind  leg  striking  the  other. 

CREPIDODERA,  n.  krep-i-db-der' a  [Gr.  crepis,  a  half 
boot  worn  by  men;  deros,  skin  (?)]:  genus  of  beetles,  family 
ChrysomezidfB.    It  is  akin  to  Haltica. 

CREPIDULA,  kre-pid'u-la  [L.  a  small  sandal,  dim.  of 
crepida,  a  slipper  or  sandal] :  genus  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  family  Calyptrmdce  (Bonnet  Limpets). 

CREPITATE,  V.  krep'i-tdt  [L.  crepitdtus,  crackled  or 
creaked:  It.  crepitare]:  to  make  a  small  crackling  noise,  as 
salt  suddenly  thrown  on  a  fire.  Crep  itating,  imp. 
Crep  itated,  pp.  Crep  ita  tion,  n.  'td!shun\¥. — L.]:  a 
small  sharp  crackling  noise,  as  salt  thrown  on  a  fire;  in  med. , 
a  similar  sound  heard  in  inspiration  at  the  commencement 
of  pneumonia. 

CREPT,  V. :  see  under  Creep. 

CREPUSCULARIA,  n.  kre'piis-ku-ldr'i-a  [L.  crepuscul, 
(urn)  the  twilight,  and  pi.  adj.  suf.  -aria]:  tribe^of  lepidopter- 
ous  insects,  including  those  called  Sphinxes  or  Hawk-moths. 
They  are  twilight  fliers:  see  Lepidoptera. 

CREPUSCULE,  n.  kre  pus'kul  [L.  crepus'culiLm,  twi- 
light, dusk — from  creper,  dusky,  dark:  It.  crepuscolo:  F. 
crepuscule]:  twilight.  Crepuscular,  a.  -ku-Ur,  pertain- 
ing to  twilight;  glimmering;  also  Crepus'culous,  a.  -lus, 
and  sometimes  Crepus'culin,  a.  -Vin.  Crepus  cular,  a. 
applied  to  animals  that  are  active  in  the  dusk  or  twilight. 

CRESCENDO,  n.  kres-sen'dd  [It. — from  L.  cresco,  I  grow, 
I  increase]:  in  music,  gradual  increasing  of  sound,  or 
changing  from  piano  to  forte  and  fortissimo.    It  is  marked 

thus   \f  or  with  the  abbreviation  cresc.    The  swell 

of  a  good  organ  produces  a  perfect  crescendo. 

CRESCENT,  n.  kressent  [L.  crescen'tem,  growing  or  in- 
creasing: F.  croissant:  It.  crescente — lit.,  a  thing  in  a  state 
of  increase  or  growth] :  the  moon  in  the  form  of  a  curve, 
broad  in  the  centre  and  tapering  toward  the  two  ends, 
called  the  horns;  anything  so  shaped,  as  a  block  of  build- 
ings or  houses;  emblem  of  progress  and  increase;  the  em- 
blem on  the  national  standard  of  Turkey,  in  the  form  of  a 
m 


CRESCENT-CHESS. 

hollow  half -moon;  the  Turkish  power,  as  the  *  Cresceut 
and  the  Cross;'  the  crescent  was  the  emblem  of  the  Greek 
before  it  became  that  of  the  Turkish  rule ;  and  is  still  seen 
surmounted  by  the  cross  on  churches  in  Moscow  and  else- 
where in  Russia:  Adj.  growing.  Cues' cented,  a.  adorned 
with  a  crescent;  crescent-like;  crescent-shaped.  Crescen  - 
Tic,  a.  sen'tik,  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent.  Crescive,  a. 
kres'siVy  in  OE.,  increasing;  growing.  Crescentade,  n. 
Jcres'en-tdd  [Eng.  crescent;  and  suf.  -ade,  a  word  modelled 
after  the  manner  of  crusade] :  a  religious  war  waged  in  de- 
fense of  '  the  Crescent,'  i.e  ,  of  the  Mohammedan  faith. 

CRESCENT,  in  Heraldry,  is  used  both  as  a  bearing  or 
charge,  and  as  a  difference,  or  mark  of  cadency.  In  the 
latter  case,  it  designates  the  second  son,  and  those  that  de- 
scend from  him.    See  Cadency. 

CRESCENT,  Turkish  Order  op  the:  order  of  knight- 
hood conferred  by  the  sultan.  In  1799,  after  the  battle 
of  Aboukir,  Sultan  Selim  III.  testified  his  gratitude  to 
Nelson  by  sending  him  a  crescent  richly  adorned  with 
diamonds.  It  was  not  intended  as  an  order,  but  Nelson 
wore  it  on  his  coat,  and  called  himself  the  knight  of  the  C. 
Selim  was  flattered  by  the  value  attached  to  his  gift,  and 
resolved,  1801,  to  found  the  Order  of  the  Crescent.  Moham- 
medans being  forbidden  in  the  Koran  to  carry  such  marks 
of  distinction,  the  order  is  conferred  only  on  Christians 
who  have  done  service  to  the  state.  See  Medjidie,  Order 
OF. — There  was  an  old  order  of  the  C,  instituted  by  Rene, 
Duke  of  Aujou,  1464. 

CRESCEN'TIA:  see  Calabash  Tree. 

CRESS,  n.  kres  [AS.  cmrse;  Dut.  kersse;  Ger.  kresse; 
Bw.  krasse,  a  cress:  comp.  F.  cresson,  a  cress — from  L. 
crescere,  to  grow — lit.,  a  plant  which  grows  quickly]:  salad- 
plant. — Cress  is  a  name  given  to  many  plants  of  which  the 
foliage  has  a  pungent,  mustard-like  taste  and  is  used  as  a 
salad.  It  is  sometimes  more  strictly  confined  to  the  genus 
Lepidium,  genus  of  the  nat.  ord.  Gruciferm,  having  small 
white  flowers,  and  oblong  or  rounded  laterally  compressed 
pouches  (silicules),  with  the  cells  one-seeded,  and  the  valves 
keeled  or  winged  on  the  back.  The  Common  C,  or  Gar- 
den C.  {L.  Satwum),  is  an  annual,  native  of  the  East,  fre- 
quently cultivated  in  gardens,  and  used  young  as  a  salad; 
being  easily  procured  in  a  few  weeks  from  the  time  of  sow- 
ing, and,  by  the  aid  of  a  little  artificial  heat,  even  in  winter. 
There  is  an  esteemed  variety  with  curled  leaves.  Like  most 
other  plants  of  similar  pungent  taste,  particularly  those  of 
the  order  CrticifercB,  the  garden  C.  is  powerfully  anti- 
scorbutic. Still  more  pungent,  and  almost  like  pepper  in 
taste,  is  its  congener,  Pepperwort,  BiUander,  or  Poor 
Man's  Pepper  {L.  latifolium),  found  in  wet  places  near  the 
sea,  and  occasionally  used  as  a  condiment.  It  was  formerly 
in  high  repute  as  a  remedy  for  various  diseases.  Virginian 
C.  {L.  Virginicum)  resembles  the  garden  C.  in  its  prop- 
erties, is  eaten  as  a  salad,  and  used  as  a  diaphoretic  medi- 
cine in  N.  America  and  the  W.  Indies.  L.  piscidium,  na. 
tive  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  is  there  used  to  stupefy  fish; 


CRESS. 

it  is  also  one  of  the  plants  used  by  sailors  for  prevention 
or  cure  of  scurvy.  The  name  Winter  C.  is  given  to 
species  of  the  genus  Barharea,  also  cruciferous  biennial  or 
perennial  plants,  with  racemes  of  yellow  flowers,  quad- 
rangular pods,  and  lyrate  or  pinnate  leaves.  The  Com- 
mon Winter  C.  {B.  •culgaris),  formerly  known  as  Herb  St. 
Barbara,  is  plentiful  in  m^ist  pastures  throughout  Europe 
and  N.  America.  It  is  occasionally  cultivated  as  a  winter 
salad;  in  Sweden  it  is  used  as  a  boiled  vegetable.  Its 
pungency  is  combined  with  some  degree  of  bitterness.  A 
double  variety  is  common  in  flow^er-borders,  and  bears  the 
name  of  Yellow  Rocket.  Very  similar  to  this,  and  also 
occasionally  cultivated,  is  the  Early  Winter  C,  or  Ameri- 


Cress  {Lepidium  Sativum):  Bitter  Cress  (Cardamine 

a,  silicule.  artiara): 

a,  silique,  opening. 

CAN  C.  {Barharea  'pr(]BCOx)y  native  also  of  Britain,  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  America.  Bitter  C.  {Cardamine) 
is  another  cruciferous  genus,  with  linear  pods,  and  flow^ers 
sometimes  of  considerable  beauty,  as  in  the  common  Bitter 
C.  or  Cuckoo-flower  {C.  pratensis),  known  r Iso  by  the  name 
Lady's  Smock — a  very  common  ornament  of  moist  meadow^s 
in  Britain,  with  white,  blush- colored,  or  light  purple 
flowers;  the  flowers  of  which  are  stimulant  and  diaphoretic, 
and  had  at  one  time  high  reputation  for  the  cure  of  epilepsy, 
particularly  in  children,  and  still  retain  a  place  in  the 
pharmacopoeias.  The  young  leaves  of  this  species,  as  well 
as  of  G.  amara,  a  species  with  still  more  beautiful  flowers, 
and  G.  hirsuta,  a  small  flowered  species,  are  used  as  salads, 
especially  on  the  European  continent;  they  are  pungent 
with  a  little  bitterne^.     The  leaves  of  G  ama/ra  are 

ITS 


Water-Cress  {Nasturtium 
officinale). 


CRESSELLE— CRESSON. 

brought  to  market  in  large  quantities  in  Bohemia  and 
Saxony.  The  juice  of  G.  pratensis  is  much  used  as  an 
anti-scorbutic  in  the  north  of  Europe,  to  counteract  the 
eli'ect  of  the  constant  use  of 
salted  meat  and  salted  fish. 
Water  C.  {Nasturtium  offi- 
cinale) is  a  perennial  aquatic 
cruciferous  plant,  much  used 
as  a  spring  salad.  The  genus 
Nasturtium,  which  contains  a 
considerable  number  of  spe- 
cies, has  a  spreading  calyx, 
and  a  nearly  cylindrical  pod. 
N  officinale  is  a  native  of 
almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  leaves  have  a  pungent 
bitterish  taste,  with  a  little 
saltness.  They  possess  medic- 
inal properties  similar  to 
those  of  Scurvy- Gk ASS.  In 
favorable  weather,  they  may 
be  procured  in  winter  as  well 
as  in  spring,  and  may  be  fre- 
quently cut  over  during  a 
season.  The  plant  is  culti- 
vated to  some  extent  in  wide 
ditches  filled  with  slowly 
flowing  and  pure  water.  It 
grows  best  in  clear  shallow  running  water,  with  a  bottom 
of  sand  or  gravel.  Mud  is  injurious  both  to  its  growth 
and  to  the  flavor  of  its  leaves.  For  Indian  Cress,  see 
Trop^olum. 

CRESSELLE,  n.  kres-sel'  [F.  crecelle,  a  rattle]:  in  Rom. 
Cath.  Gh.,  a  rattle  used  in  the  three  last  days  of  Holy- week 
instead  of  bells. 

CRESSET,  n.  kres'set  [Dut.  kruysel;  OF.  croiseul,  a 
hanging  lamp:  F.  creuset,  a  melting-pot — from  OF.  crasset, 
a  cresset:  connected  with  crock,  cruet,  cruise,  and  omcible]: 
a  large  open  lantern  or  pot  fixed  on  a  pole,  and  filled  with 
combustible  materials;  a  great  light  set  on  a  beacon  or 
watch-tower;  the  grating  within  which  the  light  or  fire  is 
kindled.  The  name  is  by  some  ascribed  to  the  fact  that 
beacons  formerly  were  often  surmounted  by  the  cross. 

CRESSON,  kres'on:  village  and  popular  summer  resort 
of  Cambria  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Penn.  railroad,  15  m.  s.w. 
of  Altoona,  102  m.  east  of  Pittsburg,  252  m.  by  n.  of  Phil- 
adelphia. It  is  on  the  summit  of  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains, 2,300  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  provided  with  numerous 
hotels,  and  has  excellent  drives  and  several  springs  of  min- 
eral water  in  its  vicinity. 

CRES  SON,  Elliott:  1796,  Mar.  2—1854,  Feb.  20;  b. 
Philadelphia:  philanthropist.  From  an  earl}^  age  he  applied 
himself  to  the  task  of  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the 
Indians  and  negroes.  He  established  the  first  colony  of 
liberated  American  slaves  on  tlie  Grain  coast  of  w,  Africa, 
m 


CRESSY-CREST. 

became  pres.  of  the  Penn.  Colonization  Soc. ,  and  in  its  in- 
terests made  tours  of  Kew  England  1838-9,  the  Southern 
states  1839-40,  and  Great  Britain  1840-42,  1850-53.  He 
made  a  large  fortune  in  mercantile  business,  and  be- 
queathed over  $150,000  for  benevolent  purposes. 

CRESS Y:  see  Crecy. 

CREST,  n.  kn^st  [OF.  creste—ivom  L.  crista,  the  tuft  or 
plume  on  the  head  of  birds:  akin  to  Gr.  keras,  a  horn:  It. 
cresta\:  the  plume  of  feathers  or  a  like  ornament  on  the  top 
of  an  ancient  helmet;  the  helmet  itself;  the  comb  or  tuft 
of  feathers  on  the  head  of  a  bird;  pride;  courage;  the  figure 
or  device  that  surmounts  a  coat  of  arms;  the  foamy  top  of 
a  wave:  the  highest  part  of  a  hill  or  ridge;  in  mil.,  the  line 
which  marks  the  top  of  a  parapet:  V.  to  mark  as  with  a 
crest;  to  adorn  with  as  a  crest.  Ceest'ing,  imp.  Crest  ed, 
pp.:  Adj.  adorned  with  a  tuft  or  crest;  in  heraldry,  applied 
to  a  cock  or  other  bird,  having  its  comb  of  a  different  tinct- 
ure from  its  body — said  to  be  crested  of  such  a  tincture 
(naming  the  tincture).  Crest'less,  a.  Crest  fallen,  a. 
dispirited;  dejected— in  allusion  to  the  flabby  appearance 
of  the  crest  or  comb  of  a  defeated  cock. 

CREST,  in  Heraldry:  device  surmounting  a  coat  of 
arms.  Though  popularly  regarded  as  the  most  important 
feature  in  heraldic  emblems,  the  C,  in  the  eyes  of  heralds, 
is  an  external  adjunct  to  the  shield,  without  which  the 
bearing  is  complete,  and  which  may  consequent!}^  be 
altered  without  materiall}^  affecting  its  signiticance.  Oc- 
cupying the  highest  place  on  the  helmet  (see  illustration), 
it  is  the  member  of  the  bearing  by  which  the  knight  was 
commonly  known  in  battle;  hence,  to  it  the  term  cogni- 
zance (from  cognosce,  to  know)  is  properly  given.  Its 
claim  to  a  classical  origin  is  probably  better  than  that  of 
any  other  portion  of  coat  armor.  Jupiter  Ammon  is  rep- 
resented as  having  borne  a  ram's  head  on  his  helmet,  and 
Mars  the  figure  of  a  lion  a  or  tiger.  Alexander  the  Great, 
on  the  pretence  that  he  was  sprung  from  Jupiter,  assumed 
the  ram's  head;  and  Julius  Caesar  bore  a  star,  to  denote 
that  he  was  descended  from  Venus.  The  helmet,  as  repre- 
sented on  ancient  statues  and  gems,  was  frequently 
adorned  with  a  crest.  Sometimes  it  was  of  horse-hair;  at 
other  times  a  lion  or  other  animal  was 
placed  on  the  helmet,  either  erect  or 
couch  ant. 

Kewton,  in  his  Display  of  Heraldry, 
says  that  the  first  C.  found  in  the  monu- 
ments of  English  chivalry,  is  that  on  the 
great  seal  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion. 
The  helmets  in  this  instance,  and  in  that 
of   Roger  de  Quincy,  Earl  of  Win- 
chester, differ  in  form  from  those  after- 
ward used,  the  C.  occupying  a  much  Helmet  and  Crest  of 
larger  space.    Crests  are  said  to  have    Roger  de  Quincy, 
come  into  general  use  about  the  time  of    ^^^'^  Winchestei-. 
Henry  III.,  and  to  have  been  used  as 
marks  of  distinction  by  commanders  in  the  holy  wars,  as 

171 


tliey  had  formerly  been  by  the  Roman  centurions.  For 
lightness  they  were  often  made  of  stuffed  leather,  gilt, 
silvered  over,  or  painted — which  explains  their  greater 
size  then  than  in  later  times,  when  they  were  made 
either  of  wood  or  metal.  The  earliest  example  of 
the  wreath  on  which  the  C.  is  now  invariably  placed, 
is  that  on  the  monument  of  Sir  John  Harsick.  It  consist- 
ed of  two  pieces  of  silk,  of  the  colors  of  the  armorial 
bearings  of  the  wearer,  twisted  together  by  the  lady  who 
had  chosen  him  for  her  knight.  Though  crests  are  now 
invariable  appeadages  to  shields,  and  many  of  them  are 
appropriated  to  particular  families  by  hereditary  descent, 
tliey  are  believed  to  have  been  originally  assumed  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  wearers;  and  they  are  even  now  less  strict- 
ly under  the  cognizance  of  the  heralds  than  the  devices 
on  the  shield,  which  must  always  be  assigned  by  compe- 
tent authority.  Crests  are  so  various  that  a  classification 
of  them  is  scared}^  possible.  The  following  is  an  abridg- 
ment of  that  given  by  Newton,  who  has  written  very 
fully  on  the  subject  in  his  Display  of  Heraldry.  The  most 
ancient  class  of  crests  he  believes  to  have  consisted  of 
ferocious  animals,  regarded  as  figuratively  representing 
the  bearer  and  his  pursuits.  Secondly,  they  were  devices 
assumed  as  memorials  of  feats  of  chivalry,  and  for  perpet- 
uating traditions  and  family  legends,  either  in  addition  to, 
or  differing  from,  those  represented  on  the  shield.  Third- 
ly, they  served  only  to  give  a  more  prominent  place  to 
objects  already  represented  on  the  shield.  Fourthly,  they 
commemorated  religious  vows,  or  expressed  the  religious 
or  knightly  aspirations  of  the  bearer.  Fifthly,  they  were 
mere  w^hims,  and  were  adopted  for  no  definite  reason.  As 
the  same  C.  might  be  adopted  by  persons  not  only  uncon- 
nected by  family,  but  of  different  names,  they  no  longer 
served  the  purpose  of  distinction  when  separated  from  the 
shield.  To  this  latter  class  belong  the  vast  majority  of 
modern  crests  assumed  at  the  suggestion  of  seal-engravers 
and  coach-painters. 

The  lion  assumed  by  Richard  I.,  during  the  crusade  in 
the  Holy  Land,  to  express  the  bravery  for  which  he  was 
proverbial,  was  borne  by  Edw^ard  III.,  Henry  VIL, 
Edward  VI.,  and  James  I.;  and  since  that  time  has  been 
recognized  as  the  appropriate  C.  of  the  royal  family  of 
England.  In  early  times,  the  same  C.  was  not  always 
borne  even  by  the  same  person.  Besides  the  lion, 
Edward  III.  occasionally  bore  a  w^hite 
raven  crowned;  and  other  monarchs 
made  use  of  similar  additions.  An- 
ciently, the  nobility  mostly  bore  plumes 
of  feathers.  But  several  of  the  Earls  of 
Warwick,  of  the  Beauchamp  family — 
the  last  of  whom  died  1445 — bore  for  C. 
a  bear  with  a  rugged  staff  muzzled, 
collared,  and  chained,  as  still  seen  on 
signs  (see  woodcut).  The  origin  of 
the  wreath  has  been  already  mentioned. 
It  is  now  represented  as  consisting  of  two  stripes  of  gold 

178 


CRESTE-CKESYLIC  ACID. 

or  silver  lace,  twisted  into  a  circular  cord.  Its  tinctures 
are  always  those  of  the  principal  metal  and  color  of  the 
arms.  It  is  a  rule  in  delineating  the  wreath,  which  is 
shown  edgewise  above  the  shield,  that  the  first  coil  shall 
be  of  metal,  and  the  second  of  color.  Civic,  triumphal, 
and  other  crowns  were  used  as  wreaths;  and  this  practice 
is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  use  of  coronets,  out 
of  which  crests  are  sometimes  represented  as  issuing,  even 
in  the  case  of  persons  who  are  not  noble. 

CKESTE.  in  iVrchitecture:  ornamental  finishing,  either 
carved  in  stone,  or  of  tiles  along  the  top  of  a  wall,  or  the 
ridge  of  a  roof.  Crest-tiles,  or,  as  they  are  corruptly  called. 
Cress-tiles,  or  Crease-tiles,  are  frequently  in  the  form 


Crest-tiles. 


either  of  small  battlements  or  Tudor  flowers,  as  in  the 
accompanying  illustration  from  Exeter  Cathedral:  see 
Cops. 

CRESTON,  Irh'ton:  city  of  Union  co.,  la.,  on  the 
Chicago  Burlington  and  Quincy  railroad;  52  mi.  e.  of  Red 
Oak,  115  w.  of  Ottumwa,  190  w.  of  Burlington.  It  has 
3  national  banks,  6  churches,  2  newspapers,  2  wagon- 
factories,  a  graded  school,  and  large  railroad  machine 
shops  and  car  works.  Pop.  (1870)  1,819;  (1880)  5,081;  1885 
7,392. 

^    CRESWICK,  Thomas,  r  a.:  1811-69;  b.  Shef- 

field: one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  of  recent  English 
landscape-painters.  In  his  17th  year  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don, to  study  drawing  and  painting;  but  already  he  had 
so  far  advanced,  that  two  of  his  pictures  were,  during  that 
year,  admitted  into  the  Royal  Acad,  exhibition.  C.  loved 
to  paint  the  beautiful  streams,  and  glens,  and  wooded  dells 
of  his  native  land.  His  landscapes  present  the  freshness 
of  nature.  Among  his  greatest  works  are  England, 
London  Road  a  Hundred  Years  Ago,  and  the  Weald  of 
Kent.  His  knowledge  of  at5rial  perspective  was  unsur- 
passed. C.  painted  also  some  admirable  sea- side  studies. 
He  was  elected  assoc.  of  the  Royal  Acad,  in  1842,  and  r.a. 
1851. 

CRESYLIC  ACID,  n.  kres-Wik  [from  creasote;  and  Gr. 
hnl<'^  matter  of  which  a  thing  is  made]:  an  acid  obtained 
from  creasote,  a  good  antiseptic  and  disinfectant. 


CRETACEOUS -CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM. 

CRETACEOUS,  a.  kre-td' slihs  [L.  cretCiceus,  chalky — 
from  creta,  chalk]:  composed  of  chalk;  chalky. 

CRETA  CEOUS  SYSTEM,  or  Chalk  Formation,  in 
Geology:  the  upper  strata  of  the  Secondary  series,  imme- 
diately below  the  Tertiary  beds,  and  resting  on  the  Oolite. 
This  group  is  separated  from  the  Eocene  Tertiary  beds  by 
a  decided  change  in  both  the  rocks  and  fossils.  The  Eocene 
strata  rest  uncon  form  ably  upon  the  chalk;  it  is,  how  eve  j-, 
more  than  probable  that  a  number  of  beds  may  yet  be  dis- 
covered to  till  up  the  apparent  gap  in  the  sequence  of  the 
rocks. 

The  C.  S.  covers  a  large  surface  in  Europe  and  the  east  of 
Asia;  beds  of  the  period  are  extensive  also  in  N.  and  S. 
America.  The  typical  strata  occur  in  the  south-east  of 
England,  and  are  connected  with  similar  beds  in  the  north 
of  France  and  Germany,  and  in  Denmark.  Indeed,  the 
bed  of  the  German  Ocean  seems  to  be  composed  of  rocks 
of  this  group,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  masses  of  chalk  and 
tlint  thrown  on  the  shores  of  Scotland  after  storms. 

The  strata  of  the  group  have  been  arranged  in  the  fol- 
lowing order.  The  maximum  thickness  of  the  divisions  is 
given  in  feet. 


Feet. 

I  1.  Maastricht,  100 

I  2.  Chalk  with  Flints  500 

Upper  ■{  3.  Chalk  without  Flints,  .      .      .      .  600 

1  4.  Chalk  Marl,  100 

L5.  Upper  Greensand,  .  .  .  .100 
re.  Gault  150 

Lower -i  7.  Lower  Greensand,  .  .  .  .850 
t8.  Wealden  beds,  1300 


1.  The  Maestri cht  beds  (q.v.)  consist  of  pisolitic  lime- 
stones in  the  north  of  France,  and  of  loos'e  yellowish  sand- 
stones in  Holland.  2.  The  chalk  with  Hints  is  a  great  mass 
of  pure  white  pulverulent  limestone,  usually  too  soft  for  a 
building-stone,  but  sometimes  passing  into  a  more  solid 
state.  It  occurs  in  beds  of  great  thickness,  with  the  strati- 
fication often  obscure,  except  when  rendered  distinct  by 
interstratified  layers  of  flint  a  few  inches  in  thickness,  oc- 
casionally in  continuous  beds,  oftener  in  nodules,  and  re- 
curring at  intervals  of  two  to  four  ft.  from  each  other. 
Iron  pyrites  is  found  frequently  in  these  beds  in  radiated 
nodules;  it  readily  decomposes,  and  produces  rusty  stains 
on  the  rock.  3.  Chalk  without  flints;  this  differs  from  the 
upper  chalk  only  in  the  want  of  flints.  4.  Chalk  Marl;  the 
white  chalk,  by  the  gradual  admixture  of  argillaceous 
matter,  becomes  hardened,  until  it  passes  into  a  pale  buff- 
colored  marl  or  argillaceous  limestone,  sometimes  of  suttl- 
cient  compactness  to  be  used  as  a  building-stone.  5.  Upper 
Greensand  (see  Gkeensand),  composed  of  alternating 
layers  of  sands,  clays,  and  limestones,  occasionally  colored 
with  green  particles  of  a  chloritic  mineral.  6.  Gault  (q.v.), 
a  stiff  dark  clay,  used  for  brickmaking,  with  many  beauti- 
fully preserved  shells.  7.  Lower  Greensand  (q.v.),  so  like 
petralogically  to  the  Upper  Greensand,  that  when  the  inter- 
vening Gault  is  absent,  it  is  impossible  to  separate  them, 
except  by  their  organic  contents.    The  Specton  Clay,  a 

180 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM. 

local  Yorkshire  bed  of  dark  clay,  is  of  the  same  age.  8. 
Wealden  (q.v.),  dividedjnto  the  two  groups,  the  Wealden 
clay  and  Hastings  sand, "consists  of  a  great  series  of  shales 
and  sandstones,  with  scattered  beds  of  lime  and  ironstone. 

The  most  remarkable  petralogical  characteristic  of  the 
group  is  the  chalk,  which  exists  in  such  abundance  as  to 
have  given  its  name  to  the  formation.  It  is  a  white,  soft, 
and  pulverulent  limestone,  consisting  almost  entirely  of 
carbonate  of  lime;  the  only  foreign  matter  in  any  quantity 
being  silex,  which  is  aggregated  together  in  an  amorphous 
condition,  in  nodules  or  layers  of  flint.  Occasional  pebbles 
are  found,  but  they  are  extremely  rare.  Chalk  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  a  chemical  precipitate:  the  microscope  has, 
however,  shown  it  to  be  composed  of  minute  shells  mixed 
with  the  broken  fragments  of  larger  ones;  and,  very  recently, 
the  use  of  an  improved  deep-sea  sounding  apparatus  has 
revealed  a  sediment  now  accumulating  in  many  places, 
which  agrees  in  every  point,  save  solidity,  with  the  chalk. 
When  a  piece  of  white  chalk  is  rubbed  down  to  powder 
with  water,  by  means  of  a  soft  brush,  and  the  powder  ex- 
amined by  the  microscope,  it  will  be  found  that  the  greater 
portion  consists  of  shells  of  the  minuter  kinds  of  Foraminif- 
era,  mixed  with  the  disintegrated  prisms  of  Pinna  or  other 
large  shells  of  like  structure,  the  shells  of  Cytherina,  a 
marine  Entomostracan,  and  probably  a  few  Diatoms.  Deep 
sea  soundings  have  disclosed  a  formation  precisely  similar, 
taking  place  at  the  present  time.  Of  some  gatherings  from 
the  great  Atlantic  plateau,  obtained  at  a  depth  of  two 
miles.  Prof.  Bailey  says:  '  I  was  greatly  delighted  to  find 
that  all  these  deep  soundings  are  tilled  with  microscopic 
shells;  not  a  particle  of  sand  or  gravel  exists  in  them.  They 
are  chiefly  made  up  of  perfect  little  calcareous  shells  (Fo- 
raminifera),  and  contain  also  a  small  number  of  siliceous 
shells  (Diatomaceae).'  The  occurrence  of  pebbles  in  the 
chalk  can  easily  be  accounted  for,  if  we  suppose  them  to 
have  been  floated  in,  attached  to  the  roots  of  trees,  or  more 
probably  to  sea-weeds.  It  is  more  difiicult  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  the  flint.  Prof.  Bailey  found  that  some  seas, 
especially  in  the  Arctic  regions,  supplied  an  enormous 
quantity  of  the  siliceous  frustules  of  the  Diatomacese,  and 
spicules  of  sponges.  That  such  organisms  may  have  been 
converted  into  the  flint  nodules  seems  very  probable,  when 
we  remember  that  many  of  the  nodules  have  the  external 
conformation  of  sponges,  and  show  occasionally  also  the 
internal  structure.  Mr.  Bowerbank's  microscopic  examina- 
tion of  flint  nodules,  seems  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
flints  are  produced  from  the  siliceous  skeletons  of  organic 
beings.  Chalk,  then,  seems  to  have  been  a  deposit  in  very 
deep  seas,  far  out  of  the  reach  of  land-currents,  which  would 
certainly  have  brought  with  them  argillaceous  and  arena- 
ceous debris. 

The  C.  S.  is  highly  fossiliferous.  The  remains  of 
plants  are  abundant  in  the  fresh-water  Wealdon  beds; 
among  them  have  been  found  fragmentary  portions  of 
dicotyledons.  Except  the  microscopic  Diatomacese,  fre- 
quent in  the  white  chalk,  vegetable  remains  are  rare  in  the 

]8i 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM. 

other  members  of  the  group.  The  various  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom  are  represented  in  the  organic  remains  of 
the  chalk,  except  the  warm-blooded  vertebrata,  which 
have  hitherto — if  they  existed — escaped  notice.  Forami- 
nifera  were  enormously  abundant  in  the  seas,  and  active  in 
the  secretion  of  the  soluble  carbonate  of  lime,  fixing  it  in 
their  minute  shells,  which,  after  their  death,  as  has  been 
shown,  formed  the  principal  material  of  the  chalk.  In  the 
lower  beds,  Polyzoa  have  been  found  in  great  abundance 
on  the  continent.  Echinoderms  are  in  immense  numbers, 
and  beautifully  preserved.  Crustacea  are  occasionally 
found.  Of  mollusca,  the  Brachiopoda  and  Cephalopoda 
are  especially  abundant,  both  being  pelagic  types.  Ctenoid 
and  Cycloid  fiches  appear  in  this  group  for  the  first  time, 
though  yet  in  small  numbers — the  Placoids  and  Ganoids 
being  still  the  predominant  forms.  Reptiles,  though  not 
so  numerous  as  in  the  former  period,  were  yet  far  from 
rare.  For  further  details  of  the  fossils,  see  Diatomace^: 
Ventriculites:  Foraminifera:  Terebratula:  Rhyn- 

CHONELLA:  HiPPURITES:  AMMONITES.  PtYCHODUS:  MoS- 

osAURUs:  Plesiosaurus:  Ichthyosaurus:  Pterodac 
tyl:  etc. 

In  the  United  States  and  other  parts  of  the  American 
continent,  the  C.  S.  is  distinguished  by  an  absence  of  the 
pure  chalk  of  w.  Europe,  and  the  presence  of  vast  beds  of 
greensand  or  marl,  composed  of  mineral  glauconite.  It  is 
largely  developed  along  the  e.  coast  of  the  United  States 
from  Mass.  to  the  Rio  Grande  river,  in  the  s.  from  Ky.  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  in  the  w.  from  Tex.  to  Dak.  Terr.,  and 
between  the  Miss  river  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  along 
the  Pacific  coast  as  far  n.  as  Vancouver's  Island,  and  in  the 
extreme  n.  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mackenzie  river.  It  ex- 
hibits three  distinct  forms,  viz.:  marl  in  N.  J.,  limestone 
in  the  Gulf  region  and  in  many  places  in  the  w.,  and  coal 
in  Col..  New  Mex.,  Wyo.  Terr.,  Utah,  and  Vancouver's 
Island.  In  thickness  the  deposits  vary  from  500  ft.  in  N. 
J.  to  800  in  Tex.,  2,000  in  Alabama,  somewhat  more  than 
that  in  the  n.w.,  and  9,000  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 
The  organic  life  of  the  system  is  represented  by  fossils  of 
flora  and  fauna  including  100  species  of  the  earliest 
forms  found  on  the  continent,  a  large  proportion  of  which 
are  similar  to  the  forms  of  the  present  day,  such  as  the 
beech,  maple,  palm,  oak,  willow,  fig,  tulip,  hickory,  sassa- 
fras, etc.;  by  at  least  15  species  of  mollusca;  nearly  100 
species  of  fish;  40  species  of  sea  serpents;  9  species  of  birds; 
and  a  great  number  and  variety  of  reptiles.  The  sea  sau- 
rians  frequently  measured  50  ft.  in  length;  there  were 
some  sea  serpents  with  a  length  of  75  ft.  and  four  rows  of 
teeth;  a  pterosaur  found  in  Kan.  measured  26  ft.  from  tip 
to  tip  of  expanded  wing;  and  the  remarkable  specimen  of 
the  hadrosaurus  discovered  in  Haddonfield,  N.  J.,  1858, 
and  now  in  the  Central  Park  Museum,  New  York,  both 
in  original  and  restored  forms,  measures  between  25  and 
30  ft.  from  tip  of  nose  to  end  of  tail.  The  birds  included 
swimmers,  waders,  and  an  extinct  form  representing  the 
three  orders  of  bird,  fish,  and  reptile. 


CRETAN— CREUSE. 

CRETAN,  n.  kretdn  [Gr.  Krete,  Crete;  kretikos,  per- 
taining to  Crete]:  an  inhabitant  of  the  island  of  Crete  or 
Candia.  Cretic,  n.  kre'tlk,  a  poetic  foot  of  a  short  syllable 
between  two  long,  thus---.  Cretism,  n.  kre'tizm 
[Gr.  kretismos,  lying]:  the  practice  of  the  Cretans;  a  false- 
hood. 

CRETE:  see  Candia. 

CRETINISM,  n.  kre  tin-izra  [F.  cretin,  a  word  of  Swiss 
origin,  and  the  same  as  F.  cJiretien,  a  Christian]:  a  peculiar 
kind  of  idiocy,  attended  with  deformity,  that  prevails  in 
districts  about  the  Alps  and  other  mountains;  the  disease 
called  goitre.  Cre  tin,  n.  -tin,  one  of  the  deformed  idiots 
of  the  Alpine  territories.  Note. — Cretins  were  so  called  be- 
cause, being  baptized  and  idiots,  they  were  not  only  washed 
from  original  sin,  but  were  incapable  of  actual  sin;  similarly 
Ave  call  idiots  *  innocents  '  in  popular  language. — The  term 
Cretinism  is  now  applied  in  a  more  general  sense  to  idiocy, 
or  defective  mental  development  depending  upon  local 
causes,  and  associated  with  bodily  deformity  or  arrested 
growth.  C.  is  very  often  found  in  connection  with  Goitre 
(q.v.),  in  the  lower  Alpine  valle3^s,  not  only  of  Switzerland 
and  Italy,  but  of  the  Pyrenees,  Syria,  India,  and  China.  In 
Europe  it  rarely  occurs  at  a  higher  elevation  than  3,000  ft., 
and  infests  chiefly  the  valleys  surrounded  by  high  and 
steep  walls  of  rock,  which  exclude  the  light,  and  limit  the 
free  circulation  of  air.  Cretins  are  always  pitiable,  and 
frequently  repulsive;  they  are  generally  dirty,  shameless, 
and  obscene;  their  appetite  is  commonly  voracious;  the 
mouth  is  large  and  open,  the  tongue  often  protruded,  the 
eyes  small,  the  nose  flat  and  broad,  the  skull  narrow  and 
small  in  all  its  dimensions,  the  forehead  retreating,  the 
complexion  cadaverous;  in  addition  to  which,  the  whole 
body  is  dwarfish,  the  hands  and  feet  large,  the  limbs  often 
rickety,  the  belly  protuberant.  The  cause  of  C.  is  imper- 
fectly understood;  the  recent  researches  of  Virchow  tend 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  physical  degeneration,  de- 
pendent on  the  reception  of  an  undue  amount  of  calcareous 
matter  into  the  system;  and  this  agrees  with  the  general 
result  of  numerous  observations  previously  made,  as  to  the 
prevalence  of  goitre  and  C.  in  places  where  calcareous 
waters  are  only  accessible  to  the  inhabitants.  See  Goitre. 
Many  attempts  have  been  recently  made  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  cretin  in  childhood,  by  removing  him 
from  the  locality  of  his  birth,  and  by  careful  training;  the 
institution  founded  by  Dr.  Guggenbtihl  on  the  Abend- 
berg  (q.v.),  near  Interlaken  in  Switzerland,  having  been 
the  prototype  of  many  others  on  the  continent;  and  of 
some  in  England  and  Scotland,  for  the  education  of  idiots. 

CRETONNE,  n.  kre-ton  [F.  linen  cloth— said  to  be 
named  after  the  inventor] :  a  fabric  woven  with  flax  and 
hemp;  a  woven,  flowered  material  of  fine  wool  or  cotton, 
used  for  curtains,  bed-furniture,  etc. 

CREUSE,  krez:  river  in  the  centre  of  France.  It  rises 
in  the  mountains  on  the  s.  border  of  the  dept.  of  C,  and 
flows  in  a  generally  n.n.w.  direction  through  that  dept., 

183 


CREUSE— C^REUZOT. 

then  a  n.  and  ^^^  through  Indre,  and  dividing  the  depart- 
ments Vienne  and  Indre-Loire,  falls  into  the  Vienne,  a 
tributary  of  the  Loire,  about  12  m.  n.  of  Chatellerault, 
after  a  course  of  about  150  miles. 

CREUSE;  department  of  France,  named  from  the  river 
C;  lat.  45'  39-46'  26'  n.,  and  long.  1°  24'-2°  36'  e.;  abt. 
2,200  sq.  m.  Low  mountains  and  chains  of  hills  occupy 
the  greater  part.  The  streams,  w^ith  the  exception  of 
the  C\,  are  insignificant.  The  climate  is  moist  and  variable, 
and  the  soil  thin  and  light  in  the  southern  hilly  district, 
which  is  interspersed  with  stretches  of  heath  and  pasture, 
but  better  in  the  lowlands  of  the  north-east.  The  products 
are  rye,  buckwheat,  oats,  and  potatoes;  but  agriculture  is 
backward,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  the  chief  rural  in- 
dustry. Large  quantities  of  chestnuts  and  fruit  are  grown. 
The  minerals  are  not  important.  The  people  of  C.  are 
slightly  educated,  and  use  a  coarse  patois;  but  are  general- 
ly industrious,  and  annually  migrate  in  large  numbers  to 
find  work  in  various  parts  of  France.  C.  is  divided  into 
the  arroiidissements  Aubusson,  Bourganeuf,  Boussac, 
Gueret,  with  Gueret  for  its  capital.  Pop.  of  C.  (1872) 
247,663;  (1881)  268,131. 

CREUX,  n.  kro  [F.  crenx,  hollow— from  mid.  L.  cro- 
sum—irom  L.  corrdsiis,  gnawed  or  eaten  into]:  anything 
engraved  or  sculptured  by  excavation  or  hollowing  out — 
the  reverse  of  relief. 

CREUZER,  kroyt'ser,  Georg  Friedrich:  1771,  Mar.  10 
— 1858,  Feb.  15;  b.  Marburg:  german  philologer.  He 
studied  at  Marburg  and  at  Jena.  In  1802,  he  was  appoint- 
ed prof,  at  Marburg,  and  in  1804  obtained  the  chair  of 
Philology  and  Ancient  History  at  Heidelberg,  which  he 
occupied  44  years.  In  1848,  he  retired  into  private  life, 
and  died  at  Heidelberg. 

C.'s  whole  life  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  antiquity. 
His  first,  and  probably  his  greatest  work,  was  Symbolik  und 
Mythologie  der  alien  Vdlker,  hesonders  der  Orieclien  (4  vols. 
Leip.  1810-12).  This  treatise,  which  asserted  the  symbol- 
ical character  of  ancient  mythologies,  excited  a  lively  con- 
trovers}^  in  which  Hermann  and  Voss  appeared  as  the  op- 
ponents of  Creuzer.  His  work  next  in  importance  was  a 
complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Plotinus  (3  vols.  Oxford 
1835).  With  G.  H.  Moser,  C.  edited  several  works  of 
Cicero — De  Natura  Deorum  (1818),  De  Legihus  (1824),  De 
Bepublica  (1826),  and  De  BivinaUone  (1828),  etc.  He  pub- 
lished 1837-48  a  partial  collection  of  his  writings  in  10 
vols.  {Deutsche  Schriften.  Leip.  and  Darms.),  the  last  of 
which  contains  an  autobiography  of  0.  under  the  title  Aus 
dem  Leben  eines  Alten  Professors.  He  was  also  the  writer  of 
essays  on  archeological  topics  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned. In  1854  appeared  Friderici  Creuzeri  Opuscula  Se- 
lecta. 

CREUZOT,  Le,  leh-kreh-zo :  town  of  France,  dept.  of 
Saone-et-Loire,  12  m.  s.s.e.  of  Autun.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
district  rich  in  coal  and  iron,  and  has  large  iron-foundries, 
which  turn  out  cannon,  anchors,  steam-machinery,  etc., 

1«4 


CREVASSE— CREW. 

and  which  employ  10,000  workmen.  There  is  also  a  glass 
manufactory.    Pop.  (1841)  4,000;  (1881)  15,740. 

CREVASSE,  n.  kre-ms  [F.  cremsse—irom  cre'cer,  to 
burst]:  a  deep  crevice— usually  applied  to  rents  in  gla- 
ciers. 

CREVECOEUR,  krH-ker'  {Reart-hreaker)\  Dutch  port  in 
the  province  of  North  Brabant,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Meuse,  where  this  river  receives  the  Dieze,  about  4  m.  n.n. 
w.  of  Bois-le-Duc.  It  figures  somewhat  prominently  in 
the  wars  of  the  Dutch  and  Spaniards. 

CREVECCEUR,  krav-ker ,  Hector  Saint  John  de: 
1731-1813;  b.  Caen,  France:  author.  He  studied  agricult- 
ure and  political  economy  in  England,  removed  to  the 
United  States  1754,  and  engaged  in  farming  near  New 
York.  He  suffered  severely  from  British  marauders  dur- 
ing the  occupation  of  New  York,  was  several  times  com- 
pelled to  tlee  for  his  life,  and  when  about  to  sail  for  Europe 
with  the  permission  of  the  British  authorities  was  arrested 
as  a  spy  and  held  three  months.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  as  consul-gen.  of  France  1783,  and  was  cordially  re- 
ceived by  Washington  and  others.  He  was  author  of  Let- 
tres  dun  culiivateur  Amtricain  (3  vols.  Paris  1784);  La  cul- 
ture des pommes  de  terre;  and  Voyage  dans  la  haute  Pensyl- 
vanie  et  dans  Vetat  de  New  York  (2  vols.  Paris  1801).  He 
introduced  the  cultivation  of  American  potatoes  in  Nor- 
mandy. 

CREVICE,  n.  krev'u  [F.  crevasse,  a  burst,  a  gap — from. 
L.  crepdre,  to  crack]:  a  crack;  a  rent;  an  opening. 

CREVILLENTE,  kra-vel-yen'ta:  town  of  Spain,  prov- 
ince of  Alicante,  about  20  m.  w.s.w.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  forming  the  boundary 
of  Murcia;  has  a  population  of  about  8,000.  The  people 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  weaving  and  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits.   Pop.  abt.  8,000. 

CREW,  n.  kro  [Icel.  kru,  a  swarm:  W.  criod,  a  round 
lump:  Dut.  kruyden,  to  thrust,  to  crowd  forward:  Lith. 
kruwa,  aheap,  as  of  stones  or  people— cm^  is  connected 
with  croicd  and  curd:  comp.  Gael,  crb,  a  circle,  a  group  of 
children]:  a  circle  or  company  associated  for  any  purpose; 
the  body  of  seamen  that  man  a  ship;  applied  in  a  bad  sense 
to  a  company  or  band  of  persons. — Syn.:  band;  company; 
gang;  association;  society;  throng;  assemblage. 

CREW,  of  a  Ship:  collective  name  for  all  the  persons 
employed  therein,  but  usually  limited  to  designate  petty 
officers  and  seamen  onl}^  In  men-of-war,  the  entire  C.  are 
divided  into  five  groups:  1.  Commissioned  and  warrant 
officers;  2.  Chief  petty  officers;  3.  First-class  working 
petty  officers;  4.  Second-class  working  petty  officers,  5. 
Able  seamen,  ordinary  seamen,  landsmen,  and  boys.  In 
the  very  largest  war-steamers  now  afloat,  there  are  upward 
of  152  dili'erent  ranks,  grades,  or  offices  among  the  crew, 
excluding  officers  and  marines.  In  sea-going  passenger 
and  freight  steamers,  the  number  of  hands  is  relatively 
greater  than  in  sailing  vessels,  owing  to  the  various  duties 


CREWE— CRIBBAGE. 

relating  to  the  machinery;  a  steamer  of  1,000  tons  will  have 
as  many  as  60  or  70  hands,  if  bound  for  a  long  voyage. 
CREW,  V.  hro:  see  under  Crow. 

CREWE,  krit:  town  in  the  south  of  Cheshire,  forming  a 
central  station  of  five  important  railways,  to  which  it  owes 
its  present  importance.  The  inhabitants  are  chietly  em- 
ployed in  the  railway  stations,  and  in  the  manufacturing 
of  railway  carriages  and  locomotives.  About  1840  there 
were  only  two  or  three  houses  where  Crewe  now  stands. 
The  London  and  North-Western  Railway  Co.  have  erected 
a  handsome  church,  and  a  large  mechanics'  institute,  con- 
taining an  assembly-room.  Pop  (1871)  17,810;  (1881)  24,- 
372. 

CREWEL,  n.  kro'el  [Ger.  knauel;  Low  Ger.  kleml,  a  ball 
of  thread]:  two-threaded  worsted  yarn  loosely  twisted. 
Crewel-work,  fancy  needle-work,  consisting  of  fine  col- 
ored wool  and  silk  threads  stitched  in  designs  on  a  backing 
of  any  material. 

CREWELS,  n.  plu.  kro'elz:  see  Cruels. 

CREWKERNE,  kru'kern:  town  in  the  s.e.  of  Somerset- 
shire, in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Parret  and  Isle,  10  m.  s.s. 
w.  of  Ilchester,  and  surrounded  by  a  wide  amphitheatre  of 
highly  cultivated  hills.  The  chief  manufactures  are  sail- 
cloth, sacking,  hair-seating,  webbing,  and  girths.  Its 
weekly  markets,  and  annual  fair,  Sep.  4,  for  sheep,  cattle, 
and  horses,  are  much  frequented  and  well  supplied.  The 
word  C.  means  *  hermitage  of  the  cross.'    Pop.  4,000. 

CREX,  n.  kreks  [imitated  from  the  voice  of  the  bird]: 
genus  of  grallatorial  birds,  family  RalUdm,  sub-family 
BalUnce.    Or  ex  pmtensis  is  the  Corn-crake  (q.v.). 

CRIB,  n.  krib  [Dut.  kribhe;  Icel.  kriibha;  Ger.  krippe,  a 
crib,  a  manger:  W.  crib,  a  comb;  cribin,  a  rake]:  the  rack 
or  manger  out  of  which  cattle  feed;  any  small  building;  a 
bed  or  sleeping-place,  chiefly  applied  to  one  occupied  by  a 
child;  often  used  to  signify  a  book  for  unfahly  assisting 
schoolboys  in  the  preparation  of  lessons:  Y.  to  shut  or  con- 
fine in  a  small  space;  to  appropriate  small  articles  secretly; 
to  pilfer.  Crib  BiNG,  imp.  Cribbed,  pp.  kribd,  shut  up; 
confined.  Crib-strap,  n.  a  neck-throttler  for  crib-biting 
and  wind -sucking  horses. 

CRIB'BAGE:  game  with  cards,  played  by  two,  three,  or 
four  persons,  the  whole  pack  being  used.  When  three  are 
engaged,  each  plays  for  himself;  when  four,  they  take 
sides.  The  value  of  the  cards  is  the  same  as  at  whist;  but 
there  are  no  trumps.  The  number  of  cards  dealt  is  usu- 
ally five  or  six,  the  mode  of  playing  the  game  varying 
slightly  with  the  number  of  cards  used.  The  points  are 
scored  on  a  board  with  holes  for  pegs,  and  61  constitutes 
game.  The  terms  used  in  the  game  are  as  follow:  Crib,  the 
cards  laid  out  by  each  party,  the  points  made  by  them  being 
scored  by  the  dealer.  Pairs  are  two  similar  cards,  as  two 
aces  or  two  kings;  they  reckon  for  two  points,  whether  in 
hand  or  playing.  Pairs  royal  are  three  similar  cards,  and 
reckon  six  points.  Double  pairs  royal  are  four  similar  cards, 

186 


CRIBBITING-CKICHTON. 

and  reckou  twelve  points.  These  various  points  are  thus 
made:  if  your  adversary  plays  a  seven,  and  you  another,  a 
pair  is  made,  which  entitles  you  to  two  points;  if  he  then 
play  a  third  seven,  he  makes  a  pair  royal,  and  marks  six; 
and  if  you  play  a  fourth  seven,  it  constitutes  a  double  pair 
roj^al,  and  entitles  you  to  twelve  points  Fifteens. — If  any 
combination,  whether  of  two  or  more  cards,  in  your  hand, 
or  in  play,  make  together  fifteen,  such  as  a  ten  and  a  five, 
a  tw^o,  a  five,  and  an  eight,  etc.,  you  reckon  two  points. 
Sequences  are  three,  four,  or  more  successive  cards,  and 
reckon  for  an  equal  number  of  points;  and  in  playing  a 
sequence,  it  is  of  no  consequence  which  card  is  played  first; 
for  instance,  if  your  adversary  plays  an  ace,  and  you  a  five, 
he  a  three,  you  a  two,  and  he  a  four,  he  scores  five  for  the 
sequence.  Flush  is  when  the  cards  are  all  of  one  suit,  and 
reckons  for  as  many  points  as  there  are  cards.  A  knave  of 
the  same  suit  as  the  turn-up  card  counts  for  one  in  any 
hand.  If  a  knave  be  turned  up,  it  counts  two  for  the  dealer. 
For  full  directions  for  playing  the  game,  see  Chambers's 
Information  for  the  People,  article  '  Indoor  Amusements.' 

CRIB  BITING:  bad  habit  occurring  especially  in  the 
lighter  breeds  of  horses,  and  those  spending  much  leisure  in 
the  stable.  The  act  consists  in  the  animal  seizing  with  his 
teeth  the  manger,  rack,  or  any  other  such  o])ject  and  tak- 
ing in  at  the  same  time  a  deep  inspiration,  technically 
CciMed  wind-sucking.  C.  springs  often  from  idle  play,  may 
be  first  indulged  in  during  grooming,  especially  if  the 
operation  is  conducted  in  the  stall,  and  the  animal  be  need- 
lessly teased  or  tickled;  is  occasionally  learned,  apparently, 
by  imitation  from  a  neighbor;  and  in  the  first  instance  is 
frequently  a  symptom  of  some  form  of  indigestion.  Its 
indulgence  may  be  suspected  where  the  outer  margins  of 
the  front  teeth  are  worn  and  rugged,  and  will  soon  be 
proved  by  turning  the  animal  loose  where  he  can  find  suit- 
able objects  to  lay  hold  of.  It  usually  interferes  with 
thriving  and  condition,  and  leads  to  attacks  of  indigestion. 
It  can  be  prevented  only  by  the  use  of  a  muzzle  or  throat- 
strap;  but  in  those  newly  acquired  cases  that  result  from 
gastric  derangement,  means  must  further  be  taken  to  re- 
move the  acidity  or  other  such  disorder. 

CRIBBLE,  n.  krWl  [F.  crible,  a  sieve— from  L.  crlbrum, 
a  sieve:  It.  cribrare]:  a  coarse  sieve  used  for  corn,  sand,  or 
gravel;  a  coarse  flour  or  meal :  V.  to  cause  to  pass  through 
a  coarse  sieve.  Ckib'bling,  imp.  -Ung,  sifting.  Cribbled, 
pp.  krib  Id,  sifted.  Cribrose,  a.  hrib'rdz,  or  Crib  riform 
a.  -rl-faicrm  [h.  forma,  shape]:  in  bot.,  pierced  with  little 
openings  like  a  sieve. 

CRIBRATORES,  n.  plu.  kri-bra-tor'cz  [L.  cribro,  to  sift; 
so  called  from  the  way  in  which  the  birds  take  their  food] : 
Macgillivray's  name  for  a  section  of  the  wading  birds.  It 
contains  the  geese  and  ducks. 

CRICE  TUS:  see  Hamster. 

CRICHTON,  krl'tn,  James,  surnamed  the  *  Admira- 
ble:' b.  Scotland,  1551  (or  1560).  His  father,  Robert  Crich- 
Ion  of  Elliock,  in  the  county  of  Perth,  was  Lord  Advocate 

161 


CRICK-CRICKET. 

of  Scotland,  1561-73.  On  the  mother's  side,  C.  was  de^ 
scended  from  the  old  Scottish  kings,  a  descent  of  which  he 
used  to  boast  on  the  continent.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Andrews  University.  Before  he  reached  his  20th  year,  he 
had,  it  seems,  *  run  through  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,' 
mastered  ten  different  languages,  and  perfected  himself  in 
every  knightly  accomplishment.  Thus  panoplied  in  a  suit 
of  intellectual  armor,  C.  rode  out  into  the  world  of  letters, 
and  challenged  all  and  sundry  to  a  learned  encounter.  If 
we  can  believe  his  biographers,  the  stripling  left  every 
adversary  who  entered  the  lists  against  him  hors  de  cornhat. 
At  Paris,  Rome,  Venice,  Padua,  Mantua,  he  achieved  the 
most  extraordinary  victories  in  disputation  on  all  branches 
of  human  knowledge,  and  excited  universal  amazement 
and  applause.  The  beauty  of  his  person  and  the  elegance 
of  his  manners  also  made  him  a  great  favorite  with  women; 
while,  as  if  to  leave  no  excellence  unattained,  he  van- 
quished, in  a  duel,  the  most  famous  gladiator  in  Europe. 
The  Duke  of  Mantua,  in  whose  city  this  perilous  feat  was 
performed,  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  son,  Vincentio 
di  Gonzago,  a  dissolute  and  profligate  youth.  One  night, 
during  the  carnival,  C.  was  attacked  in  the  streets  of  Man- 
tua by  half-a-dozen  people  in  masks.  He  pushed  them  so 
hard  that  their  leader  pulled  olf  his  mask,  and  disclosed  the 
features  of  the  prince.  With  an  excess  of  loyalty  which 
proved  his  death,  C.  threw  himself  upon  his  knees,  and 
begged  Yincentio's  pardon,  at  the  same  time  presenting  him 
with  his  sword.  The  heartless  wretch  plunged  it  into  the 
body  of  his  tutor.  Thus  perished,  in  the  22d  year  of  his 
age,  the  *  Admirable  Crichton.' 

What  measure  of  truth  is  in  the  hyperbolical  eulogies  of 
his  biographers,  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  as  C.  left  no 
writings  by  which  they  can  be  judged. 

CRICK,  n.  JcTik  [from  creak]-,  a  familiar  term  for  a 
painful  stiffness  in  neck  or  back. 

CRICKET,  n.  krik'et  [Dut.  krieken,  to  chirp:  F.  criquei,  a 
field-cricket — from  OF.  criquer,  to  creak,  to  rattle — an  imi- 
tative word]  {Gryllus;  Acheia  of  some  naturalists):  genus  of 
orthopterous  insects,  of  the  section  Saltatoria  (in  which  the 
hinder  legs  are  long,  very  strong,  and  for-med  for  leaping), 
allied  to  locusts  and  grasshoppers;  type  of  a  family  Gryllidoi 
or  Aclietidm).  The  wings  are  folded  horizontally,  and  form, 
when  closed,  a  slender  thread-like  acumination  beyond  the 
wing-covers.  It  is  supposed  to  be  by  friction  of  the  wing- 
covers  against  each  other,  and  from  a  peculiarity  of  their 
structure,  that  the  males  produce  the  stridulous  sound 
which  makes  these  insects  so  well  known.  The  antennae 
are  long  and  thread-like,  inserted  between  the  e3^es.  The 
best  known  species  is  the  House  C.  {G.  domesticus),  about 
an  inch  long,  with  antennoe  of  almost  an  inch  and  a  half,  of 
a  pale-yellowish  color,  mingled  with  brown.  It  is  widely 
distributed.  Its  very  frequent  abode  is  in  nooks  and  crevi- 
ces of  houses,  and  it  sometimes  burrows  in  the  mortar;  the 
neighborhood  of  the  fire  is  very  attractive  to  it,  particu- 
larly in  winter;  and  its  merry  note  has,  accordingly,  be- 

188 


CRICKET. 

come  associated  with  ideas  of  domestic  comfort  and  cheer- 
fulness. Without  the  heat  of  the  fire,  it  becomes  dormant, 
or  nearl}^  so,  in  winter.  It  remains  quiet  during  the  day, 
but  is  lively  and  active  at  night,  issuing  forth  to  seek  its 
food,  which  consists  both  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub 
stances.  Bread  crumbs  are  very  acceptable  to  it;  and  for 
the  sake,  apparently,  both  of  food  and  warmth,  it  very 


House  Cricket  {Gryllus  domesticus): 
Pggs;  b,  young  just  hatched;  c,  full-grown  larva;    d.  pupa; 
e,  perfect  insect. 

much  frequents  bakehouses.  The  larvae  are  wingless,  the 
pupye  have  mere  rudimentary  wings. — The  Field  C.  {G. 
campestris)  is  larger,  blackish,  with  the  base  of  the  wing- 
covers  yellowish,  feeds  on  herbs  and  roots,  and  makes  a 
louder  noise  than  the  House  C. — A  species  of  C.(  G.  mega- 
cephalus)  found  in  Sicily,  makes  a  noise  loud  enough  to  be 
heard  at  the  distance  of  a  mile. — See  Mole  C.  [  Gryllo- 
talpa.) 

CRICKET,  n.  krik'ei  [F.  criquei,  the  stick  or  peg  serving 
for  a  mark  in  the  game  of  bowls:  F.  crosse;  OF.  croce,  a 
crooked  staff  at  cricket,  w^hich  it  was  originally,  and  not 
a  club:  Dut.  krick,  a  staff  or  crutch]:  favorite  outdoor  game 
played  with  bats,  wickets,  and  ball.  Crick'eting,  imp.. 
N.  the  act  of  playing  at  cricket:  Crick  eter,  n.  -er,  a  player 
at  cricket. — Cricket  is  of  very  ancient  date.  The  author 
of  the  Cricket  Field — one  of  the  best  manuals  on  the  sub- 
ject— believes  it  to  be  identical  with  'Club-ball/  a  game 
played  in  the  14th  c. ;  it  went  originally  by  the  name  of 
*  handyn  and  handoute.'  C.  is  the  truly  national  English 
game.  There  is  hardly  a  town,  village,  or  school,  that 
does  not  own  its  C.  ground,  and  military  authorities  hold 
it  in  such  estimation  as  a  healthy  recreation,  that  soldiers 
are  encouraged  to  occupy  their  leisure  time  in  its  pursuit. 
Of  late  years,  C.  has  been  introduced  largely  into  Scotland 

J69 


CRICKET. 

and  Irelaud,  and  to  some  extent  into  the  United  States,  and 
various  other  countries.  The  requirements  for  the  game 
are — 1st,  a  piece  of  level  turf  an  acre  or  two  in  extent;  2d, 
a  sufficient  number  of  players  to  form  two  sides  of  eleven 
each,  for  double  wicket,  and  a  lesser  number  for  single 
wicket;  8d,  for  double  wicket  (the  mode  in  which  the 
game  is  usually  played),  two  bats,  two  sets  of  wickets  and 
bails,  and  a  ball.  When  a  match  is  to  be  played  between 
two  *  elevens,'  the  tirst  thing  to  be  done  is  to  *  pitch  '  the 
wickets.  Wickets  consist  of  six  wooden  stumps,  27  inches 
high,  and  are  placed  in  the  ground  in  sets  of  three,  at  a 
distance  of  22  yards  apart.  On  the  top  of  each  set  of  stumps 
are  placed  two  small  pieces  of  wood,  called  hails.  The  rival 
sides  next  toss  for  first  '  innings,' and  the  director  of  the 
side  that  is  to  go  in  tirst,  places  two  of  his  men  at  the  wick- 
ets as  batters;  while  a  bowler,  wicket-keeper,  long  stop, 
and  fielders  (see  accompanying  illustration),  are  placed  in 
their  several  positions  by  the  director  of  the  opposite  side. 
When  these  arrangements  are  satisfactorily  made,  and  the 
markers  or  scorers  are  at  their  post,  the  umpires  take  their 
places,  and  the  game  begins.  The  relative  merits  of  rival 
sides  are  decided  by  the  total  number  of  runs  made  by  each 


OFF  SIDE 


9 


0 


10  OW'tlSB  11 

»  i 

Plan  of  CricKet-field,  showing  positions  of  parties  engaged  at 

double  wicket 

Karnes  of  parties  indicated  by  the  figures:  **,  Batters;  1,  Bowler;  2, 
Wicket-keeper;  3,  Long-stop:  4,  Short-slip;  5,  Long-slip:  6.  Point; 
7,  Cover-point;  8,  Mid-wicket;  9,  Long  Field-off;  10.  Long  Field-on; 
11,  Leg;  OO,  Umpires;  tt,  Scorers.  This  is  the  usual  placing  of 
the  field-men,  but  bowlers  make  such  alterations  as  they  deem 
best  to  oppose  the  batters. 

eleven  batters  during  two  innings— the  side  whose  players 
score  the  most  being,  of  course,  victorious. 

The  bowler's  object  is  to  direct  his  ball,  by  a  swift 
movement  of  the  arm,  toward  the  opposite  wickets,  at 
which  one  of  the  batsmen  stands,  and,  if  possible,  to  strike 
down  the  stumps  or  knock  oif  the  bails;  while  the  object 
of  the  batsman,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  protect  his  wick- 
ets from  the  bowler's  attack,  by  either  stopping  the  ball 
when  it  reaches  him  (blocking),  or  driving  it  out  to  the 
field.  And  much  of  the  beauty  of  the  game  depends  upon 
the  precision  with  which  the  bowler  can  direct  ball  after 

.90 


CRICKET. 

ball  in  a  straight  line  for  the  wickets,  and  the  correspond- 
ing skill  displayed  by  a  good  batsman  in  guarding  them. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  two  batsmen  to  be  at  their 
places,  the  bowler  at  his,  ball  in  hand,  and  the  other  play- 
ers arranged  in  theirs  ;  at  a  signal  from  the  umpire  the 
bowler  cries  *  Play !'  and  immediately  after,  delivers  his 
tirst  ball.  If  the  batsman  misses  the  ball,  and  it  passes 
the  wicket,  the  wicket-keeper  stops  it,  and  returns  it  to 
the  bowler,  who  delivers  another  ball,  and  so  on.  When 
the  batsman  strikes  the  ball  lieldward,  he  immediately 
runs  to  the  opposite  wicket,  passing  his  companion  bats- 
man, who  crosses  to  his,  and  so  on,  till  the  ball  has  been 
returned  by  a  fielder  to  the  wicket-keeper  or  bowler's 
hand.  Thus,  if  the  stroke  be  a  long  one,  the  striker  may 
have  time  to  run  perhaps  three  times  between  the  wickets 
before  the  ball  is  thrown  up,  when  three  *  runs'  are  ac- 
cordingly placed  at  his  name  by  the  scorers,  on  their  sheet. 
If,  however,  the  bowler  or  wicket-keeper  receives  the 
ball,  and  touches  the  wickets  with  it,  before  the  advancing 
batsman  has  reached  his  *  ground '  or  touches  it  with  his 
bat,  the  striker  is  out,  and  another  man  takes  his  place. 
Besides,  if  a  ball  from  the  stroke  of  a  bat  be  caught  by 
one  of  the  opposite  party  before  it  reaches  the  ground;  or 
if  in  striking  at  a  ball  the  striker  hits  down  his  wicket; 
or  if  he  wilfully  prevents  a  ball  being  caught,  or 
strikes  it  twice  ;  or  if  any  part  of  his  person  stops  a  ball 
which  would  otherwise  have  hit  his  wicket,  the  striker  is 
out.  It  frequently  happens  that  two  skilful  batsmen 
guard  their  wickets  so  eli'ectually,  and  score  so  many  runs, 
to  one  particular  style  of  bowling,  that  a  change  either  of 
the  bowler,  or  style  of  bowling,  is  adopted  by  the  other 
side.  This  change,  say  from  swift  to  slow  bowling,  or 
Dice  versa,  generally  produces  the  required  results,  and 
leads  to  the  speedy  retirement  of  the  hitherto  fortunate 
batsmen. 

The  wicket-keeper's  place  is  a  very  important  one,  his 
principal  duty  being  to  stop  with  his  hands  every  ball  the 
batsman  misses,  it  being  allowable  to  make  runs  (byes)  for 
balls  that  elude  his  grasp.  Behind  him  stands  the  long- 
stop,  who  is  always  on  the  outlook  for  balls  that  escape  the 
wicket-keeper.  The  fielders,  who  are  posted  in  various 
parts  of  the  ground,  ought  to  possess  quickness  of  eye  and 
foot,  and  skill  in  picking  up  with  either  hand  a  ball  that  is 
running,  and  instantly  throwing  it  to  the  wickets.  They 
must  also  be  well  skilled  in  catching  balls.  Much  depends 
on  their  judgment  of  distance  between  the  point  at  which 
the  ball  is  picked  up,  and  the  wickets,  as  misconception  of 
this  may  lead  to  overthrowing  the  ball,  or  throwing  it  short, 
while  the  batsmen  are  profiting  by  the  error,  and  scoring 
additional  runs.  Fielders  usually  throw  the  ball  to  the 
wicket-keeper,  who  returns  it  slowly  to  the  bowler;  this 
saves  the  hand  of  the  latter  from  being  unsteadied  by  catch- 
ing long  balls. 

At  the  end  of  every  four  bowls,  the  bowler,  wicket- 
keeper,  long-stop,  and  fielders,  change  places,  and  thus 
every  four  balls  are  delivered  from  alternate  wickets;  four 

191 


CRICKLADE— CRIEFF. 

balls  constitute  an  '  over,'  which  it  is  the  umpire's  duty  to 
reckon  and  announce. 

We  have  said  that  each  side  is  allowed  two  innings,  but 
it  sometimes  happens  that  one  side  scores  more  runs  in  one 
inning  than  the  other  does  in  two;  thus,  A's  side,  we  will 
suppose,  goes  in  llrst,  and  its  eleven  men  score  180;  B.'s 
side  then  goes  in,  and  scores,  say,  80  the  hrst  ioiiings,  and 
70  the  next;  in  that  case,  A  would  be  said  to  have  won  by 
an  inning  and  30  runs. 

In  England,  there  are  many  professional  men  who  make 
a  livelihood  by  playing  matches  with  amateur  clubs,  and 
by  instructing  the  latter  in  the  art.  The  Marylebone  Club 
is  the  parliament  of  cricket,  and  its  laws  are  recognized  as 
the  only  genuine  code  all  over  the  world;  and  for  skill  and 
science,  the  'Eleven  of  all  England,'  and  the  'United 
Eleven '  (professionals),  excel  all  other  cricketers  hi  the 
world.  The  attractions  of  C.  are  rapidly  spreading.  In 
America  and  Australia,  the  game  is  played  with  zeal  and 
skill.  English  elevens  have  crossed  the  ocean  more  than 
once  to  compete  with  American  and  Australian  clubs;  and 
an  Australian  eleven  won  almost  all  its  matches  against 
many  of  the  best  English  clubs  in  1882.  Good  works  on 
C.  are  The  Cricket  Field,  Felix  on  the  Bat,  Lillywhite's 
Guide  to  Cricketers,  Captain  Crawley's  Cricket  (1878).  See 
also  Cricket  Scores  and' Biographies. 

CRICKLADE,  krik'ldd:  agricultural  town  and  parlia- 
mentary borough,  in  the  north  of  AViltshire,  England,  7  m. 
s.e.  of  Cirencester,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isis.  The 
town  of  C.  consists  of  one  long  street.  The  government  is 
in  a  high-baililf,  appointed  by  the  town.  It  has  a  consider- 
able retail  trade;  and  the  market  for  fat  cattle,  held  on  the 
third  Thursday  of  each  month,  is  well  attended.  The  par- 
liamentary borough  called  C.  includes,  besides  its  own  two 
parishes  of  St.  Mary  and  St.  Sampson,  nearly  50  other  par- 
ishes, or  parts  of  parishes,  comprising  a  large  and  rich  ag- 
ricultural district,  which  returns  two  members  to  the  house 
of  commons.  Pop.  of  pari,  borough  (1881)  51,956;  of  the 
town,  7,000. 

CRICOID,  a.  krl'koyd  [Gr.  kril^os,  a  ring;  eidos,  shape]: 
like  a  ring;  in  anat., to  the  lowest  cartilage  of  the 
larynx  where  it  joins  the  windpipe. 

CRIED,  CRIER,  etc. :  see  under  Cry. 

CRIEFF,  including  the  burgh  of  barony  of  Crieff 

and  the  burgh  of  regality  of  Drummond:  town  in  Scot- 
land, on  the  Earn,  17  m.  w.  of  Perth;  beautifully  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Grampians,  near  the  entrance  to  the  high- 
lands. It  has  woolen  manufactures,  besides  tanneries. 
The  climate  of  C.  makes  it  the  resort  of  invalids  in  sum- 
mer, and  there  is  a  superior  hydropathic  establishment, 
with  accommodation  for  200  visitors.  It  is  eminent  for  its 
schools.  St.  Margaret's  College  was  opened  here  1849,  for 
the  education  of  young  ladies  of  the  Episcopal  communion. 
Near  is  the  fine  scenery  of  Glen  Almond,  with  Trinity  Col- 
lege, opened  1847,  for  Scottish  Episcopal  students.  Mor- 
rison's Academy — built  at  a  cost  of  £6,500,  and  endowed 

19-2 


CRILLON— CRIME. 

by  Thomas  Morrison,  builder,  Edinburgh,  with  £20,000 — 
was  opened  1860.  C.  is  the  terminus  of  two  branches  of 
the  Caledonian  Railway,  and  since  the  opening  of  the  first 
in  1856  it  has  much  improved.  The  greatest  Scotch  cattle- 
market  was  here  till  1770,  when  it  was  removed  to  Falkirk. 
—Pop.  (1881)  4,469. 

CRILLON,  kre-yong' ,  Louis  de  Berton  des  Balbes, 
surnamed  'Le  Brave:'  1541-1615,  Dec.  2;  b.  Murs  in  Pro- 
vence. Under  Francis  of  Lorraine,  Duke  of  Guise,  then 
the  model  of  militarj^  chivalry,  he  was  trained  for  war,  and 
at  the  age  of  16,  was  accounted  an  accomplished  soldier. 
In  1558,  he  gave  the  first  public  proof  of  his  valor  at  the 
siege  of  Calais.  Shortly  afterward  he  covered  himself  with 
glory  at  the  capture  of  Guines.  The  whole  army  cele- 
brated the  praises  of  the  young  hero,  who  was  introduced 
by  Duke  Francis  in  flattering  terms  to  Henry  II.  As  a  re- 
ward of  his  numerous  heroic  deeds,  he  obtained  a  multi- 
tude of  church  benefices,  which  he  intrusted  to  the  care  of 
learned  clerks.  In  the  religious  wars  of  the  16th  c,  he 
fought  against  the  Huguenots,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battles  of  Dreux,"  Jarnac,  and  Moncontour.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  1571,  and  though  wounded, 
was  appointed  to  carry  the  news  of  the  victory  to  the  pope 
and  the  French  king.  In  the  atrocities  of  the  St.  Barthol- 
omew Massacre,  C.  had  no  part.  In  1573,  he  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  La  Rochelle.  In  1585,  Henry  III.  made  him 
knight  of  his  Orders.  He  continued  faithful  to  his  sover- 
eign in  his  struggle  with  the  Catholic  League.  Henry  IV. 
foundln  him  a  sincere  friend  and  adviser.  After  the  peace 
with  Savoy,  C.  retired  to  Avignon,  and,  after  the  fashion 
of  a  true  Catholic  warrior,  ended  his  days  '  in  the  exercises 
of  piety  and  penance.'  The  martial  tire  burned  brightly 
in  C,  however,  even  in  his  last  days;  in  proof  of  which, 
there  is  recorded  the  rather  melodramatic  story,  that  when 
listening  at  church  one  day  to  an  account  of  the  crucifix- 
ion, the  old  hero  forgot  himself,  and  brandishing  his 
sword,  cried  out:  '  Oil  etaistu,  Crillon  T  (Where  wert  thou, 
Crillon?) 

CRIME,  n.  krvtn  [F.  crime— from  L.  crimen,  a  crime,  a 
fault:  It.  crimine] :  a  violation  or  breaking  of  some  human 
or  i^divine  law;  a  serious  fault;  iniquity.  Criminal,  s. 
krim'i-nal,  that  violates  a  human  or  divine  law;  guilty  of 
or  tainted  with  crime;  abandoned;  wicked;  in  ^a?/:,  opposed 
to  civil:  N.  a  person  who  has  violated  human  or  divine 
laws;  one  guilty:  in  laic,  one  convicted  of  a  crime;  one  in- 
dicted for  a  criminal  offense  is  often  called  a  culprit— in 
Scotland  in  some  cases  'the  panel'  (see  Panel).  Crim'- 
iNALLY,  ad.  -U.  Crim  inal  ity,  n.  -i-ti,  the  quality  of 
being  guilty  of  a  crime;  guiltiness.  Crimeless,  a.  krim'- 
les,  innocent.  Criminate,  v.  krim'i-ndt,  to  accuse;  to 
charge  with  a  crime.  Crim  inating,  imp.  Crim  inated, 
pp.  charged  with  a  crime.  Crim  ina  tion,  n.  -net' shim, 
the  act  of  accusing;  a  charging  with  being  guilty  of  some 
crime  or  offense.  Crim'ina'tor,  n.  -i-nater,  one  who. 
Crim  ina  tory,  a.  -Ur  i,  that  involves  accusation :  accusing. 

193 


CRIME. 

Capital  crime,  a  crime  punishable  with  death.  Crim. 
CON.  n.  krlm'kon'  [contr.  for  criminal  conversation] :  adul- 
tery (q.v.).  Criminous,  a.  krlm'i-nus  [L.  crimmdsus]:  in 
OE.,  blameworthy;  wicked. — Syn.  of  'crime':  vice;  sin; 
guilt;  offense;  misdemeanor;  trespass;  misdeed;  transgres- 
sion; wrong;  wickedness;  injustice;  injury;— of  *  criminal, 
n.':  malefactor;  culprit;  felon;  convict. 

CRIME:  in  its  legal,  as  distinguished  from  its  moral  or 
ethical  sense,  an  act  done  in  violation  of  those  duties  for 
the  breach  of  which  the  law  has  provided  that  the  offender, 
in  addition  to  repairing,  if  possible,  the  injury  done  to  the 
individual,  shall  make  satisfaction  to  the  community.  A 
private  wrong,  or  civil  injury,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  in- 
fringement on  the  rights  of  an  individual  merely,  for 
which  compensation  to  him  is  held,  in  law,  to  be  a  com- 
plete atonement.  From  this  delinition,  generally  adopted 
by  lawyers  (Stephen's  Co7n.  iv.  p.  77),  it  is  obvious  that  le- 
gal criminality  is  not  a  permanent  characteristic  attaching 
to  an  action,  but  one  fixed  upon  it  arbitrarily,  from  con- 
siderations of  expediency.  Without  changing  its  moral 
character,  the  same  action  may,  and  often  is,  a  C.  in  one 
country  or  in  one  generation,  and  no  crime  in  another 
country  or  generation.  Malice,  or  evil  intention,  however, 
is  in  all  cases  essential  to  the  character  of  C,  for  though 
there  may  be  an  immoral  act  which  it  is  inexpedient  to 
punish  as  a  C,  it  can  never  be  expedient  to  puinsh  as 
a  C.  w^hat  is  not  an  immoral  act.  But  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  evil  intention  shall  have  had  reference  to 
the  party  injured.  If  the  offender  acted  in  defiance  of 
social  duty,  and  regardless  of  order,  a  C.  has  been  com- 
mitted, though  it  may  not  have  been  the  particular  C. 
which  he  intended.  For  example,  it  is  murder  if  A  kill  B 
by  mistake  for  C,  unless  the  killing  of  C  would  have  been 
justifiable,  or  excusable.  The  law  can  take  no  cognizance 
of  a  bare  intention,  which  has  not  developed  into  any  sort 
of  act.  How  f  Sir  attempts  to  commit  C.  are  punishable,  is  al- 
w^ays  a  question  of  difficulty.  The  general  rule  seems  to  be, 
that  if  such  acts  can  be  unequivocally  connected  with  the 
criminal  intention,  they  are  punishable,  though  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  completed  crime.  Pupils  under  seven 
years  of  age,  and  insane  persons,  as  being  incapable  of  de- 
sign or  intention,  are  regarded  in  the  eye  of  the  law  as  in- 
incapable  of  C;  but  questions  as  to  the  responsibility  of 
persons]laboring  under  partial  insanity  are  often  surrounded 
with  practical  difficulties  as  yet  unsolved.  The  defense  of 
compulsion,  or  vis  major,  as  it  is  called  by  lawyers,  if  com 
pletely  established  in  fact,  is  generally  sufficient  in  law^• 
see  Compulsion.  The  subjection  of  a  servant  to  a  master, 
or  of  a  wife  or  child  to  a  husband  or  parent,  will  be  no  de- 
fense for  the  commission  of  an  act  of  the  criminality  of 
which  the  ofl'euder  was  aware,  unless  it  amount  to  compul- 
sion. Magistrates  acting  bond  fide,  and  soldiers  acting  un- 
der their  officers  in  the  ordinary  line  of  duty,  are  not  liable 
to  a  criminal  charge.  Extreme  want  is  ho  excuse  for  a  C. 
in  law,  though  it  may  furnish  a  ground  for  an  application 
I  or  mercy. 


CRIME— CRIMEA. 

In  the  technical  language  of  the  law  of  England,  the  term 
offense  has  a  wider  signiticatiou  than  C,  the  latter  inclu- 
ding only  such  of  the  former  as  are  punishable  by  Indict- 
ment (q.v.).  Crimes  are  divided  into  Misdemeanors  (q.v.) 
and  Felonies  (q.v.),  the  latter  being  a  higher  species  of 
offense  than  the  former. 

CRIME,  Society  for  the  Prevention  of:  organized 
in  New  York  1876,  incorporated  1878,  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  removal  of  the  sources  and  causes  of  crime, 
aiding  the  unfortunate  in  obtaining  the  protection  of  the 
courts  and  the  laws,  assisting  in  the  enforcement  of  the 
municipal  and  state  laws,  preventing  the  sale  of  liquors  on 
Sunday  or  by  unlicensed  dealers,  and  ridding  the  city  of 
its  low  groggeries.  It  has  a  large  number  of  agents  em- 
ployed in  detecting  violations  of  the  excise  and  other  laws 
governing  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  and  has  already 
done  much  good  by  its  fearless  prosecution  of  offenders. 

CRIMEA,  kri-me'a  (anciently,  the  Tauric  Chersonese): 
peninsula  in  the  south  of  Russia,  forming  the  greater 
part  of  the  govt,  of  Taurida;  lat.  44°  44  -46°  5'  n.,  long. 
32°  30-36°  35'  east.  It  is  united  to  the  mainland  only  by 
the  very  narrow  isthmus  of  Perekop,  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  separated  from  the  isle  or 
peninsula  of  Taman,  on  the  e.,  only  by  the  narrow  strait 
of  Yenikale.  The  C.  is  thus  almost  surrounded  by  water 
— on  three  sides,  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  on  the  fourth  by 
the  Sea  of  Azof;  while  a  trench,  70  ft.  wide  and  25  deep, 
across  the  isthmus  of  Perekop,  cuts  it  off*  from  the  main- 
land. The  C.  is  quadrilateral  in  shape,  the  four  corners 
pointing  to  the  four  cardinal  points  in  the  compass;  but  a 
long  narrow  peninsula  juts  out  on  the  e.,  which  increases 
the  extreme  length  of  the  territory  from  e.  to  w.  to  190  m., 
the  breadth  being  110  m.;  total  area  8,000-9,000  sq.  miles. 
The  coast  is  much  broken  and  indented,  particularly  on 
the  side  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  The  most  easterly  part  of  it 
is  a  mountainous  peninsula,  seat  of  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Bosporus.  From  the  strait  of  Yenikale,  through  this 
minor  peninsula  and  along  the  whole  s.  coast,  a  chain  of 
mountains  extends,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  continua- 
tion of  one  of  the  chains  from  Mount  Caucasus.  This  s. 
district  of  the  C.  is  very  rich  and  beautiful.  The  mount- 
ains rise  with  steep  slopes  from  the  sea,  while  spurs  and 
secondary  chains  extend  northward,  richly  wooded,  and 
with  most  beautiful  intermediate  valleys,  gradually  sink- 
ing into  the  uniform  and  desolate  steppe  which  forms  the 
n.  and  much  greater  part  of  the  peninsula.  The  highest 
mountain  is  Tchatirdagh,  i.e.,  the  Tent  Mountain,  Mons 
Trapezus  of  the  ancients,  which  rises  more  than  5,000  ft. 
It  is  a  table-mountain,  and  has  many  great  and  deep 
chasms,  in  some  of  which  the  ice  remains  unmelted  all  the 
summer.  The  s.  district  of  the  C.  is  well  cultivated,  and 
adorned  by  many  country  seats  of  the  Russian  emperor 
and  nobles,  with  parks  and  gardens  surpassed  by  none  in 
Europe.  Tatar  villages,  mosques,  and  Greek  convents 
are  seen  in  most  picturesque  situations  among  the  woods 

195 


CRIMEAN  WAR. 

and  rocks,  with  many  ruins  of  ancient  fortresses.  The 
vegetation  may  almost  be  called  sub-tropical;  olive  groves 
are  frequent;  the  vineyards  yield  excellent  grapes,  and 
some  of  them  excellent  wine;  and  even  oranges  are  pro- 
duced. Grain  of  various  kinds  is  produced  abundantly, 
and  silk,  wax,  and  honey.  Much  attention  is  bestowed 
upon  horses,  oxen,  and  sheep,  in  which  no  small  part  of 
the  wealth  of  the  country  consists.  The  n.  part  of  the  C. 
is  in  every  way  a  contrast  to  the  south,  being  little  else 
than  one  waste  uniform  steppe,  destitute  of  water  and  of 
wood,  with  a  soil  generally  very  unfit  for  agriculture,  and 
with  numerous  salt-lakes  and  salt-marshes,  some  of  which 
dry  up  in  summer,  and  which  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was 
recently  covered  by  the  sea.  The  air  is  infected  by  ex- 
halations from  these  marshes,  and  from  the  Siwash  or  Pu- 
trid  Sea,  a  portion  of  the  Sea  of  Azof  almost  cut  off  from  it 
by  a  narrow  tongue  of  land  called  the  Peninsula  of  Ara- 
bat.  In  the  summer  and  autumn,  a  most  offensive  and 
powerful  smell  arises  from  the  stagnant  water,  but  the 
evaporation  is  often  so  complete  that  the  Siwash  is  left 
dry,  and  horses  can  cross  upon  the  hardened  ground, 
where  at  other  seasons  vessels  may  sail.  The  capital  of 
the  C.  is  Simferopol  (q.v.);  the  old  Tatar  capital  is  Baktshi- 
serai  (q.v.), both  in  the  interior.  Sebastopol  (q.v.)  is  in  the 
s.w. ;  KafCa  and  Kertch  in  the  s.e.;  Perekop  on  the  isth- 
mus to  which  it  gives  its  name,  in  the  north.  The  C.  is 
now  directly  connected  with  the  Russian  railway  system, 
lines  diverging  to  the  s.e.  coast  and  s.w.  The  small  river 
Alma,  on  whose  banks  the  first  battle  was  fought  between 
the  Russian  troops  and  the  French  and  English  invading 
army  (1854,  Sep.  20),  falls  into  the  Black  Sea,  where  the 
picturesque  s.  district  approaches  the  n.  steppe. 

For  the  chief  features  in  the  early  history  of  the  C.  see 
Bosporus.  The  Tatars  conquered  the  territory'in  the  13th 
c,  and  converted  it  into  the  khanat  of  Krim  Tatary.  The 
Genoese  under  these  rulers  planted  flourishing  colonies 
here,  which  were  destroyed  by  the  Turks,  who  came  into 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  15th  c.  Russia  finally 
subjected  the  C.  1783:  see  Russia.  Pop.  of  the  govt.of  0. 
(1880)  879,000,  of  which  two-thirds  are  Tartars,  the  re- 
mainder Russians,  Germans,  Greeks,  etc. 

CRIMEAN  WAR:  1853-55;  between  Russia  and  the  al- 
lied powers  England,  France,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey;  so 
called  because  fought  chiefly  on  the  peninsula  of  the  Crimea. 
The  motives  alleged  for  the  war  were  the  desire  of  Russia 
on  one  hand  tr  protect  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey,  and 
of  the  allied  powers  on  the  other  to  check  the  progress  of 
Russia  and  aid  that  of  Turkey.  The  Greek  (Russian)  and 
Latin  (Roman)  churches  had  been  striving  for  exclusive 
possession  of  several  holy  places,  including  the  sepulchre 
in  Turkey,  and  the  French  and  Russian  govts,  had  been 
drawn  into  the  controversy,  the  former  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  Latin  Church,  and  the  latter  that  of  its  national  one. 
Amicable  negotiations  led  to  the  Greek  Church  being  given 
jurisdiction  over  the  holy  places;  but  when  Russia  further 
demanded  the  right  of  protecting  the  adherents  of  that 


CRIMEN  REPETUNDARUM— CRIMP. 

church  in  Turkey,  the  sultan  refused  to  yield  and  appealed 
to  his  allies.  France  and  England  immediately  sent  two 
war  vessels  each  to  the  Dardanelles;  the  Russians  entered 
the  Turkish  principality  of  3Ioldavia  1853,  July;  and  the 
sultan  declared  war  in  Oct.  In  1854,  Jan.,  the  French  and 
English  lleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  and  their  govts,  notitied 
Russia  that  they  should  maintain  command  of  that  water, 
and,  having  signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Turkey,  both 
made  a  formardeclaration  of  war  against  Russia,  Mar.  27, 
28.  The  hrst  action  of  note  was  the  bombardment  of 
Odessa  by  the  combined  fleet,  Apr.  22.  In  the  following 
month  the  allied  army  landed  at  Varna,  moved  to  the 
Crimea,  Sep.,  and  defeated  the  Russians  at  Alma  river  on 
the  20th.  The  British  troops  were  under  command  of 
Lord  Raglan,  the  French  of  Marshal  Saint- Armand,  and 
the  Russian  of  Prince  Meutchikof.  The  first  battle  caused 
a  loss  to  the  Russians  in  killed  and  wounded  of  5,000,  and 
to  the  allies  of  3,400.  Five  days  afterward  the  British 
forces  seized  Balaklava,  and  the  memorable  siege  of  Sebasto- 
pol  began  Oct.  9.  The  Russians  attacked  Balaklava,  Oct. 
25th,  when  the  celebrated  charge  of  the  British  light  brigade 
was  made,  and  lukermau,  Nov.  5,  when  they  were  defeated 
with  heavy  loss.  Sardinia  joined  the  allies  1855,  Jan.; 
Gen.  Pelissier  took  command  of  the  French  army.  May; 
the  allies  made  a  desperate  but  unsuccessful  attack  upon 
the  Malikolf  and  Redan  fortresses,  June  18;  the  French  car- 
ried the  Malikotf  by  storm,  Sep.  8;  and  the  Russians  sank 
their  fleet  and  retreated  from  Sebastopol  on  the  following 
day.  Peace  was  concluded  by  treaty,  1856,  Mar.  30,  and 
the  allies  evacuated  the  Crimea,  July  9.  The  casualties  of 
the  war  were  estimated  as  follows:  British,  killed,  died  of 
wounds,  died  of  cholera,  died  from  other  diseases,  and  dis- 
abled, 26,873;  French,  from  same  causes,  63,500;  Russian, 
from  all  causes,  over  90,000. 

CRI  MEN  REPETUNDA  RUM:  crime  of  accepting  a 
bribe  by  a  judge:  see  Baratry:  Judge. 

CRIMINAL  COURTS:  see  Common  Law,  Courts  of 
Assize:  Jury-trial:  etc.:  see  also  Justiciary:  Judi- 
ciary IN  THE  United  States. 

CRIM  INAL  INFORMATION:  see  Information. 

CRIM  INAL  LAW:  see  Crime:  Prosecution:  Prose- 
cutor. 

CRIMOSIN,  n.  krim'd-zin,  OE.  for  Crimson. 

CRIMP,  V.  krimp  [Dan.  krympe,  to  shrink:  Dut.  krini' 
pen,  to  contract:  W.  crimpio,  to  pinch,  or  crimp — con- 
nected with  cramp,  crump,  and  crimple,  all  used  in  the 
sense  of  contraction] :  to  pinch  up  in  small  ridges,  as  a  frill 
or  ruffle;  to  induce  rigid  muscular  contraction  in  a  fish  by 
making  cuts  through  the  flesh:  Adj.  brittle;  easily 
crumbled.  Crimp  ing,  imp.:  N.  the  operation  of  inducing 
rigid  muscular  contraction  in  fish  by  transverse  cuts  and 
immersion  in  cold  water;  the  act  of  forming  into  ridges  or 
plaits.  Crimped,  pp.  krimpt:  Adj.  applied  to  cod  and 
other  fish  prepared  for  table  by  the  operation  of  crimping. 

191 


CRIMP— CRINGE. 

Crimping-tron,  an  iron  for  curling  hair  and  crimping 
frills.  Crimple,  v.  krlm'pl,  to  contract  or  draw  togetber; 
to  cause  to  curl.  Crim'pling,  imp.  Crimpled,  pp. 
krim'pld,  contracted;  shrunk. 

CRIMP,  n.  krhnp  [Dut.  krimpe,  a  confined  place  in 
which  lish  are  kept  alive  till  wanted]:  an  agent  who  un- 
fairly decoys  men  into  naval  or  military  service — especially 
one  who  entraps  sailors;  one  who  ostensibly  keeps  a  lodg- 
ing-house for  sailors,  but  whose  real  occupation  is  to 
lieece  the  uuw^ary  of  their  wages;  a  game  at  cards  so  call- 
ed: V.  to  decoy  into  naval  or  military  service.  Crimp'ing,  , 
imp.:  Crimped,  pp.  krimpt. — Crimps  often  receive  so 
much  per  head  for  seamen  whom  they  decoy  into  service 
on  ships.  They  are  numerous  in  large  seaports,  and  are 
usually  in  league  with  keepers  of  low  lodging-houses  and 
taverns,  and  with  prostitutes,  to  deprive  seamen  of  their 
wages.  They  also  keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  emigrants, 
and  convey  all  who  are  simple  enough  to  put  faith  in  their 
statements  to  low  houses  in  w^hich  they  have  an  interest. 
The  mere  charge  for  lodging  is  often  small,  but  the  lodgers 
are  cheated  by  provision  merchants  and  others  who  pay 
the  C.  a  liberal  commission  on  their  custom.  In  recent 
years  much  has  been  done  to  protect  seamen  from  these 
abuses.  There  are  also  reputable  agents  through  whom 
ships  engage  sailors;  these  are  never  known  as  crimps. 

CRIMSON,  n.  krim'zn  [F.  cramoisi;  OF.  cramoisin; 
Turk,  kirmizi,  crimson:  Sp.  carynesi—iiom  kermes,  the 
name  of  the  insect  producing  the  color]:  a  deep-red  color; 
a  red  color  in  general;  a  red  inclining  to  purple:  see  Red 
Colors:  Adj.  having  the  color  of  crimson:  V.  to  dye  with 
crimson;  to  be  tinged  with  red;  to  blush.  Crim  soning, 
imp.  Crim  soned,  pp.  -znd,  tinged  with  a  red  color. 
Crimson-hued,  -hud,  of  a  crimson  color. 

CRINAN  CANAL,  kre'nan:  artificial  water-communi- 
cation 9  m.  long,  in  the  w.  of  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  between 
Loch  Gilp,  a  branch  of  Loch  Fyne,  and  Loch  Crinan,  in 
the  Sound  of  Jura,  at  the  head  of  the  peninsula  of  Cantire. 
It  was  constructed  in  the  end  of  last  c,  to  avoid  the  circui- 
tous passage  of  70  m.  round  the  Mull  of  Cantire,  on  the 
I  oute  from"  Glasgow  to  Inverness  by  the  Caledonian  Canal. 
±t  is  24  ft.  broad,  and  12  deep,  has  15  locks,  and  admits 
vessels  of  200  tons. 

CRINED,  krind  [Lat.  crinis,  the  hair],  in  Heraldry: 
denoting  that  the  hair  of  a  man  or  woman,  or  the  mane  of 
a  horse,  differs  in  tincture  from  the  rest  of  the  charge — said 
to  be  crined,  of  such  a  metal  or  color. 

CRINGE,  V.  krinj  [AS.  crymbig,  crooked;  cringan,  to 
sink  in  battle,  to  succumb:  Dan.  kryhe,  to  creep,  to  grovel: 
Ger.  kriechen,  to  creep,  to  sneak]:  to  faw-n  upon  with 
servility;  to  flatter  meanly;  in  OE.,  to  contract,  twn'st,  or 
draw  together,  as  the  body  and  muscles  of  the  face  in  pain: 
N.  servile  civility.  Cringing,  imp.:  Adj.  having  the 
habit  of  one  who  cringes.  Cringed,  pp.  krinjd.  Cringer, 
n.  krin'jer,  one  who.  Cringeling,  n.  krinj'ling^  one  who 
Stoops  meanl}^  to  obtain  favor. 


CRINGLE— CRINOIDS. 

CRINGLE,  n.  kring'gl  [Icel.  kringla,  a  round  cake: 
Dan.  kring,  a  circle]:  a  withe  for  fastening  a  gate;  a  short 
piece  of  rope  with  each  end  spliced  into  the  bolt-rope  of  a 
sail  confining  an  iron  ring  or  thimble:  through  these  spliced 
ropes  smaller  ropes  are  passed  to  aid  in  managing  the  sails. 

CRINIGER,  n.  krVni-jer  [L.,  hair-bearing,  hairyj:  genus 
of  thrushes,  family  MeruUdce,  comprehending  those  species 
which  have  strong  setge  on  the  bill,  and  whose  feathers  on 
the  back  of  the  neck  have  sometimes  a  setaceous  termina- 
tion. 

CRINITE,  a.  krVnit  [L.  crimtus,  having  long  hair — 
from  crinis,  hair]:  in  bot.,  having  the  appearance  of  a  tuft 
of  hair;  bearded. 

CRINKLE,  V.  krlng'kl  [Dut.  kronkelen,  to  curl,  to  twist: 
Dan.  kringel,  crooked]-  to  form  with  short  turns  or 
wrinkles;  to  leave  small  folds  or  wrinkles,  as  the  skin  by 
the  shrinking  of  the  tiesh  in  old  age;  to  run  in  and  out  in 
little  short  bends.  Crin  kling,  imp.  -kling.  Crinkled, 
pp.  kving'kld. 

CRINO,  n.  kri'no,  Crinones,  n.  plu.  krl-nonez  [L. 
crinis,  the  hair] :  disease  characterized  by  the  growth  of 
rigid  black  hairs  from  the  skin  of  the  back,  arms  and  legs, 
attended  by  febrile  symptoms  and  emaciation.  It  affects 
infants. 

CRINOIDS,  n.  plu.  krl'noyds,  or  Crinoi'de^,  -noy'de-a 
[Gr.  krinon,  a  lily;  eidos,  shape]:  order  or  family  of  radiate 
animals  of  the  class  Echinodermata  (q.v.),  of  which  the 


Encrinus. 


recent  species  are  few,  but  the  fossil  species  so  very  numerous 
as  to  constitute  great  tracts  of  the  dry  land  as  it  now  appears. 
The  C.  have  a  central  disk,  in  which  is  cohtained  the  diges- 
tive cavity,  with  two  orifices,  and  from  wLich  arise  arms 

199 


CRIXOLINE. 

or  rays,  five  in  number,  but  soon  subdividing,  so  as  at  first 
sight  to  appear  more  numerous,  and  again  subdividing  into 
lateral  appendages,  either  fin  like  or  fiJamentous,  the  disk  as 
well  as  the  rays  and  their  subdivisions  formed  of  a  calcare- 
ous jointed  skeleton,  clothed  with  a  fleshy  integument,  of 
which  the  fin-like  expansions  are  formed,  and  which  is 
thicker  than  in  star-fishes,  and  contains  imbedded  in  it  the 
innumerable  ovaries.  The  joints  are  also  extremely  numer- 
ous, and  the  subdivision  of  the  rays  often  very  great.  The 
disk  is  composed  of  calcareous  pieces  and  fleshy  integument 
like  the  ra^^s,  as  is  also  a  stalk  on  which  the  whole  is  usually 
supported;  the  base,  it  is  supposed,  being  fixed,  and  the  disc 
and  rays  expanding  like  a  flower.  It  appears  probable  that 
many  of  the  fossil  C.  v/ere  permanently  fixed  in  this  manner, 
and  this  is  supposed  to  be  the  case  with  the  species  of  Pen- 
tacrinus  still  existing,  as  the  P.  caput  Medusce,  or  Medusa's 
Head  of  the  W.  Indian  seas;  but  others  are  fixed  only  when 
young,  the  disc  and  arms  finally  becoming  detached  from 
the  stalk  and  moving  freely  in  the  sea,  swimming  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  that  of  the  medusae.  This  interesting 
fact  was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  J.  Y.  Thompson,  who  found 
in  the  sea  near  Cork  the  stalked  young  of  the  Comatula 
rosacea,  a  small  but  very  beautiful  species,  and  the  only 
species  of  the  C.  found  in  the  British  seas.  The  fossil  re- 
mains of  Crinoids  are  called  encrinites  (stone-lilies):  see 
Encrinites.    CmNOi'DAL,  a.  -ddl,  pertaining  to. 

CEINOLINE,  n.  krm'd-len  [F.  crinoline,  hair-cloth — 
from  L.  crinis;  F.  crin,  hair;  lin,  flax — from  L.  llnum, 
flax] :  woman's  petticoat  sti£[ened  with  cane,  steel,  or  horse- 


Ladies  in  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  showins:  how  the  Fardingale 
was  worn. 

hair  bands;  the  bands  that  stiffen  petticoats.  This  fashion 
of  expansion  of  skirts  is  not  new.  The  first  name  we  find 
given  to  it  is  t\iQ fardingale,  introduced  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Walpole,  in  his  fancy  description  of  her,  speaks  of  her 
*  enormous  ruff  and  vaster  fardingale.'  The  upper  part  of 
the  body  was  incased  in  a  cuirass  of  wlialebonc,  ^.  Jiich  was 
united  dt  tlie  waist  with  the  equally  stiff  fardingale  of  the 

200 


CRINOLINE. 

same  material,  desceDding  to  tlie  feet,  without  a  single  fold, 
in  the  form  of  a  great  bell.  Gosson  mentions  the  fardingale 
in  1596,  in  his  Pleasant  Quij^jpes  for  Upstart  JSewfangled 
Gentlewomen.  In  the  end  of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  this 
fashion  gradually  declined,  and  was  fm-ther  tamed  down  by 
Puritan  feeling  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  and  Cromwell,  till 
it  quite  disappeared.  We  next  hear  of  it  in  1711  as  'that 
startling  novelty  the  hoop  petticoat,'  which  differed  from  the 
fardingale  in  being  gathered  at  the  waist.  !Sir  Roger  de 
Coverley  is  made  to  say  of  his  family  pictures:  'You  see, 
sir,  my  great-great-grandmother  has  on  the  new^-fashioned 
petticoat,  except  that  the  modern  is  gathered  at  the  waist; 
my  grandmother  appears  as  if  she  stood  in  a  large  drum, 
w^hereas  the  ladies  now  walk  as  if  they  were  in  a  go  cart.' 
Hogarth,  in  his  night-scene  in  Marriage  d-la-Mode,  intro- 
duces on  the  floor  a  hoop  of  the  time  of  George  II. ;  and 
about  1744,  hoops  are  men- 
tioned as  so  extravagant,  that 
a  woman  occupied  the  space 
of  six  men.  An  elongated 
oval  form  also  came  into  fash- 
ion, raised  at  each  side  to  show  the  high-heeled  shoes, 
causing  caricaturists  to  say  that  a  lady  looked  like  a  donkey 
carrying  its  panniers.  These  hoops  were  of  whalebone, 
with  canvas  over  them,  having  capacious  receptacles  on 
each  side  for  articles  of  convenience.  In  1780,  we  find 
hoops  of  cane  used,  being  advertised  to  '  out- wear  the  best 
sort  of  whalebone.'  About  the  year  1796,  hoops  had  been 
discarded  in  private  life,  but  w^re  still  the  mode  at  court, 
and  never  had  been  seen  in  more  full-blown  enormity,  con- 
tinuing so  to  the  time  of  George  lY.,  when  they  were  abol- 
ished by  ro3'al  command. 

The  development  of  this  fashion  about  the  middle  of  the 
present  century  began  with  C.  in  its  original  and  proper 
sense,  first  in  the  form  of  the  inelegant '  bustle '  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  skirt,  then  the  whole  petticoat.  Instead  of  the 
hair  fabric,  some  used,  for  economy,  cotton,  thickly  corded 
and  starched.  At  length,  about  1856,  people  were  startled 
by  the  fact  that  the  fashion  of  Queen  Anne's  time  was  re- 
turning, only  that  the  structure  was  lighter  and  more  pliant; 
being  usually  composed  of  a  series  of  horizontal  small  steel 
hoops,  held  together  either  by  vertical  bands,  or  by  being 
sewed  into  a  kind  of  petticoat.  Unlike  former  times  of 
hoops  and  fardingales,  the  fashion  descended  to  maid-serv- 
ants, so  that  where  the  dining-room  was  small,  table-maids 
have  been  known  to  give  warning  of  intention  to  quit,  be- 
cause the}^  could  not  clear  the  space  between  the  table  and 
the  fire;  and  the  newspapers  were  occasionally  announcing 
*  Accident  from  Crinoline,'  or  '  Lady  burned  to  Death  from 
Crinoline.'  Spectator  (Iq^M  out  much  cutting,  though 

playful,  raillery  on  the  hoops  of  his  day,  but  apparently  with 
little  effect:  and 'equally  unavailing  were  the  satires  of  Punch 
and  other  caricaturists  of  the  19th  c.  against  the  hideous 
fashion  of  crinoline.  The  hoops  w^ere  sometimes  made  with 
a  circumference  of  four,  and  even  five  yards.  At'  last,  abt. 
1866,  after  indignation  and  ridicule  had  for  years  assailed 


CRINUM— CRISIS. 

the  monstrosity  in  vain,  the  inflation  began  without  apparent 
cause,  to  collapse;  and  rushing  to  the  opposite  extreme, 
ladies  might  be  seen  walking  about  as  slim  as  if  merely 
wrapt  in  a  morning-gown  or  bathing-dress.  The  crinolette 
is  a  small  crinoline^  causing  the  dress  to  project  behind  only, 
and  is  more  recent.  The  pannier,  with  a  somewhat  similar 
effect,  is  a  structure  of  lappets  of  cloth. 

CRINUM,  krl'num:  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants  of 
the  nat  ord.  Amaryllidece,  having  long  tubular  flowers,  the 
segments  of  the  perianth  hooked  at  the  apex,  the  stamens 
straight  and  inserted  into  the  tube,  and  a  three-celled  cap- 
sule. It  contains  a  considerable  number  of  species,  natives 
of  different  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  generally 
with  umbels  of  large  and  beautiful  flowers,  some  of  them 
among  the  most  admired  ornaments  of  hot-houses.  G. 
amahUe,  an  Indian  species,  is  much  esteemed  for  fragrance 
and  beauty,  and  flowers  about  four  times  a  year.  All  the 
species  require  a  rich  open  soil,  plenty  of  room  for  their 
roots,  and  the  frequent  removal  of  suckers. — The  bulbs  of  C. 
Asiaticum  are  powerfully  emetic,  and  are  used  in  some  parts 
of  the  East  in  cases  of  poisoning. 

CRIOCERAS,  krl-oser-ds,  or  Crioceratite,  n.  krld- 
s&r'd-tit  [Gr.  krios,  a  ram;  kems,  a  horn]:  in  geol.y  a  genus 
of  the  ammonite  family — from  its  shape. 

CRIPPLE,  n.  krip'l  [Icel.  kryppa,  a  hump;  kryppilly  a 
cripple:  Dut.  krepel,  a  cripple:  Dan.  krybe,  to  creep  (see 
Creep)]  :  one  who  has  lost  the  use  of  a  limb  or  limbs,  or  is 
partly  disabled;  a  lame  person:  V.  to  deprive  of  the  use  of 
a  limb  or  limbs;  to  lame;  to  disable.  Crip  fling,  imp. 
Crippled,  pp.  krip'ld,  disabled. 

CRIS-CROSS  ROW:  see  Christ-cross  Row. 

CRISIAD^,  n.  plu.  kris'i-a-de:  family  of  cyclostomatous 
polyzoa  or  bryozoa,  founded  by  Milne-Edwards. 

CRISIS,  n.  krl'sis.  Crises,  n.  plu.  -sez  [L.  crisis;  Gr. 
krim,  a  decision:  It.  and  F.  crise]:  the  decisive  point  in  any 
important  affair.  Crisis,  in  Medicine:  rapid  or  sudden 
determination  of  an  acute  disease  in  the  direction  of  con- 
valescence or  of  death;  opposed  in  signification  to  lysis  (luo, 
I  relax),  which  denotes  the  gradual  subsidence  of  the  symp- 
toms noticed  in  most  chronic^  and  in  some  acute  diseases. 
The  doctrine  of  crises,  which  was  very  important  in  the 
view  of  the  ancient  physicians,  was  closely  bound  up  with 
that  of  a  materies  morU,  or  material  of  disease  in  the  blood, 
which  was  presumed  to  be  undergoing  changes,  during  the 
whole  course  of  the  malady,  tending  to  an  evacuation  of 
some  kind  from  the  system  in  the  form  of  a  critical  dis- 
charge (apostasis  or  abscess),  w^hich,  when  observed,  w^as 
supposed  to  contain  the  matter  of  disease  in  a  state  of  coctmi, 
and  to  be  the  direct  cause  of  the  sudden  relief  of  the  pa- 
tient. Thus,  according  to  the  character  and  seat  of  the 
critical  discharge,  it  was  common  to  speak  of  a  C.  by 
sweating,  by  diarrhoea,  by  expectoration,  by  urine,  by 
parotid  swellings,  etc.;  and  no  C.  was  considered  regular 
that  was  not  attended  by  some  symptom  of  this  kind. 
Another  curious  doctrine  associated  with  that,  of  crises, 

202 


CmSOME-CRlSPlN. 

was  the  belief  in  certain  days  as  ruling  the  beneficent  or 
injurious,  the  complete  or  incomplete,  character  of  a  crisis. 
The  seventh,  fourteenth,  and  twentieth  (according  to  some, 
the  twenty-first)  days  of  the  disease  were  regarded  as  emi- 
nently critical;  less  so,  but  still  favorably  critical,  were  the 
third,  fifth,  eleventh,  and  seventeenth;  the  fourth  day  was 
the  indicator  of  a  complete  C.  on  the  seventh;  the  sixth  day 
was  the  ^^mn^,  notorious  for  unfavorable  crises;  the  sec- 
ond, eighth,  tenth,  thirteenth,  and  the  rest  were  non-criti- 
cal. Few  physicians  now  attach  great  importance  to  criti- 
cal days,  except  in  a  special  class  of  diseases  which  evince 
an  element  of  periodicity;  but  the  doctrine  of  crises  and  of 
a  materies  morhi,  is  still  taught,  with  scientific  modifications 
and  qualifications,  in  medical  schools  and  text-books. — 
Syn.:  conjuncture;  emergency;  exigency;  turning-point. 

CRISOjVIE,  n.  Jcrls'am  [OF.  cresmeau,  the  crisome,  see 
under  Chris:^,]:  in  OE.,  the  little  cloth  or  christening  cap 
put  upon  the  head  of  the  child  as  soon  as  it  was  anointed; 
the  white  robe  pat  on  a  child  at  baptism;  a  child  dying 
soon  after  baptism. 

CRISP,  a.  krisp  [F.  crisper,  to  shrivel:  OF.  crespe, 
curled— from  L.  crispCire,  to  curl;  crispus,  curled:  It.  crespo]: 
curled;  formed  into  ringlets  or  curls;  in  OE.,  curled  or 
winding;  brittle;  easily  broken  short;  in  bot.,  having  an  un- 
dulated or  curling  margin:  Y.  to  wrinkle;  to  curl.  Crisp'- 
iNG,  imp.  Crisped,  pp.  krispt.  Crisp  ly,  ad.  -li.  Crisp'- 
NESS,  n.  brittleness.  Crispy,  a.  krts'pi,  curled;  brittle. 
Crispate,  a.  krls'pdt,  having  a  crisp  appearance;  rough 
with  waving  lines.  Crispation,  n.  krls-pa  sJiiin  [F.— L.]: 
the  act  of  cui'ling  or  state  of  being  curled. 

CRISPIN,  n.  krU'pin  [comp.  L.  crepida;  Gr.  krepis,  the 
sole,  a  sandal,  a  shoe]:  a  shoemaker,  after  St.  Crispin y  the 
patron  saint  cf  shoemakers. 

CRIS'PIN,  Saint:  Christian  martyr  in  the  3d.  c;  de- 
scended from  a  noble  Roman  family.  About  the  middle 
of  the  3d  c,  under  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  he,  with  his 
brother  Crispianus,  fled  from  Rome  into  Gaul,  where  he 
worked  as  a  shoemaker  in  the  town  now  called  Soissons, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  exertions  for  the  spread  of 
Christianity,  as  well  as  by  works  of  charity.  According  to 
the  legend,  his  benevolence  was  so  great  that  he  even  stole 
leather  to  make  shoes  for  the  poor.  From  this,  charities 
done  at  the  expense  of  others  have  been  called  Crispinades. 
In  287,  he  and  his  brother  suffered  a  most  cruel  martyrdom. 
Both  brothers  are  commemorated  on  Oct.  25.  King  Cris- 
pin, as  he  is  called,  is  the  universally  recognized  patron 
saint  of  shoemakers,  and  is  represented  with  dramatic  effect 
in  the  ceremonial  processions  of  the  'gentle  craft.'  There 
is  an  amusing  but  scarce  book  about  shoemakers,  entitled 
Crispin  Anecdotes. — Knights  of  St.  Crispin,  society  of 
shoemakers,  for  protection  of  workingmen  against  em- 
ployers, by  regulating  w^ages  and  by  providing  for  the 
unemployed  and  the  sick.  It  was  organized  in  Wisconsiu 
1866,  and  has  spread  into  several  states. 

m 


CRISS-CROSS-CBITIC. 

CRISS-CROSS,  a.  in  opposite  directions;  opposed;  con- 
trary. 

CRISTATE,  a.  kris'tdt  [L.  crista,  a  crest]:  in  bot, 
crested;  tufted.  Cris  ta,  n.  -td,  in  anat.,  a  term  applied  to 
several  processes  or  ridges  of  bones. 

CRIST ATELLID^,  n.  plu.  kris-ta-tel'U-dcB  [mod.  L. 
cristatella  (q.v.),  and  fem.  pi.  adj.  suf.  -idcp^:  family  of 
polyzoa  or  bryozoa,  founded  by  Prof.  Allman;  order 
Phylactoloemata.  It  has  a  free  and  locomotive  polyzoary. 
The  species  are  found  in  fresh  water.  Cristatella, 
typical  genus  of  the  family  GristatellidcB. 

CRISTELLARIDEA,  n.  plu.  Jcris-tel-ldr'U'e-a  [mod.  L. 
cristellar{ia) ,  and  suf.  -idea]:  according  to  Ruess,  a  family 
of  foraminifers,  one  of  those  w^ith  a  perforate  test,  and  that 
division  of  them  in  which  that  test  is  calcareous,  glassy,  and 
finely  porous.  Cristellar'ia,  a.  typical  genus  of  the 
Cristellaridea. 

CRITERION,  n.  kn-teri-on,  Crite'ria,  n.  plu.  -ri-d 
[Gr.  kriterion,  means  for  judging— from  krliio,  I  judge]:  a 
standard  or  rule  by  which  a  judgment  can  be  formed. 

CRITH,  ki'Uh:  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  hydrogen.  By  the 
atomic  law  an  equal  volume  of  all  gases  contains  the  same 
number  of  molecules.  Hence  if  we  know  the  weight  of  a 
unit  volume  of  any  gas  we  can  determine  that  of  another 
by  multiplying  the  known  weight  by  the  factor  expressing 
the  ratio  of  the  molecular  weights.  As  hydrogen  is  the 
lightest  of  gases,  the  weight  of  a  litre  at  0°  C.  and  '760  mm. 
Bar.,  '089,579  grams,  has  been  selected  as  a  convenient  basis 
and  is  called  the  crith.  As  the  molecular  weight  of  hydrogen 
is  2,  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  any  other  gas  is  readily  deter- 
mined by  multiplying  the  crith  by  its  molecular  weight 
and  dividing  by  2.  The  unit  is  so  convenient  that  it 
seems  unfortunate  that  it  is  not  more  generally  used  in  the 
text-books.  Compound  or  elemental  gases  can  be  thus 
dealt  with. 

CRITH'MUM:  see  Samphire. 

CRITIC,  n.  krit'lk  [L,  criticus,  a  critic:  Gr.  kritikos, 
able  to  discern :  It.  critico:  F.  critique,  critical — from  Gr. 
krino,  I  judge] :  a  person  skilled  in  judging  of  the  merits  of 
works  in  the  fine  arts,  or  of  the  beauties  and  defects  in 
literature;  a  fault-finder.  Crit  ical,  a.  -i-kdl,  highly  im- 
portant; momentous  (sense  from  crms);  nicely  exact;  prone 
to  judge  severely  the  productions  of  others;  fault-finding. 
Crit'ically,  ad.  -U.  Crit  icalness,  n.  Crit'icise,  v. 
-slz,  to  examine  and  judge,  with  attention  to  beauties  and 
faults;  to  find  fault  with;  to  censure  or  blame.  Crit'ici'- 
siNG,  imp.  Crit  icised,  pp.  -slzd.  Crit'ici'sable,  a. 
-zd  hl,  capable  of  being  criticised.  Crit  icism,  n.  -sizm, 
the  art  of  judging  of  the  beauties  or  faults  in  literature  or 
the  fine  arts;  critical  remarks,  verbal  or  written.  Literary 
and  artistic  criticism — the  higher  department  of  what  is 
sometimes  called  *  reviewing ' — has  engaged  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  minds  in  G^rman3%  "France,  England, 
and,  in  recent  years,  in  the  United  States,    The  writers  in 

304 


CRITICAL  TEMPERATURE-CRITTEKDEN. 

this  department  are  now  very  numerous,  and  much  of  their 
work  is  of  high  rank.  Criticism  is  applied  also  to  a  close, 
deep,  and  thorough  study  and  analysis,  sometimes  with  a 
decidedly  speculative  element,  of  ancient  writings,  for  the 
deciding  of  questions  regarding  authorship,  date,  etc. 
Critique,  n.  kri-tek'  [F.]:  a  critical  examination  in  writ- 
ing of  any  work;  a  criticism. 

CRITICAL  TEMPERATURE:  one  of  the  constants  of 
physical  science;  the  temperature  above  which  a  gas  cannot 
be  reduced  to  the  liquid  or  solid  state  by  any  degree  of 
pressure.  This  temperature  varies,  each  gas  possessing  its 
own.  Ordinarily  there  is  a  sharp  line  of  division  visible 
between  a  liquid  and  its  vapor  when  in  the  same  vessel. 
Thus  a  sealed  tube  may  contain  liquid  and  gaseous  carbon 
dioxide,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  the  line  of  division, 
will  be  as  sharply  marked  as  that  between  water  and  air. 
But  at  the  C.  T.,  if  the  pressure  is  gradually  increased,  the 
free  surface  of  the  liquid  becomes  blurred  and  merges  into 
the  gas  above,  thus  indicating  a  continuity  of  the  gaseous 
and  liquid  states:  the  substance  is  then  said  to  be  in  the 
critical  state.  Of  course  for  every  C.  T.  there  is  a  correla- 
tive critical  pressure.  The  latter  constant  is  not  so  often 
used.  For  carbon  dioxide  the  C.  T.  is  30-92°  C.  (87-65^  F.); 
for  water,  720*6°  C.  (1329  08' F.);  for  oxygen- 113°  C. 
(— 17r4°F.).  A  gas  kept  above  the  C.  T.  may  at  sufficient 
pressure  maintain  a  solid  in  solution  as  a  gas.  Thus  alcohol 
vapor  can  hold  either  chlorophyl  or  potassium  iodide  in 
this  gaseous  solution. 

CRITICISM,  Higher  Biblical:  see  Higher  Critic- 
ism, The. 

CRITTENDEX,  krit'en-den,  John  Jordon:  1787,  Sep. 
10—1863,  July  26;  b.  Woodford  Co.,  Ky.:  statesman.  He 
graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College  1807,  studied  law, 
and  began  practicing  in  his  native  co.,  but  removed  shortly 
to  Logan  co.  on  the  Tenn.  border.  In  1809  he  was  ap- 
pointed atty.  gen.  of  the  territory  of  111.;  1812-13  served  in 
the  army;  1816  was  elected  to  the  legislature;  1817  became 
U.  S.  senator;  and  1819  resigned,  removed  to  Frankfort, 
and  applied  himself  to  his  practice.  Pres.  Adams  appointed 
him  U.  S.  dist.  atty.  1827,  and  Pres.  Jackson  removed  him 
1829.  In  1835  he  was  again  elected  U.  S.  senator  as  a 
Whig,  and  was  re-elected  on  the  expiration  of  the  term, 
but  resigned  the  seat  to  enter  Pres.  Harrison's  cabinet  as 
atty.  gen.  1841.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Pres.  Tyler, 
a  difference  arose  between  him  and  Mr.  C.  on  the  national 
policy,  and  the  latter  retired  from  the  cabinet.  On  the 
resignation  of  his  seat  in  the  senate  by  Henry  Clay  1842, 
Mr.  C.  was  apuointed  to  fill  the  vacancy,  was  elected  for 
the  next  full  term  1843,  and  while  so  serving  was  chosen 
gov.  of  Ky.  1848.  Two  years  later  he  entered  the  cabinet 
of  Pres.  Fillmore  as  atty.  gen  ,  decided  the  fugitive-slave 
law  to  be  constitutional,  and  served  till  1853,  March.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  for  the  sixth  time;  op- 
posed the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  the  policies  of 
Presidents  Pierce  and  Buchanan,  and  secession;  and,  failing 

'i06 


GRIZZLE— CROATIA. 

to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  north  and  south 
through  resolutions  known  as  the  C.  compromise,  gave  a 
hearty  support  to  Pres.  Lincoln  and  the  Union  cause. 

CRIZZEL,  n.  kriz'zel  [F.  gresiller,  to  drizzle;  gresilU, 
covered  or  hoar  with  rime — from  gres,  sandstone,  grit 
stone:  Ger.  ^n^s,  gravel,  grit]:  a  roughness  on  the  surface 
of  glass  which  clouds  its  transparency. 

CROAK,  n.  krok  [AS.  cracetan,  to  croak:  Gael.  groCy  to 
croak:  Ger.  kvachzen,  to  croak:  L.  crocio;  Gr.  krozo,  I  cry 
as  a  raven]:  the  cry  of  a  frog  or  raven;  any  low  harsh 
sound:  Y.  to  make  a  low  hoarse  noise  in  the  throat,  as  a 
frog;  to  utter  a  low  muttering  sound;  to  grumble,  Croak'- 
iNG,  imp.  Croaked,  pp.  krokt.  Croak  er,  n.  one  who 
murmurs  or  grumbles;  one  who  looks  upon  the  woist  side 
of  things;  a  pessimist. 

CROATIA,  krd-d'sJn-a:  kingdom  forming  part  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  With  Slavonia  it  forms  one  of  the 
administrative  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary;  joint 
area  8757  sq.  m.;  joint  pop.  (1880)  1,191,845.  C.  lies  n.e.  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  borders  on  one  side  with  Turkey.  It  is 
traversed  by  low  chains  of  mountains,  in  the  s.  proceeding 
from  the  Julian  Alps,  and  in  the  n.  from  the  Carnic  Alps. 
These  mountains  are  generally  covered  with  forests,  and 
the  chains  are  separated  by  very  fertile  valleys.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Save  and  its  affluent  the  Culpa,  the 
Drave  and  its  affluent  the  Mur.  Some  of  the  valleys, 
especially  in  the  south,  are  quite  shut  in,  so  that  many  of 
the  streams  have  to  make  their  way  through  subterranean 
channels.  The  climate  much  resembles  that  of  the 
neighboring  parts  of  Hungary,  the  more  s.  situation  being 
counterbalanced  by  the  greater  elevation.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  of  Slavonic  race  and  language.  The  religion  of 
C.  is  that  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches.  The 
Croatians  are  warlike,  but  the  name  Groats  is  employed  to 
designate  light-cavalry  regiments  in  the  imperial  army,  in 
which  Magyars  and  others  are  mingled  with  true  Croatians. 
Grain,  chestnuts,  wine,  and  gall-nutsare  among  the  prin- 
cipal exports  of  Croatia.  The  keeping  of  cattle  is  neglected. 
The  wood  of  the  great  forests,  though  much  of  it  is  admi- 
rably adapted  for  shipbuilding,  is  as  yet  little  used.  The 
LUorale  or  coast  district  contains  valuable  marble  quarries. 
The  capital  of  C.  is  Agram  (q.v.).  C.  with  its  Litorale  and 
Slavonia  (q.v.)  formerly  formed  a  crown-land,  at  the  head 
of  the  administration  of  which  was  the  Ban  (q.v.)  of 
Croatia. 

C.  was,  in  earliest  historic  times,  inhabited  by  the  Pan- 
nonians,  who  were  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Au- 
gustus, and  the  country  was  made  a  province  of  Illyria. 
During  the  irruptions  of  the  northern  nations  into  the 
Roman  empire,  C.  suffered  a  variety  of  vicissitudes.  In 
G40,  the  Croats,  Chrovats,  or  Horvats,  migrated  into  it 
from  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  gave  it  its  present 
name.  In  the  14th  c,  having  previously  been  in  some 
measure  incorporated  with  Hungary,  C.  was  more  complete- 
ly united  with  that  kipgdom,  and  passed  with  it,  ia  the 

S06 


CROATS-CROCK. 

beginning  of  the  16th  c,  to  the  Austrian  house  of  Hapsburg. 
lu'the  end  of  the  16th  c,  the  Turks  conquered  a  portion  of 
it,  noAv  known  as  Turkish  Croatia.  The  cit}^  of  Fiume 
Avas  declared  1797  to  be  a  constituent  and  integral  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary;  and  after  the  termination  of  the 
French  wars,  Fiume  remained  united  to  Hungary  till  1848. 
The  Croatians  long  entertained  a  feeling  of  hostility  to  the 
Magyars,  which  manifested  itself  in  1848  and  9  in  a  manner 
very  unfavorable  to  the  Hungarian  revolution.  The  wise 
policy  of  Austria,  however,  in  recognizing  the  legal  rights 
of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  has  had  a  good  effect  in  allay- 
ing this  feeding.    See  ^Iilitary  Frontier. 

CROATS,  n.  plu.  kroO.ts:  inhabitants  of  Croatia;  its 
native  troops. 

CROCEOUS,  a. :  see  under  Crocus. 

CROCHE,  n.  kroch  [OF.]:  a  little  knob  which  grows  at 
top  of  a  deer's  horn. 

CROCHET,  a  krosM  [F.  crochet,  a  little  hook— from 
croc,  a  hook:  Icel.  krokr,  2i  hook]:  applied  to  fancy-work 
performed  with  a  hooked  needle:  V.  to  do  fancy-work  with 
a  hooked  needle:  N.  in  fort.,  a  cut  into  the  glacis  opposite 
a  traverse,  continuing  the  covered-way  around  the  traverse. 
Crochetixg,  imp.  kru  shn-'mg.  Crocheted,  pp.  krd  sMd; 
in  mil.,  usually  pronounced  krd  sMt;  krb  she-ting;  kro- 
8h£-ted. 

CROCHET:  species  of  handiwork,  which  may  be  de- 
scribed as  an  extensive  system  of  looping,  b}-  means  of  hooks 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  method  is  as  follows:  With  a 
hook  of  size  proportioned  to  the  fineness  of  the  cotton  or 
wool  employed,  begin  by  making  a  chain  of  loops.  Then 
turn,  and,  with  the  hook  still  in  the  last  loop,  begin  the 
double  process  of  catchiug  the  thread  through  each  loop  of 
the  chain,  and  also  through  that  in  which  your  hook  is,  and 
thus  form  another  chain  attached  to  the  tirst,  and  so  on. 
This  is  called  simple  or  plain  crochet.  Endless  varieties 
of  patterns  may  be  formed,  and  lightness  and  elegance 
attained,  by  twisting  the  thread  one  or  more  times  in  taking 
up  the  loop,  and  open  work  is  formed  by  passing  one  or 
more  loops.  This  work  may  be  made  round  by  beginning 
with  a  very  few  loops,  joining  the  tirst  to  the  last,  and  then 
proceeding  to  take  several  loops  through  one,  and  so  widen- 
ing on.  C.  has  this  advantage  over  knitting,  that  by 
drawing  the  last  loop,  and  leaving  it  wide,  there  is  no  fear 
of  the  work  running  down  as  happens  when  knitting-needles 
slip.  Shades  of  the  same  color,  and  v,'  lieties  of  colors 
in  wool  as  well  as  in  silk,  are  used  for  this  work.  In  w^hite 
cotton,  C.  can  be  made  available,  from  large  bed-quilts  to 
delicate  lace-like  edgings.  See  numerous  small  books 
describing  and  giving  patterns  of  crochet. 

CROCIDOLITE,  n.  krd-sid o-lite  [Ger.  krokydolith—fvom 
Gr.  krokis,  krokus,  woof,  in  allusion  to  the  fibrous  structure] : 
fibrous,  opaque  mineral,  in  aspect  like  asbestos.  Hardness 
4;  color,  blue  or  green. 

CROCK,  D.  krOk  [Dut.  krvycke;  Ger,  krug;  Icel.  krukka; 


CROCKET— CROCKETT. 

Dan.  krukke;  W.  cregen,  an  earthen  vessel,  a  pitcber:  Gael. 
croch,  of  a  dull-red  color]:  a  vessel  of  earthenware  of  the 
coarsest  kind,  of  a  dull-red  color;  an  earthen  pot  or  pitcher; 
in  OE.,  soot:  Y.  in  OE.,  to  black  with  soot.  Crock  ery, 
n.  -er-i  [W.  croclian,  a  pot,  crockery]:  the  coarsest  kind  of 
earthenware;  earthenware  in  general.  Crock,  also  Crok,  a. 
krbk  [perhaps  from  same  root] :  applied  to  a  ewe  that  has 
given  over  bearing — lit.,  a  dry  earthen  vessel. 

CROCKET,  n.  krdk'et  [Eng.  crook;  Dut.  kroke,  a  curl: 
Dan.  krog,  a  corner]:  in  Gothic  Architecture,  projecting 
ornament  of  leaves,  flowers,  or  bunches  of  foliage,  or  animal 
figures,  used  to  decorate  the  angles  of  spires,  canopies,  pin- 
nacles, etc.  The  varieties  of  C.  are  innumerable,  almost 
every  kind  of  leaf  and  flower  being  copied  for  the  purpose. 
The  first  illustration,  from  Parker,^  is  copied  from  Salisbury 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

Cathedral.  The  other  illustration  represents  a  C.  from  St. 
Alban's  Abbey,  of  about  1240.  C.  appear  only  in  pyramidal 
and  curved  lines,  never  in  horizontal  ones. 

CROCKETT,  krdk'et,  David:  1786,  Aug.  17—1836, 
Mar.  6;  b.  Limestone,  Tenn.:  pioneer.  He  spent  his  early 
years  hunting,  trapping,  and  teaming,  in  the  wildest  sections 
of  the  west;  settled  in  Franklin  co.,  Tenn.,  1811;  served 
through  the  Creek  Indian  war,  1813;  and  then  established 
himself  at  Shoal  Creek,  Tenn.,  with  a  colony  of  settlers 
who  elected  him  magistrate.  He  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature 1821  and  '23,  and  to  congress,  as  an  adherent  of  his 
friend  Gen.  Jackson,  1826  and  28,  and  again  1832,  losmg 

SOS 


CROCODILE. 


the  intermediate  term  by  opposing  Jackson's  Indian  policy. 
At  the  close  of  his  last  term  he  joined  the  Texans  in  their 
struggle  against  Mexico,  and  was  one  of  the  six  surviving 
defenders  of  the  Alamo  who  after  surrendering  w^ere  shot 
by  Santa  Anna.  He  was  very  popular  wherever  he  went, 
w^as  noted  for  his  humor  and  eccentricity,  and  had  great 
shrewdness  and  common-sense. 

CROCODILE,  n  krblc'd-dll  [L.  crocodilus;  Gr.  kroko- 
deilos]:  a  large  voracious  reptile  of  amphibious  habits,  in 
shape  resembling  a  lizard,  and  covered  with  scutes:  Adj. 
like  a  crocodile;  false.  Ckoc'odil'ian,  a.  -dil'l-dn,  per- 
taining to:  N.  an  animal  akin  to  the  crocodiles.  Croc'- 
odil'ia,  n.  -I  d,  an  order  of  reptiles,  including  the  crocodile, 
the  gavial,  and  the  alligator.  Crocodile's  tears,  false  or 
hypocritical  tears. 

CROC  ODILE  {Crocodilus):  genus  of  Saurian  reptiles, 
type  of  the  family  CrocodiUdtc;  w^hich  some  naturalists  have 
erected  into  a  distinct  order  of  reptiles  {Loricata),  on  account 
of  the  square  bony  plates  with  which  their  bodies  are  cov- 
ered, instead  of  the  scales  of  the  other  saurians;  the  greater 
solidity  of  the  skull;  the  lungs  not  descending  into  the  ab- 
domen; and  the  approach  which  they  make  to  mammalia 
and  birds  in  the  structure  of  the  heart.  The  heart  has  two 
auricles  and  two  ventricles;  but  a  mixture  of  arterial  and 
venous  blood  takes  place  at  some  distance  from  the  heart, 
so  that  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  receives  an  imperfectly 
a(5rated  blood,  which,  however,  is  supposed  to  be  further 
ai^rated  in  the  surface  of  the  peritoneum,  two  curious  open- 
ings admitting  the  water,  in  which  these  animals  ordinarily 
live,  into  the  internal  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  The  Groco- 
dilidm  may  be  described  as  lizard-like  in  form,  with  a  great 
gape,  indicative  of  their  characteristic  voracity,  and  with 
the  tail  flattened  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  become  a  powerful 
organ  of  propulsion  in  water.  The  fore-feet  have  five  toes, 
the  hind-feet  four,  the  three  inner  ones  only  being  armed 
with  claws:  the  feet  are  more  or  less  webbed.  Each  jaw 
has  a  single  row  of  numerous  large  teeth, 
which  are  conical  and  directed  backwards; 
planted  in  distinct  sockets,  and  becoming 
hollowed  at  the  base,  to  admit  the  crowns 
of  the  new  and  larger  teeth  which  are  to 
succeed  them  as  the  animal  increases  in 
size.  Small  ribs  are  attached  to  the  ver- 
tebrae of  the  neck,  which  give  it  a  peculiar 
stiffness,  and  make  it  dilficult  for  the 
animal  to  turn ;  and  persons  pursued  by 
crocodiles  may  therefore  make  their  escape 
by  rapid  turning.  The  eggs  of  the  Croco- 
dilidm  are  hard,  and  small  in  comparison 
with  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  females  of  crocodile's  Tooth- 
some, if  not  of  all  the  species,  guard  their  showing  the  hol- 
eggs,  and  take  care  of  their  young;  though  low  at  the  base  in 
the  eggs,  buried  in  the  sand  or  mud,  are  wiiich  the  summit 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  alone.  The  ^'s^.helthed  ^""""^^ 
GrocodilidcB  swallow  stones,  apparently  to 
assist  digestion.    They  prey  on  fishes  and  warm-blooded 

209 


CROCOISITE-  CROCUS. 

animals;  most  of  them  seem  to  prefer  food  in  a  state  of 
incipient  putrefaction,  and  they  are  even  said  to  hide  their 
prey,  and  to  return  to  it  when  it  has  reached  this  state. 
Some  of  the  larger  kinds  do  not  scruple  to  attack  man. — All 
the  Crocodilidm  are  large  reptiles;  they  are  found  in  fresh 
waters  and  estuaries  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  world;  none 
are  found  in  Europe,  nor,  as  far  as  is  yet  known,  in  Austra- 
lia. They  are  divided  into  Gavials,  Crocodiles,  and  Alli- 
gators (the  latter  including  caymans). — The  true  Crocodiles 
are  found  both  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New.  The  muzzle 
is  not  slender  and  elongated,  as  in  the  gavials,  but  oblong 
and  flattened;  the  teeth  are  very  unequal  in  size,  the  long 
fourth  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  fitting  into  notches  of  the 
upper,  not  into  pits,  as  in  alligators.  To  this  genus  belongs 
the  C.  of  the  Nile  {C.  vulgaris),  which  abounds  also  in  many 
other  rivers  of  Africa.  It  is  of  a  bronzed  green  color, 
speckled  with  brown,  lighter  beneath,  and  is  sometimes  30 
ft.  long.  It  often  seizes  human  beings  for  its  prey.  In 
Park's  Travels,  an  instance  U  recorded  of  a  negro,  one  of 
his  guides,  who  was  thus  seized  in  the  Gambia,  and  escaped 
by  thrusting  his  fingers  into  the  crocodile's  eyes.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  held  it  sacred,  and  being  exempted  from 
all  danger  on  the  part  of  man,  it  became  more  bold  and 
troublesome.  The  individuals  particularly  selected  as  the 
objects  of  idolatrous  worship  were  tamed,  and  took  part  in 
religious  processions.  Soucliis  w  as  the  name  of  the  deified 
individual,  the  C.  god. — The  Doublr-crested  or  Indian 
C.  ((7.  Mporcatus)  is  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Asia, 
in  rivers  and  estuaries,  and  is  also  dangerous  to  man.  The 
smaller  marsh  C.  (C.  pahistris),  abundant  in  stagnant 
w  aters  in  the  same  regions,  flees  from  man,  and  often  seeks 
to  hide  itself  in  the  mud,  into  which  it  thrusts  at  least  its 
snout,  then  remaining  contented,  as  if  in  perfect  safety. 
Crocodiles  often  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  in  droughts, 
and  so  abide  till  rain  falls. — The  names  C.  and  Alligator 
are  often  indiscriminately  used  in  popular  language.  See 
Alligator. 

CROCOISITE,  n.  krd-koy'zU  [Gr.  krokoeis,  of  a  saffron 
or  yellow  color]:  the  chromate  of  lead;  red  lead  ore — used 
as  a  pigment. 

CROCUS,  n.  kro'kiis  [L.  crocus;  Gr.  krokos;  Gael.  crocJi, 
red-yellow]:  an  early  spring-flower,  a  well-known  genus  of 
the  ord.  Iriddcem;  saffron;  a  j^ellow  powder.  Croceous, 
a.  krd'sM-us,  like  saffron;  yellow\ 

CRO'CUS:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  Iridaceoi. 
The  species  have  much  general  similarity,  and  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  of  the  East.  Saffron  (q.v.) 
is  the  produce  of  G.  sativus.  Some  of  the  species  are  culti- 
vated in  gardens  for  the  beauty  of  their  flow^ers,  particu- 
larly those  w^hich,  as  C.  vernus  and  G.  luieus,  flower  very 
early  in  spring.  The  saffron  C.  and  some  other  species 
flower  in  autumn.  The  flowers  of  one  or  two  species  are 
fragrant.  It  is  necessary  frequently  to  take  up  C.  roots 
and  plant  anew%  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
corms  multiply,  see  Corm. 

810 


CROCUS  OF  ANT1M0NY->CR0FT. 
CRO  CUS  OF  AN  TIMONY:  oxysulphide  of  antimony 
(q.v.). 

CHO'CUS  OF  MARS:  finely  divided  red  oxide  of  iron. 

CROESUS,  kresus:  last  king  of  Lydia;  succeeded  his 
father,  Alyattes,  B.C.  560.  He  made  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor  his  tributaries,  and  extended  his  kingdom  eastward 
to  the  Halys.  From  his  conquests,  his  mines,  and  the 
golden  sand  of  the  Pactohis,  he  accumulated  so  much 
treasure,  that  his  wealth  has  become  proverbial.  He  gave 
himself  up  to  a  life  of  pleasure  and  sumptuous  extrava- 
gance, and  is  said  to  have  deemed  himself  the  happiest 
man  in  the  world,  and  to  have  been  displeased  when  Solon, 
on  a  visit  to  his  court,  told  him  that  no  man  should  be 
called  happy  till  his  death.  He  soon  found  how  uncertain 
was  a  happiness  such  as  his;  for  his  beloved  son  Atys  was 
killed  while  hunting,  and  there  was  left  to  him  only  one 
son,  who  was  dumb;  and  having  engaged  in  war  with 
Cyrus,  he  was  totally  defeated,  his  kingdom  conquered, 
and  himself  made  prisoner,  and  condemned  to  be  burned 
(546).  At  the  funeral  pyre,  his  repeated  exclamation  of 
'  O  Solon  !'  drew  on  him  the  attention  of  the  conqueror, 
and  the  reason  of  it  being  known,  his  life  was  spared,  and 
he  was  treated  with  great  kindness. 

CROFT,  n.  kr(yt  [AS.  croft,  a  small  farm:  Dut.  kroft,  a 
hillock,  high  land:  Gael,  croit]:  in  Scot,  and  OE.,  a  small 
field  connected  with  humble  kind  of  dwelling,  whose  in- 
habitant, the  renter  of  the  land,  is  called  a  ci'ofter.  In  the 
Highlands  and  islands  of  Scotland,  where  the  crofting  sys- 
tem is  especially  common,  it  is  usual  for  the  crofter  to 
have,  besides  his  cottage,  a  small  patch  of  land  for  tillage; 
while  the  crofters  of  the  township  collectively,  in  certain 
proportions  or  'summings,'  have  a  right  of  pasturage  on 
the  adjoining  hill  pasture  or  moorland.  Of  late,  grave 
complaints  have  been  made  by  the  crofters,  or  on  their 
behalf,  that  the  great  poverty  and  bad  farming  which  ad- 
mittedly prevail  among  them  are  due  to  removable  and 
unjust  causes.  It  is  alleged  that  they  have  no  leases; 
^  they  have  no  compensation  for  any  improvements  they 
may  make  on  their  holdings,  but  on  the  contrary,  usu- 
ally have  their  rents  capriciously  raised;  the  land  is  ex- 
hausted by  continual  manuring  with  sea-weed  only;  town 
ships  have  frequently  been  removed  from  fertile  land  and 
put  on  less  fertile  tracts  in  order  to  make  large  sheep 
runs  or  deer  forests;  the  number  of  crofters  on  a  given  area 
has  often  been  much  increased  in  a  given  township  or  area 
without  any  corresponding  reduction  in  rent;  while  evic- 
tion on  short  notice  depends  on  the  arbitrary  decree  of  the 
landlord  or  the  goodwill  of  the  factor.  01  hers  afiirm  that 
the  evils  complained  of  are  inseparable  from  the  system, 
which  is  inherently  bad;  that  the  natural  increase  of  the 
population  leads  to  the  excessive  subdivision  of  crofts  al- 
ready too  small  to  support  a  family;  and  that  the  small- 
ness  of  areas  to  till  makes  the  tillers  fitful  at  work  and 
lazy  in  habit.  A  royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the 
crofters'  grievances  took  evidence  1883:  see  their  bulky  re- 

211 


CROFT-CROKER. 

port,  published  1884.  Many  of  the  crofters  are  also  fisher- 
men  during  part  of  the  year.  Cottars  are  still  more  de- 
pendent than  the  crofters,  and  occupy  huts,  occasionally 
with  a  small  garden,  at  small  rents  or  sometimes  rent  free. 
See  Agriculture  :  Farm  :  Spade-husbandry. 

CROFT,  krofU  William,  Mus.  Doc:  1677-1727;  b. 
Warwickshire,  England:  organist  and  composer.  He  re- 
ceived a  thorough  musical  education;  was  appointed  or- 
ganist in  Westminster  Abbey  and  composer  to  the  chapel 
royal  1708;  received  his  degree  from  Oxford  Univ.  1715, 
and  published  an  edition  of  his  anthems  under  the  title  of 
Musica  Sacra,  2  vols,  folio,  1724.  His  remains  were  in- 
terred in  the  Abbey. 

CROIA,  kroyd,  or  Croja:  town  of  Albania,  Turkey,  on 
a  mountain  spur,  45  m.  s.e.  of  Scutari.  It  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  Mirdites,  a  Rom.  Cath.  tribe  of  Albanians, 
who  are  almost  independent.    Pop.  6,000. 

CROIX,  Ste.  (or  Santa  Cruz):  see  Santa  Cruz:  Vir- 
gin Islands. 

CROIX,  St.  (river):  see  St.  Croix. 

CROKER,  krd'ker,  John  Wilson:  1780,  Dec.  20—1857, 
Aug.;  b.  Galway,  Ireland:  English  politician  and  littera- 
teur. Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  entered 
Lincoln's  Inn  1800,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar.  His 
first  literary  attempt  was  a  satire  on  the  Irish  stage;  and  in 
1805,  he  published  another  equally  clever  satire  on  the  city 
of  Dublin.  In  1807,  he  issued  a  treatise  on  the  State  of 
Ireland,  Past  and  Present,  and  was  elected  member  of  par- 
liament for  Downpatrick.  A  warm  defense  in  parliament, 
1809,  of  the  Duke  of  York,  helped  C.  in  the  same  year  to 
the  office  of  sec.  to  the  admiralty,  a  post  which  he 
held  for  20  years.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Quarterly  Review,  and  contributed  many  of  the  most  vio- 
lent party  articles  to  its  pages,  as  well  as  a  large  number 
of  those  bitterly  personal  and  grossly  abusive  reviews 
which  were  wont  to  disfigure  that  periodical.  As  '  Rigby,' 
allowance  being  made  for  the  satire,  his  character  is  not 
badly  hit  off  by  Disraeli,  in  Coningshy.  In  parliament,  C. 
steadily  opposed  the  Reform  Bill  in  all  its  stages,  and  its 
enactment  ended  his  parliamentary  career;  but  on  all 
questions  relative  to  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts,  he  was 
much  ahead  of  the  great  majority  of  the  commons.  He 
was  active  in  the  establishment  of  the  Athenoeum  Club, 
and  rendered  good  service  to  literature  by  his  annotated 
edition  of  Bosweirs  Johnson,  and  his  publication  of  the 
Suffolk  Papers,  and  Lord  Hervey's  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of 
George  II.  His  Stories  from  the  History  of  England  for 
Children,  supplied  Scott  with  the  idea  of  Tales  of  a  Grand- 
father. 

CROKER,  T.  Crofton:  1798,  Jan.  15—1854,  Aug.  8; 
b.  Cork,  Ireland:  author.  He  early  began  the  collection 
of  legends  and  songs  of  the  Irish  peasantrj^;  and,  in  1824, 
he  published  his  Researches  in  the  South  of  Ireland,  charac- 
terized by  a  happy  blending  of  humor  and  sentiment,  with 
m 


CROLL'S  THEORY— CROMARTY  FIRTH. 

archeolog'ical  learning.  This  work  was  followed  by  the 
Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of  the  South  of  Ireland  (1825); 
Legends  of  the  Lakes  (1828);  Daniel  O'ltourke,  a  sort  of  Irish 
Miiuchhauseu  (1828);  Barney  Malioney  (1832);  My  Village 
(1832);  and  Popular  Songs  of  Ireland  (1839).  Bo^rney  Ma- 
honey  and  3Iy  Village  are  the  most  original.  C.  also  edited 
Memoirs  of  Joseph  Holt,  General  of  the  Irish  Rebels,  a  very  in- 
teresting work,  published  1838.  He  rendered  considerable 
service  to  archeology,  being  member  of  many  antiquarian 
societies.  Through  the  intluence  of  John  Wilson  Croker, 
a  friend,  but  no  relative,  he,  at  the  age  of  21,  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  the  admiralty. 

CROLL'S  THEORY  of  Climatic  Changes:  see  Glacial 
Period. 

CROLY,  kroli,  George,  D.D.:  abt.  1785-1860,  Nov.  24; 
b.  Dublin:  English  poet,  romance-writer,  and  preacher. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  entered  the 
English  Church,  and  ultimately  became  Rector  of  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Walbrook,  London.  His  first  work  was  a  poem, 
Paris  in  1815.  From  this  time  till  near  his  death,  his  pen 
was  almost  incessantly  at  work — on  satire,  comedy,  trag- 
edy, romance,  tales,  biography,  magazine  articles,  and  the 
weightier  matters  of  religion.  His  best  known  work  is  the 
romance  of  Salathiel.    C.  was  famous  as  a  pulpit  orator. 

CROMA,  n.  krd'ma  [It.]:  in  imisic,  a  quaver  (q.v.). 

CROMARTY,  krornar-ti:  parliamentary  burgh  and  sea- 
port in  the  united  counties  of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  Scot- 
land, on  a  low  peninsula  between  the  Moray  and  Cromarty 
Firths,  on  the  s.  side  of  the  entrance  into  the  latter,  and 
\8  m.  n.n.e.  of  Inverness.  It  is  irregularly  built,  and  its 
older  streets  and  lanes  are  in  the  homely  Flemish  architect- 
ure prevalent  in  the  old  towns  of  the  north  of  Scotland. 
The  harbor  admits  vessels  of  400  tons,  and  the  bay  has  ex- 
cellent anchorage  for  wind-bound  vessels.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  ropes,  sacking,  sailcloth,  and  beer.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  herring  and  white  fisheries.  C.  has  declined 
much  since  the  rise,  on  the  n.  side  of  Cromarty  Firth,  of 
Invergordon,  more  contiguous  to  the  important  districts  of 
Easter  and  Wester  Ross.  In  the  vicinity  of  C.  are  a  light- 
house and  coast-guard  station,  and  within  two  miles  are 
some  caves,  and  an  arch,  called  Macfarquhar's  Bed,  in  the 
old  red  sandstone,  which  rises  in  some  parts  250  ft.  Near 
C.  are  remains  of  ancient  chapels  and  camps.  Hugh  Miller 
was  a  native  of  Cromarty.    Pop.  (1881)  1,360. 

CROMARTY  FIRTH,  krdin'ar-ti  ferth:  landlocked  in- 
let of  the  North  Sea,  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  Scotland,  n.  w.  of  the 
Moray  Firth;  inclosed  by  parts  of  the  counties  Cromarty 
and  Ross.  It  forms  a  noble  harbor,  18  m.  long,  running 
S.W.,  3  to  5  m.  broad,  and  5  to  35  fathoms  deep.  It  receives 
several  rivers;  the  Conan,  entering  at  its  upper  end,  being 
35  m.  long.  The  entrance  to  C.  F.  is  by  a  strait  between 
two  high  wooded  cliffs  or  headlands,  the  north  and  south 
Sutors  of  Cromarty,  only  1^  mile  across,  with  12  to  80 
fathoms  of  water,  and  with  the  Three  Kings  Reef,  about  half 
m 


CROMARTYSHIRE-  CROMLECH. 

a  luiie  olf  land.  Near  the  Firth  are  the  towns  of  Dingwall, 
Invergordon,  and  Cromarty.  In  the  old  red  sandstone,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Firth,  Hugh  Miller  discovered  the  fossil 
fishes  Pterychthys,  Osteolepis,  etc. 

CROMARTYSHIRE,  krom'ar  il-slier:  county  of  the  n. 
of  Scotland,  intimately  connected,  geographically  and 
politically,  with  Ross-shire,  and  consisting  of  ten  detached 
portions  in  the  interior,  and  along  the  northern  borders  of 
Ross-shire.  Area,  344  sq.  m.,  or  less  than  one  eighth  of 
Ross-shire:  see  Ross  and  Cromarty. 

CROMDALE,  krom'ddl:  village  on  the  e.  bank  of  the 
Spey,  Inverness- shire,  at  which  was  fought  the  battle  oi 
C,  1690,  May  1,  between  a  small  remnant  of  the  adherents 
of  the  house  of  Stuart,  who  kept  in  arms  after  the  death  of 
Viscount  Dundee,  and  the  forces  of  King  William,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious.  This  encounter  has  been  ren- 
dered famous  by  a  song,  not  historically  accurate,  entitled 
The  Haughs  of  (Jromdale. 

CROME,  krom,  John  (sometimes  called  Old  Crome,  to 
distinguish  him  from  others  of  his  family  who  painted  in 
the  same  manner):  1769,  Dec.  21—1821,  Apr.  22;  b.  Nor- 
wich: English  landscape  painter.  While  a  coach -painter's 
apprentice  he  gave  his  leisure  to  sketching  from  nature, 
and  a  friend  enabled  him  to  exchange  this  work  for  that  of 
a  drawing-master,  which  became  the  occupation  of  his  life. 
C.  contributed  largely  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Norwich 
Soc.  of  Artists,  of  which  he  w^as  president,  and  sent  a  few 
paintings  to  the  London  Royal  Academy.  His  reputation 
has  increased  since  his  death,  and  he  now  takes  a  high 
place  amongst  English  landscape  painters.  His  subjects 
are  drawn  chiefly  fi'om  the  scenery  of  his  native  country, 
aud  he  is  a  masterly  draughtsman  of  trees.  His  '  Mouse- 
hold  Heath,'  in  the  national  gallery,  is  one  of  the  best  pict- 
ures of  a  broad,  open  heath  scene. 

CROMER,  kro'mer:  seaport  and  watering-place  on  then, 
coast  of  Norfolk,  England,  21m.  n.  of  Norwich.  It  stands 
on  the  top  of  one  of  the  highest  clift's  of  the  coast.  Nearly  all 
the  old  town,  called  Shipden,  with  one  of  the  churches,  was 
swept  away  by  the  sea  about  1500.  The  sea  is  still  gaining 
on  the  land,  and  some  houses  have  been  destroyed  by  it 
within  present  memory.  In  1825,  some  cliffs,  200  ft.  high, 
fell  into  the  sea.  Seamen  call  C.  Bay  the  Devil's  Throat, 
from  its  dangers  to  navigation.  Vessels  have  to  load  and 
unload  on  the  open  beach.  C.  has  fisheries  for  crabs,  lob- 
sters, herrings,  and  mackerel.  Pop.  of  parish,  abt.  1,500. 

CROMLECH,  n.  krom'Uk  [W.  cromlech,  a  crooked  stone 
— from  crom,  bending;  llech,  a  stone]:  ancient  monumental 
structure  of  rough  heavy  stones.  It  has  been  common 
among  British  archeologists,  until  lately,  to  apply  this 
name  to  a  rude  structure  of  two  or  more  unhewn  stones, 
placed  erect  in  the  earth,  and  supporting  a  larger  flat  stone, 
also  unhewn.  According  to  its  etymology,  however,  crom- 
lech (Celt,  crom,  circle,  and  lech,  a  stone)  is  the  proper  term 
for  cix'cles  of  erect  stones  like  Stonehenge  (see  Standing 

*214 


CilOMLECH. 

Stones);  and  the  name  dolmen  (Celt,  daul,  a  table,  maen,  a 
stone)  is  now  considered  more  appropriate  for  the  simple 
structure  formerly  called  a  cromlech.  Monuments  of  the 
kind  above  described,  whether  called  dolmens  or  crom- 
lechs, are  known  among  the  common  people  by  other 
names,  such  as  *  the  giant's  grave,'  '  the  giant's  bed,'  '  the 
giant's  quoit,'  *  the  fairies' table,'  'the  devil's  table,'  'the 
raised  stone,'  *  the  old  wives'  lift,'  '  the  hag's  bed,'  and  the 
like. 

Cromlechs  (properly  dolmens)  are  found  in  England, 
Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland,  the  Channel  Isles,  France,  Spain, 
Germany,  Denmark,  and  some  other  countries  of  Europe; 
in  Hindustan  and  elsewhere  in  Asia;  and  in  America. 


Kit's  Coty  House. 


They  are  generally  without  any  inclosure;  but  occasionally 
they  are  fenced  round  with  a  ring  of  unhewn  stones.  In  a 
good  many  instances,  cromlechs  have  been  discovered  in 
the  heart  of  earthen  mounds  or  barrows.  In  such  cases, 
the  rude  chamber  or  inclosure  of  the  C.  is  found  to  con- 
tain sepulchral  remains,  such  as  skeletons  or  urns,  together 
with  weapons  or  ornaments  generally  of  stone  or  bone, 
fragments  of  pottery,  and  bones  of  animals.  Similar  re- 
mains have  been  found  in  the  chambers  of  cromlechs  not 
known  to  have  been  at  any  time  covered  by  barrows. 
These  facts  have  led  modern  archeologists  to  believe 
that  the  C.  was  a  sepulchral  monument.  The  theory  of  the 
older  antiquaries,  that  the  C.  was  a  druidical  altar,  is  with- 
out any  foundation  in  what  has  been  recorded  of  the  dru- 
idical worship  by  trustworthy  writers.  In  a  C.  found 
under  a  barrow  in  Derbyshire,  a  skeleton  and  fragments  of 
urns  were  discovered,  with  Roman  coins  of  several  em- 
perors. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  cromlechs  in  England  are 
Kit's  Coty  House  in  Kent,  Wayland  Smith's  Cave  in  Berk- 
shire (commemorated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  Keiiilworth), 
and  Chun  Quoit  in  Cornwall.  The  weight  of  the  tlat  stone 
in  this  last  C.  is  estimated  at  about  20  tons.  In  the  Mar- 
quis of  Anglesey's  park  at  Plas  Newydd  in  Wales  there  are 
m 


CROMORNA-CROMPTON. 

two  cromlechs  close  beside  each  other:  in  the  larger,  five 
erect  stones  support  a  flat  stone  about  12  ft.  long,  10  ft. 
wide,  and  from  three  ft.  and  a  half  to  four  ft.  and  a  half 
thick.  Cromlechs  are  comparatively  rare  in  Scotland. 
The  best  among  the  well-ascertained  examples  is  perhaps 
that  called  'The  Auid  Wives'  Lift,'  near  Craigmeddan 
Castle,  in  the  parish  of  Baldernock  in  Stirlingshire,  the  re- 
cumbent stone,  a  mass  of  basalt,  is  18  ft.  long,  11  ft.  wide, 
and  6  or  7  ft.  thick,  and  the  two  stones  which  support  it 
are  of  nearly  the  same  size.  It  may  be  doubted  if  the 
partial  elevation  of  the  '  Witch's  Stone '  at  Bennington 
Mains,  near  Ratho,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  has  not 
been  produced  by  natural  causes.  Among  the  Irish  crom- 
lechs, one  of  the  most  striking  is  that  of  Kilternan,  about 
sixm.  from  Dublin:  the  recumbent  stone,  which  rests  upon 
six  blocks,  is  28^  ft.  long,  1?  ft.  wide,  and  6^  ft.  thick.  A 
cromlech  called  'The  Broadstone,' in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  standing  stones,  or  erect 
unhewn  pillars.  A  cromlech  in  the  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin, 
was  discovered  1838  in  removing  a  large  barrow:  speci- 
mens of  the  sepulchral  remains  found  in  it  are  shown  in 
the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,    See  Dolmen. 

CROMORNA,  n.  krd-mbr'nd  [F.  cromorne;  It.  cromor- 
72.(>]:  a  reed  stop  in  the  organ. 

CROMPTON,  kromp'ton,  Samuel:  inventor  of  the  spin- 
ning-mule: 1753,  Dec.  3—1827,  June  26;  b.  Firwood,  Bol- 
ton, Lancashire,  England.  Bolton,  in  those  days,  was 
nearly  inaccessible,  and  so  bleak  and  barren  that  agricul- 
ture was  not  followed  further  than  to  supply  the  wants  of 
the  population.  All  the  farmers  had  looms  in  their  houses, 
and  their  families  were  occupied  in  spinning  and  weaving. 
C.'s  father,  who  was  a  small  farmer,  lived  at  the  Hall-in- 
th'-Wood,  a  picturesque  old  mansion  near  Bolton.  He 
died  at  an  early  age,  leaving  a  wife  and  a  son  (Samuel),  and 
two  daughters.  Like  his  father,  C.  was  brought  up  to  the 
loom  and  the  farm.  His  mother,  a  woman  of  great  energy, 
perseverance,  and  stern  independence,  struggled  hard  to 
give  him  and  her  daughters  the  best  education  the  district 
afforded.  When  he  was  old  enough,  he  assisted  her  in  the 
farm,  and  wove;  going  to  Bolton  at  night  to  complete  his 
education  in  mathematics,  etc.  At  the  age  of  21,  he  was 
so  much  annoyed  at  the  difficulties  in  getting  yarn  to 
weave,  that  he  set  to  work  to  invent  a  spinning-machine 
which  should  produce  better  yarn  than  Hargreaves',  one  of 
which  his  mother  possessed.  For  five  years,  he  labored  to 
realize  his  idea,  sitting  up  late  at  night  to  overcome  the 
successive  difficulties,  and  resuming  his  labor  for  daily 
bread  early  in  the  morning.  At  length  he  succeeded  in 
framing  a  machine  which  produced  yarn  of  such  astonish- 
ing fineness,  that  the  house  w\^s  beset  by  persons  eager  to 
know  how  such  wonderful  and  desirable  yarn  could  be 
made.  He  was  rendered  miserable.  All  kinds  of  devices 
were  tried  to  gain  admission;  even  ladders  were  placed 
against  his  windows.  His  machine  was  such  that  if  a  me- 
chanic saw  it,  he  could  carry  away  the  leading  features  of 

216 


CROMPTON. 

it.  He  could  not  leave  the  house  for  fear  of  his  discovery 
beiug  stolen  from  him.  He  had  spent  every  farthing  he 
had  in  the  world  upon  its  completion;  he  had  no  funds 
wherewith  to  have  obtained  a  patent,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  a  patent  would  have  altered  his  fate.  When  he 
was  thus  almost  driven  to  desperation,  one  of  the  manu- 
facturers went  to  him  and  persuaded  him  to  disclose  the 
invention  to  the  trade,  under  the  promise  of  a  liberal  sub- 
scription. Inexperienced  in  the  world,  he  agreed  to  this. 
Tlie  machine  was  exhibited,  but  all  that  he  got  was  about 
£60.  This  money  was  not  paid  to  him  at  the  time,  but  he 
had  to  travel  for  many  miles  round  the  country  to  collect 
il.  Some  refused  to  pay,  though  he  showed  them  their 
signatures.  He  set  manfully  to  work  with  his  machine, 
determined  to  make  the  best  he  could  of  his  ill-luck.  In 
the  course  of  time,  he  saved  money  enough  to  begin  manu- 
facturing on  a  small  scale,  but  not  till  his  rivals  had  nearly 
20  years'  start  of  him  in  the  business.  Then  his  wife  died, 
leaving  him  a  large  family.  Efforts  were  made  to  obtain 
for  him  a  national  reward.  Five  thousand  pounds  was  all 
he  obtained,  and  he  returned  to  Bolton  almost  broken- 
hearted. Misfortune  upon  misfortune  overtook  him  till  he 
died.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  vast  services  he 
has  rendered  to  the  world,  and  especially  to  his  native 
land,  by  the  fact  that  his  is  by  far  the  most  used  of  all 
spinning-machines.  In  1811,  the  number  of  spindles  on 
O.'s  principle  was  4,600,000,  while  there  were  only  310,500 
of  Arkwright's,  and  155,880  of  Hargreaves'.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  it  is  conjectured  that  there  are  25,000,000  of  C.'s 
spindles  at  work.  Yet  this  great  genius  was  never  noticed 
by  his  king,  and  the  appointments  under  the  Factory  Acts 
to  which  his  descendants  might  have  aspired  have  been 
filled  by  the  relatives  or  nominees  of  her  Majesty's  min- 
isters. For  a  complete  account  of  this  great  improver  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  see  Life  of  Crompton,  by  Mr,  G. 
French,  1860. 

317 


CROMWELL. 

CROMWELL,  krum'wel  or  krom'wel,  Henky:  1628,  Jan. 
20—1673,  Mar.  23;  b.  HuntiDgdon,  England:  second  son  of 
the  Lord -Protector.  He  was  educated  at  Fclstead,  entered 
the  parliamentary  army  when  16  years  old,  had  command 
of  a  troop  in  Fairfax's  life  guards  when  20,  and  accompa- 
nied his  father  to  Ireland  as  col.  when  21.  He  was  elected 
to  parliament  by  Canj^bridge  Univ.  1654,  returned  to  Ire- 
land as  ma j  gen.  1655,  became  lord-deputy  1657,  was  re- 
called by  the  govt,  on  the  retirement  of  the  Protector,  and 
passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  Cambridgeshire  as  a 
farmer. 

CROM'WELL,  Oliver,  Lord  Protector  of  the  English 
Commonwealth:  1599,  Apr.  15—1658,  Sep.  3;  b.  Hunting- 
don. His  father  was  the  younger  son  of  Sir  Henry  Crom- 
well of  Hinchinbrook,  and  a  substantial  country  gentle- 
man, not  likely  to  have  been  a  brewer,  as  some  of  Oliver's 
earlier  biographers  assert.  By  his  mother,  genealogists 
trace  Oliver's  descent  from  the  royal  house  of  Stuart.  Of 
the  boy  Cromwell's  early  life  little  or  nothing  is  actually 
known.  What  is  clearly  ascertained  is,  that  after  having 
been  at  school  in  Huntingdon  he  went  to  Cambridge,  and 
entered  himself  of  Sidney-Sussex  College,  1616,  Apr.  23, 
He  had  but  short  time  for  study  here,  his  father  dying  in 
the  June  of  the  year  following,  when  he  returned  home  to 
take  the  management  of  his  father's  affairs.  The  stories 
of  his  wild  life  about  this  time  appear  to  have  no  better 
foundation  than  the  calumnies  of  his  royalist  opposers.  In 
1620,  Aug.,  C.  married  the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Bour- 
chier,  a  gentleman  of  landed  property  in  Essex,  who  had 
also  a  residence  in  London.  This  fact  seems  conclusive  as 
to  C.'s  social  position  being  much  above  what  his  enemies 
have  described  it.  C.  now  became  intimately  associated 
w^ith  the  Puritan  party,  among  whom  he  was  soon  distin,- 
guished  alike  for  his  earnestness  and  sagacity.  In  1628, 
having  been  elected  by  the  borough  of  Huntingdon,  C. 
made  his  lirst  appearance  in  parliament.  He  had  but  time 
to  make  a  short  blunt  speech  about  the  encouragement  of 
the  '  preaching  of  tiat  popery  at  Paul's  Cross  '  by  the  bishop 
of  Winchester,  when  the  infatuated  king  unceremoniously 
ciispatched  him  and  his  fellow-commoners  to  their  homes. 
C.  returned  to  the  fen-country,  not  much  impressed  in 
favor  of  kingcraft  by  his  visit  to  London;  and  for  the 
next  11  3^ears  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  pursuit  of 
farming  by  the  Black  Ouse  river  and  the  Cam,  first  at 
Huntingdon,  then  at  St.  Ives,  and  finally  at  Ely — making 
himself  famous,  not  by  political  agitation,  but  by  an  ef- 
fectual resistance  to  certain  unjust  schemes  of  the  king  in 
council  for  the  drainage  of  the  Fens.  In  1640,  he  was  sent 
to  parliament  as  member  for  the  town  of  Cambridge.  His 
appearance  at  this  time  Avas  by  no  means  prepossessing.  Sir 
Philip  Warwick  describes  him  in  '  a  plain  cloth  suit,  which 
seemed  to  have  been  made  by  an  ill  country  tailor;  his 
linen  was  plain,  and  not  very  clean;  and  I  remember  a 
speck  or  two  of  blood  upon  his  little  band,  which  was  not 
much  larger  than  his  collar.    His  hat  was  without  a  liat- 

21« 


CROMWELL. 

band;  his  stature  was  of  a  good  size;  his  sword  stuck  close 
to  his  side;  his  countenance  swollen  and  reddish;  his  voice 
sharp  and  untunable;  and  his  eloquence  full  of  fervor;' 
and  courth^  Sir  Philip  adds:  'It  lessened  much  my  rever 
ence  unto  that  great  council,  for  this  gentleman  was  very 
much  hearkened  unto  '  When  all  hope  of  reconciliation 
between  king  and  parliament  failed,  through  the  perfidy  of 
the  former,  0.  was  among  the  first  to  offer  of  his  substance 
to  aid  in  defense  of  the  state  In  1642,  July,  he  moved  in 
parliament  for  permission  to  raise  two  companies  of  volun- 
teers in  Cambridge,  having  been  careful  to  supply  the  nec- 
essary arms  beforehand  at  his  own  cost.  In  the  following 
month,  C.  seized  the  magazine  in  Cambridgeshire,  and 
prevented  the  royalists  from  carrying  ofi'  the  plate  (valued 
at  £20,000)  in  the  university  there.  As  captain  of  a  troop 
of  horse,  C.  exhibited  astonishing  military  genius;  and 
against  the  men  trained  by  himself — '  Cromwell's  Ironsides  ' 
— the  battle-shock  of  the  fiery  Rupert,  which  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  parliamentary  struggle  none  else  could  with- 
stand, spent  itself  in  vain.  Soon  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
colonel,  and  then  to  that  of  lieut.gen  ,  C,  in  the  fight  of 
Winceby,  on  the  bloody  field  of  Marston  (1644,  July  2), 
and  in  tlie  second  battle  of  Kewbur}^  (1644,  Oct.  27),  bore 
himself  with  distinguished  bravery;  but  owing  to  the 
backwardness  of  his  superiors,  the  results  of  these  victories 
to  the  parliamentary  cause  were  not  so  great  as  they  might 
reasonably  have  been.  C.  thus  complained  in  parliament 
of  the  backwardness  of  his  superiors,  Essex  and  Manches- 
ter: '  I  do  conceive  if  the  army  be  not  put  into  another 
method,  and  the  war  more  vigorously  prosecuted,  the  peo- 
])le  cjui  bear  the  war  no  longer,  and  will  enforce  you  to  a  dis- 
honorable peace.'  Hereupon,  the  '  Self-denying  Ordi- 
nance ' — an  act  excluding  members  of  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment from  holding  conunand  in  the  army — was  passed;  but 
('.'s  services  were  considered  of  such  importance  to  the 
common  weal,  that  they  were  exceptionally  retained.  Of 
the  new  model  army,  Fairfax  was  appointed  general,  C. 
serving  under  him  as  lieut.gen.  of  the  horse,  and  in  this 
capacity  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  parliamen- 
tary army  at  Naseby,  1645,  June,  and  acquitted  himself  so 
well  there  that  the  king's  forces  were  utterly  ruined. 
The  royalists  in  the  west  were  now  speedily  reduced.  Bris- 
tol was  stormed;  everywhere  the  royal  cause  was  failing; 
and  Charles  himself,  reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  in  1646, 
May,  escaped  from  Oxford  in  disguise,  and  threw  himself 
into  the  arms  of  the  Scotch  army  at  Newark  (1646,  May  5), 
by  whom  he  was  shortly  given  up  to  the  parliamentary  com- 
missioners. The  source  of  the  strife  now  fairly  within 
their  grasp,  the  parliament  and  the  army,  in  the  former  of 
which  the  Presb}' terian,  and  in  the  latter  the  Independent, 
element  predominated,  became  jealous  of  each  other's 
power.  With  his  usual  sagacity,  C.  perceived  that  the  ad- 
vantage would  lie  with  that  party  who  held  possession  of 
the  king's  person,  and  with  ready  decision  he  had  him  re- 
moved from  the  hands  of  the  commissioners  into  those  of 


CROMWELL. 

the  army,  1647,  June.  Some  of  the  leading  Presbyterians 
were  now  turned  out  of  parliament  by  the  army,  and  Inde- 
pendency, with  C.  at  its  head,  was  gradually  obtainiog  the 
ascendency.  The  king  still  remained  with  the  army,  and, 
with  his  usual  duplicity,  negotiated  with  both  parties,  not 
without  hope  that  out  of  their  mutual  dissensions  might 
arise  advantage  to  himself.  1647,  Nov.  11,  the  king  made 
his  escape  from  Hampton  Court.  Two  days  afterward  he 
was  in  custody  of  Colonel  Hammond  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
At  this  time  the  country  was  in  a  critical  condition.  The 
Welsh  had  risen  in  insurrection,  a  Scotch  army  was  bear- 
ing down  from  the  north  with  hostile  intent,  and  Rupert, 
to  whom  17  English  ships  had  deserted,  was  threatening  a 
descent  from  Holland,  not  to  speak  of  the  rampant  royal- 
ism  of  Ireland.  Prompt  measures  alone  could  prevent  an- 
archy and  inextricable  confusion,  and  C.  was  not  afraid  to 
employ  them.  Pembroke  had  to  surrender,  and  at  Pres- 
ton Moor  the  Scotch  were  utterly  defeated.  On  the  return 
of  the  army  to  Loudon,  the  Presbyterians,  who  were  still 
blindly  temporizing  with  the  king,  to  the  number  of  more 
than  100,  were  driven  out  (1648,  Dec.)  by  the  process  known 
in  history  as  *  Pride's  Purge.'  Then  that  which  C.  thought 
the  only  event  that  could  end  the  strife  happened.  In 
1649,  Jan.,  the  king  was  tried,  condemned,  and  put  to 
death.  The  abolition  of  the  house  of  lords  followed  speed- 
ily, and  C.  became  a  prominent  member  of  the  new  coun- 
cil of  state;  and  in  the  army,  though  still  only  lieut.gen., 
he  had  really  much  more  influence  than  the  commander- 
in-chief.  The  royalists  being  still  strong  and  rebellious  in 
Ireland,  C.  went  thither  in  August,  with  the  title  of  lord- 
lieiit.,  and  commander  in-chief  of  the  army  there;  and  ere 
nine  months  had  passed  he  had  subdued  the  country  so  far 
that  it  might  be  safely  left  to  the  keeping  of  his  son-in-law, 
Ireton.  C.'s  measures  for  crushing  the  Irish  rebels  were 
severe,  and  even  sanguinary,  but,  nevertheless,  peace  and 
prosperity  followed  in  a  degree  unknown  before  in  the  his- 
tory of  that  unhappy  country.  Alfairs  in  Scotland  now" 
claimed  C.'s  attention.  Scotch  commissioners  had  been 
negotiating  with  Charles  II.  at  Breda,  had  urged  him  to 
come  among  them  and  take  the  covenant,  and  they  would 
crown  him  king  over  them  at  least,  and  do  what  force  of 
arms  could  do  to  make  him  king  of  England  also.  Charles 
arrived  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  1650,  June  23;  three  days 
thereafter,  Cromwell — the  Presbyterian  Fairfax  having  re- 
fused to  tight  against  the  Presbyterian  Scotch — was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  all  the  parliament  forces. 
On  July  15,  Charles  Stuart  had  signed  the  covenant,  and 
was  fully  accepted  by  the  Scotch  as  king.  On  Sep  3,  C. 
routed  the  Scotch  army  at  Dunbar.  Charles,  with  what 
force  remained,  and  other  accessions,  afterward  marched 
southward,  and  had  penetrated  to  Worcester,  when  C.  came 
up  with  him,  and  utterly  overthrew  the  royalists  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  This  battle  placed  C.  avow- 
edly at  the  head  of  public  alfairs  in  England,  and  to  write 
his  biography  f  rom^  this  time,  would  be  to  write  the  history 
of  the  Commonwealth.  The  Long  Parliament  had  now  de- 


CROMWELL. 

generated  into  the  Rump — had  become,  in  truth,  an  oli- 
garchy, given  to  long  and  useless  discussions  about  mere 
technicalities — intolerable  to  the  country  alike  for  the  ex- 
traordinary power  it  possessed,  and  for  the  weak,  pusillan- 
imous way  in  w^hich  it  exercised  it.  C,  therefore,  dis- 
solved the  Rump,  1653,  Apr.  20,  and  henceforth  he  alone 
was  ruler  in  England.  He  immediately  summoned  a  par- 
liament of  140  persons,  138  of  whom  assembled  July  4,  but 
he  found  it  necessary  to  dissolve  it  Dec.  12;  its  one  great 
work  having  been  the  legal  investiture  of  C.  wdth  the  su- 
preme power  and  the  title  of  lord  protector,  a  position  upon 
w^hich  the  principal  foreign  powers  hastened  to  congratu- 
late him.  C.  now  acted  in  a  very  arbitrary  manner,  so  far 
as  his  parliaments  were  concerned,  calling  them  and  dis- 
missing them  at  pleasure;  but  his  home  policy,  notwith- 
standing, w^as  just  and  liberal  toward  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  conducive  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country;  while 
his  foreign  policy  w^as  such  as  to  secure  England  a  position 
among  nations  more  commanding  than  she  had  ever  oc- 
cupied before.  Under  C.'s  rule,  swift  retribution  follow^ed 
any  indignity  or  injury  to  Englishmen,  no  matter  by  w^hom 
or  where  perpetrated;  and  religious  persecutors  on  the  con- 
tinent, in  terror,  stayed  their  bloody  sw'ords  on  the  stern 
summons  of  the  Lord  Protector.  He  died  1658,  Sep.  3,  the 
anniversary  of  some  of  his  most  important  victories.  C. 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey;  but  1661,  Jan.  30  (the 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  Charles  I.),  his  grave,  with 
those  of  Ireton  and  Bradshaw,  were  broken  open,  the  cof- 
fins dragged  to  Tyburn,  where  the  moldering  bodies  w^ere 
hanged,  and  then  thrown  into  a  deep  hole  under  the  gal- 
lows, while  their  heads  w^ere  set  upon  poles  on  the  top  of 
Westminster  Hall.  Such  was  the  sacrilegious  brutality  of 
the  king  and  clergy  (for  the  deed  was  done  by  their  author- 
ity) toward  England's  greatest  ruler.  It  was  long  a  fash- 
ion wdth  historians,  content  to  rely  upon  the  calumnies 
and  falsehoods  of  royalist  writers,  to  represent  C.  as  a 
monster  of  cruelty  and  hypocrisy — a  man  with  a  natural 
taste  for  blood,  who  made  use  of  religious  phraseology 
merely  to  subserve  his  own  ambitious  ends;  but  after  the 
researches  of  Carlyle  and  Guizot,  the  eloquence  of  Macau- 
lay,  and  the  clear  statement  and  sound  sense  of  Forster, 
such  a  view  can  no  longer  be  held.  C.'s  religion  w^as  no 
mere  profession,  it  was  the  very  essence  of  the  man;  by 
nature,  he  was  not  a  blood-shedder,  and  when  necessity 
demanded  the  grim  exercise  of  the  sword,  he  unsheathed 
it  with  reluctance.  Never  was  a  religious  man  less  of  a 
bigot;  he  w^ould  not,  so  far  as  his  iron  will  could  effect  his 
purpose,  permit  any  one  to  be  persecuted  for  religious 
opinions.  He  delivered  Biddle,  the  founder  of  English 
Unitarianism,  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Westminster  divines. 
He  would  have  even  given  the  despised  and  persecuted  Jews 
the  right  hand  of  citizenship.  He  grasped  powder,  and  dis- 
pensed with  the  formality  of  parliaments,  only  because  in 
a  time  of  fearful  crisis,  and  of  plots  and  intrigues  on  every 
side,  he  sought  to  promote,  in  the  speediest  possible  man- 
ner, the  prosperity,  happiness,  and  glory  of  his  native  land, 
m 


CliOMWELL. 

CROM'WELL,  Richard:  son  of  Oliver,  Lord  Protector 
of  England:  1626,  Oct.  4-1712;  b.  Huntingdon;  in  early 
life,  lie  was  noted  chietiy  for  indolence  and  love  of  pleas- 
ure, qualities  that  united  him  more  closely  to  the  cavaliers 
than  to  the  party  of  earnest  men  of  which  his  father  was 
the  chief.  When  Oliver  attained  the  dignity  of  lord  pro- 
tector, he  called  his  son  from  the  obscurity  of  a  country- 
house,  and  his  field-sports,  to  have  him  elected  for  the 
counties  of  Monmouth  and  Southampton,  appointed  him 
first  lord  of  trade  and  navigation,  and  made  him  chancellor 
of  Oxford.  In  none  of  these  capacities  did  Richard  C. 
exhibit  any  aptitude;  and  his  failure  as  protector,  to  which 
high  office  (being  the  eldest  surviving  son)  he  succeeded,  on 
the  death  of  his  father  1658  Sept. — was  still  more  con- 
spicuous. With  a  mediocre  intellect,  and  no  energy,  with 
hardly  a  friend  in  the  army,  and  with  the  first  parliament 
that  he  called  against  him,  the  result  could  not  be  other- 
wise than  it  was— his  demission,  1659,  Apr. — little  more 
than  seven  months  after  he  had  assumed  the  sceptre  of  the 
Commonwealth.  He  retired  to  Hampton  Court,  whence 
parliamentary  stinginess  and  pressing  creditors  soon  drove 
him  to  the  continent,  where  he  resided  for  a  considerable 
period.  At  length,  returning  to  England,  he  had  a  house 
provided  for  him  at  Cheshunt,  near  London,  where  he 
resided  in  strict  privacy  until  his  death. 

CROM'WELL,  Thomas:  English  statesman  and  eccle^ 
siastical  reformer,  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL :  abt.  1490- 
1540,  July  28;  b.  near  London,  in  very  humble  circum- 
stances, his  father  being  a  blacksmith.  After  a  very  mea- 
gre education,  he  went  to  the  continent,  and  became  clerk 
in  a  factory  at  Antwerp,  where  he  gave  his  spare  time  to 
the  acquisition  of  languages,  in  which  he  became  very  pro- 
ficient. In  1510,  he  went  into  Italy,  where  he  appears  to 
have  resided  until  about  1517,  when  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land; and,  after  some  time,  w^as  received  into  the  house- 
hold of  Wolsey.  That  prelate,  speedily  recognizing  his 
abilities,  made  him  his  solicitor  and  chief  agent  in  all  im- 
portant business.  As  a  member  of  the  house  of  commons, 
C.  warmly  and  successfully  defended  the  fallen  minister, 
his  master,  against  the  bill  of  impeachment — proof  enough 
that  he  was  not  the  heartlessly  ambitious  man  that  his  ene- 
mies have  represented  him.  Henrj^  admiring  his  chiv- 
alry, and  appreciating  his  talent,  made  him  his  own 
secretary;  knighted  him  in  1531,  and  made  him  a  privy- 
councilor.  Honors  rapidly  flowed  in  upon  him;  partly 
in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  his  having  suggested  to 
Henry  the  desirableness  of  throwing  off  the  papal  yoke 
altogether — an  idea  which  suited  well  with  the  king's 
impetuous  nature — but  chiefly,  no  doubt,  on  account  of 
his  great  al)ilities.  In  1534,  he  had  become  chief  sec. 
of  state,  and  master  of  the  rolls;  in  the  following  year, 
he  was  made  visitor-gen.  of  English  monasteries — which 
he  afterward  suppressed  in  such  fashion  as  to  obtain  for 
himself  the  designation  of  Malleus  Monacliorum — and 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal  in  1536.  In  1539— to  pass  over  a 
variety  of  minor  tokens  of  royal  approbation — he  had 


CRONE. 

risen  to  be  Earl  of  Essex — having  had  some  30  monastic 
manors  and  estates  given  him  to  keep  up  the  dignity  of  his 
title— and  Lord  Chamberlain  of  Enghmd.  C.  led  in  estab- 
lishing the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  though  he  seems 
to  have  done  so  less  on  religious  than  on  political  grounds. 
Tlie  destruction  of  the  pope's  authority,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  supremacy  of  the  king  in  England,  v^ere  w^hat 
he  labored  to  elfect;  and  with  this  view,  he  promulgated 
the  articles  of  the  new  faith,  had  English  Bibles  placed  in 
the  churches,  and  the  youth  of  the  nation  taught  the 
Creed,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer; 
and  ordered  the  removal  of  all  images  from  the  altar.  In 
this  matter  of  ecclesiastical  polity,  he  has,  says  Mr.  Froude 
(Vol.  Ill  of  his  History  of  England),  Meft  the  print  of  his 
individual  genius  stamped  indelibly,  while  the  metal  was 
at  white  heat,  into  the  constitution  of  the  country.  Wave 
after  wave  has  rolled  over  his  wwk.  Romanism  tlow^ed 
back  over  it  under  Mary;  Puritanism,  under  another  even 
grander  Cromwell,  overwhelmed  it.  But  Romanism  ebbed 
again,  and  Pui  itanism  is  dead,  and  the  polity  of  the  Church 
of  England  remains  as  it  was  left  by  its  creator.'  In  all 
that  concerned  the  state,  in  its  vastest  and  most  complicated 
foreign  relations,  as  well  in  the  smallest  matters  of  sanitary 
reform  at  home,  C.  took  an  active  personal  interest.  But 
the  stern,  almost  savage  manner  in  which,  in  the  carrying 
out  of  his  policy,  he  disposed  of  all  who  opposed  him,  led 
to  many  and  loud  complaints,  which  damaged  somewhat 
his  popularity  with  the  king.  In  order  to  retrieve  his  lost 
ground,  he  was  zealous  in  promoting  the  marriage  of  Henry 
with  Anne  of  Cleves,  from  whom,  on  account  of  her 
known  Lutheran  tendencies,  he  expected  strong  support. 
The  success  of  his  elforts  in  this  matter  proved  the  utter 
ruin  of  C,  for  the  king,  early  conceiving  a  strong  aversion 
to  his  unlovely  queen,  extended  that  dislike  to  the  minister 
who  had  so  strenuously  promoted  the  marriage.  Com- 
plaints against  C.  poured  in  thicker  and  faster,  and  the 
royal  ear  was  not  unwilling  to  listen  now.  Charges  of 
malversation  and  treason  were  made,  and  he  was  arrested 
and  thrown  into  prison  1540,  June  10;  a  bill  of  attainder 
was  quickly  drawn  up,  and  passed  the  two  houses  of  par- 
liament with  little  difficulty;  and  on  July  28,  C.  laid  his 
head  on  the  block  on  Tower  Hill.  A  statesman  of  un- 
doubted genius,  he  saw  what  was  best  for  his  country,  and 
did  it — not  certainly  in  a  way  commending  itself  to  the 
judgment  of  the  present  time — but,  perhaps,  among  the 
best  and  only  sure  modes  that  could  be  devised  in  his  age. 
He  was  undoubtedly  unscrupulous,  and  very  haughty 
toward  the  high;  but  the  poor  and  weak  found  him  easily 
accessible,  and,  when  wronged,  a  warm  defender;  and 
though  he  was  rapacious,  the  hungry  had,  nevertheless, 
to  thank  his  generosity  for  many  a  meal. 

CRONE,  n.  krdn  [Gael,  cronon,  a  low  murmuring  sound; 
cvion,  dry,  withered:  Scot,  cr(?6>?^,  a  hollow  continued  moan]: 
a  name  applied  to  a  supposed  witch  v/ho  sings  or  chants  her 
incantations;  an  old  woman;  in  OE.,  an  old  ewe.  Crony, 
n.  kro'nij  an  intimate  companion  or  acquaintance. 

2'23 


CRONSTADT— CROOK. 

CRONSTADT,  kron'stdt  (Hungarian  Brasso):  town  of 
Transylvania,  romantically  situated  amid  the  East  Carpa- 
thians, 2,000  ft.  above  the  sea;  lat.  45°  36'  n.,  long.  25°  33'  e. 
It  consists  of  an  inner  town,  surrounded  by  walls,  and  of 
three  extensive  suburbs.  The  centre  town,  which  dates 
from  the  13th  c,  is  well  and  regularly  built,  and  contains 
some  handsome  buildings,  chief  of  which  is  a  Gothic  Prot. 
church,  built  in  the  14th  c.  This  part  is  almost  exclusively 
inhabited  by  Saxons.  The  suburbs,  surrounded  with  gar- 
dens and  orchards,  with  here  and  there  the  hoary  ruins  of 
some  old  castle,  or  the  sloping  roofs  of  some  modern  villa, 
rising  above  the  trees,  have  a  pleasant  and  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. The  suburbs  are  occupied  chietly  by  Wallachs 
and  Magyars.  Linens,  cottons,  coarse  woolens,  hosiery, 
paper,  etc. ,  are  manufactured  here  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. C.  was  the  first  town  in  Transylvania  where  a  print- 
ing press  was  established,  and  the  first  issues  from  it  were 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  the  works  of  Luther.  Pop. 
(1880)  29,584. 

CRON'STADT:  strongly  fortified  seaport,  about  20  m. 
w.  of  St.  Petersburg,  on  a  narrow  calcareous  island  abt. 
5  m.  long;  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
over  against  the  mouth  of  the  Neva;  lat.  (of  cathedral) 
59°  59'  46"  n.,  long.  29°  46'  38"  e.  C.  is  at  once  the  great- 
est naval  station  and  the  most  flourishing  commercial 
port  of  Russia.  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  1710, 
the  island  having  been  taken  from  the  Swedes  by  him 
1703.  Its  fortifications,  which  protect  the  approach  to 
St.  Petersburg,  have  been  an  object  of  great  attention  to 
the  Russian  government.  The  batteries  are  very  numer- 
ous, defending  every  part  of  the  channel  by  which  vessels 
can  enter.  They  all  are  of  granite,  and  armed  with  the 
heaviest  ordnance.  The  place,  indeed,  was  considered  by 
the  British  admiral  who  reconnoitered  it  during  the  Rus- 
sian war  of  1854-5,  so  impregnable  that  it  would  have 
been  madness  to  make  any  attempt  upon  it.  C,  which  is 
the  seat  of  the  Russian  Admiralty,  has  three  harbors:  the 
east,  intended  for  vessels  of  war,  and  capable  of  accommxO- 
dating  30  ships  of  the  line;  the  middle  harbor,  where  ves- 
sels are  fitted  up  and  repaired,  and  which  is  connected 
with  the  former  by  a  broad  canal;  and  the  west  or  Mer- 
chant's Harbor,  for  the  merchant-shipping,  with  capacity 
for  1,000  vessels;  all  are  admirably  defended.  Not  only 
the  trade  of  St.  Petersburg  is  conducted  through  this  port, 
but  that  of  a  great  part  of  the  interior  of  Russia,  which  is 
connected  with  it  by  navigable  rivers  and  canals.  C.  con- 
tains many  well-built  houses.  Pop.  (in  summer,  with  the 
garrison  of  about  20,000  men)  45,000  or  50,000;  in  winter 
much  less. 

CROOK,  n.  kruJc  [Icel.  krokr,  a  hook:  Dut.  kroke,  a  fold, 
a  curl:  Dan.  krog;  Gael,  crocan,  a  hook]:  anything  bent;  a 
curve;  a  shepherd's  staff  curved  at  the  end:  in  OE.,  a  gib- 
bet: in  musical  instriunents,  such  as  the  French-horn  or 
trumpet,  a  circular  tube,  which  fits  into  the  end  of  the  in- 
strument next  the  mouthpiece,  for  the  purpose  of  making 


CROOKED  ISLAND- CROP. 

the  pitch  of  the  instrument  suit  the  key  of  the  music;  the 
notes  of  the  parts  for  these  instruments  being  always  written 
in  the  natural  key  of  C,  with  the  name  of  the  key  of  the 
piece  marked  in  letters.  Shepherd's  crook:  see  Pastoral 
Staff.  Crook,  v.  to  bend;  to  curve;  to  turn  from  a 
straight  line.  Crooking,  imp.  Crooked,  pp.  krukt: 
Adj.  kruk'ed,  bent;  curved;  awry;  winding;  perverse;  de- 
ceitful; without  rectitude.  Crook  edly,  ad. -t^c^-r^.  Crook' - 
EDNESS,  n.  state  of  being  crooked;  a  winding  or  bending. 
Crook-back,  a  hunchback. 

CROOKED  ISLAND:  one  of  the  Bahamas;  area  160  sq. 
m.;  s.e.  of  Long  Island,  of  which  the  n.w.  extremity  forms 
nearly  the  middle  point  of  the  chain.  In  common  with 
some  others  of  the  group,  it  is  valuable  chiefly  for  its  salt. 
In  the  exportation  of  this  article,  C.  1.  appears  to  stand  third 
in  order,  its  share  counting  about  12,000  bushels  annually. 
The  Bahama  salines  are  more  important  from  the  fact  that, 
for  the  curing  of  fish,  salt  obtained  by  solar  evaporation  is 
preferred  to  that  procured  from  mines.    Pop.  630. 

CROON,  n.  krdn  [an  imitative  word  (see  Crone):  Gael. 
cronan,  any  low  monotonous  sounds;  cro7i,  time]:  a  low 
continued  moan;  a  plain  simple  melody;  the  soft  moan  of 
doves:  V.  to  make  a  continuous  low  noise;  to  sing  in  a  low 
tone,  or  softly;  to  keep  time  in  a  dirge.  Croon  ing,  imp. 
Crooned,  pp.  krOnd. 

CROP,  n.  krop  [AS.  crop,  top,  craw  of  a  bird:  Gael. 
crap  or  cnapy  a  knob,  a  little  hill:  W.  cropa,  the  crop  or 
craw  of  a  bird:  Icel.  kroppr,  a  bump  on  the  body:  OF. 
crope,  the  top  or  protuberance  of  a  hill:  Dut.  krop,  the  knob 
of  the  throat:  Ger.  kropf,  the  craw  of  a  bird — lit.,  the  head, 
top,  or  prominent  part  of  a  thing]:  craw  of  a  bird;  first 
stomach  into  which  a  bird's  food  descends;  anything 
gathered  into  a  heap;  the  gathered  harvest;  corn  or  other 
vegetable  products  while  growing,  or  after  being  gathered; 
hair  cut  close:  V.  to  cut  or  pluck  the  ends  or  tops  off;  to 
mow  or  reap;  to  sow^  or  plant.  Crop  ping,  imp.:  N.  the 
act  of  cutting  off;  the  raising  of  crops.  Cropped,  pp.  a. 
krojjt,  plucked;  cut  short;  eaten  off.  Neck  and  crop, 
altogether;  at  once;  bag  and  baggage.  To  crop  out,  in 
geol.,  to  come  to  the  surface,  as  the  edge  of  any  inclined 
stratum,  which  is  called  the  crop  or  outcrop:  the  line  of 
outcrop  of  a  bed  along  a  level  surface  is  called  its  strike. 
Crop  FUL,  n.  -fid,  a  full  crop  or  belly.  Crop  per,  n.  -per, 
a  pigeon  with  a  large  crop.  Crop-sick,  sick  from  excess 
in  eating  or  drinking.  Crop-ear,  an  animal  having  its 
ears  cropped. 

225 


CROQUET. 

CROQUET,  n.  krd~kd'  or  krd'hl  [F.  croquet,  crisp  bread, 
a  hard  bake  or  biscuit.  Note. — This  word  is  a  F.  spelling 
only,  and  its  origin  is  doubtful :  perhaps  it  is  merely  a  cor- 
ruption of  an  imitative  cry,  such  as,  croc  croc;  or,  from  mid. 
L.  croca,  a  curved  stick;  Icel.  krokr,  a  crook] :  open-air  game, 
in  which  two  or  more  players  endeavor  to  drive  balls,  by 
means  of  mallets,  through  a  series  of  arches  set  in  the  ground 
according  to  some  pattern.  The  player  who  first  makes  the 
complete  tour  of  arches  and  stakes  wins;  but  during  the  game 
each  player  may  have  the  "progress  of  his  ball  retarded  by 
his  adversaries,  or  assisted  by  his  allies.  Although  generally 
spoken  of  as  a  modern  game,  it  seems-to  be  really  a  revival 
with  modifications  of  the  sport  with  a  mallet  and  ball  which 
was  popular  in  England  in  the  days  of  the  Stuarts,  and  gave 
the  name  Pall  Mall  to  localities  in  various  towns  in  England 
as  well  as  on  the  continent  (see  Ball).  The  name  (It.  pallet, 
a  ball,  and  maglio,  mallet;  Fr.  palemaille),  suggests  an  Ital- 
ian origin;  but  the  game  was  early  in  vogue  in  France,  and 
tbence  passed  into  England,  probably  in  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century.  Blount's  OlossograpMa  describes  the 
game  (see  Ball),  and  gives  figures  of  the  mallets.  This 
game  seems  to  have  gone  out  of  fashion  early  in  the  18th 
century.  Who  resuscitated  it  in  its  modern  form,  and  how 
it  got  the  name  of  croquet,  are  questions  that  have  not  been 
answered.  Since  1850,  C.  has  l3een  a  favorite  game,  and 
was  for  a  time  the  most  prevalent  of  all  summer  amusements, 
though  latterly  it  has  largely  given  place  to  lawn-tennis. 

The  game  may  be  very  well  played  on  a  well-rolled  close- 
cut  lawn,  but  for  delicacy  and  accuracy  of  play,  and  for 
scientific  skill,  the  modern  ground  is  made  a  perfectly  level 
hard-rolled  sanded  field.  All  tournament  games  must  be 
played  on  a  ground  of  this  kind.  The  sanded  surface  gath- 
ers no  dampness  as  evening  hours  approach  (the  most  com- 
mon time  for  play,  especially  in  warm  weather);  and  the 
caution  against  damp  feet  on  the  dew-covered  grass  is  un- 
necessary. Lawn-C,  however,  is  not  to  be  discouraged. 
From  the  ranks  of  good  lawn -players  the  best  scientific 
players  have  come;  and  it  fosters  a  love  for  the  game. 

In  preparing  the  C.  field,  the  top-soil  should  be  sifted  if 
necessary  to  free  it  from  stones  and  pebbles,  and  covered 
after  hard  rolling  with  a  very  slight  sprinkling  of  fine  sand. 
The  allotted  field  should  be  surrounded  by  an  upright  board 
or  other  barrier  four  or  five  inches  high  to  keep  the  balls 
within  limits,  with  corner  pieces  18  inches  long.  An  inside 
boundary  line  is  made  about  three  feet  within  the  outside 
barrier,  upon  which  to  p'lace  balls  in  position  for  play  that 
have  passed  over  the  boundary  line  and  have  not  rolled 
back.  It  is  simply  a  mark  or  scratch  in  the  sand  made 
around  the  field;  and  the  three  feet  between  this  inside  and 
the  outside  bound  may  well  be  a  slope,  so  that  the  balls  may 
roll  back  gently. 

The  C.  field  should  measure  80x45  ft.  The  surface  should 
be  well-rolled  dirt,  lightly  sanded  to  hold  the  balls.  The 
arches  must  not  be  more  than  four  inches  in  width  and  eight 
to  ten  inches  above  ground.  In  all  prize  tournament  games  the 
arches  must  be  not  more  than  three  and  three-foujth  inches 


CUOQUET. 

in  width,  and  the  *  cage '  or  centre  wicket  must  be  not  more 
than  three  and  one-hall  inches  in  width  by  18  inches  in  length. 
This  wicket  must  be  set  in  the  centre  of  the  field  with  its 
long  axis  at  right  angles  with  a  line  drawn  from  stake  to 
stake.  It  is  so  situated  to  make  the  *  wiring'  of  balls 
more  difficult. 

The  arches  should  be  sunk  into  the  ground  six  or  eight 
inches,  or  set  in  blocks  of  wood,  buried  under  the  surface,  to 
insure  stability.  When  the  ground  will  admit  of  it,  the 
stakes  should  be  placed  70  ft  apart;  the  first  arch  7  ft.  in 
front  of  the  starting  stake;  the  second,  7  ft.  from  the  first; 
the  third,  14  ft.  to  the  right,  and  one  foot  in  advance,  of 
the  second;  the  fourth  on  a  line  with  the  first  and  second, 
and  21  ft.  in  advance  of  the  second;  the  remaining  five  at 
the  same  relative  distances:  thus  there  will  be  five  arches  in 
line  between  the  stakes,  and  four  wing  arches.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  above  that  the  course  of  play  is  from  the  sec- 
ond arch  to  the  third  on  the  right. 

The  mallets  should  be  of  boxwood,  seven  or  seven  and 
one-half  inches  long,  by  two  &nd  one  fourth  to  tv^o  and  one- 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  handle  from  eight  to  fifteen 
inches  in  length,  as  best  suits  the  player.  The  best  balls  are 
of  hard  rubber;  and  in  all  National  ^Association  games  they 
must  be  of  hard  rubber,  three  and  one  fourth  inches  in  di- 
ameter. They  can  be  easily  painted,  by  using  a  preparation 
of  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  mixing  with  Chinese  vermil- 
ion for  red,  Prussian  blue  and  zinc  or  flake  w^hite  for  blue; 
and  zinc  or  flake  white  for  white.  Thus  painted  they  will 
dry  in  a  few  minutes  and  wear  for  several  days. 

C.  is  as  scientific  as  billiards,  but  with  a  greater  field 
(literally  as  well  as  otherwise)  for  strategy,  the  exercise  of 
deliberate  judgment,  nerve,  coolness  and  boldness  of  play. 
The  eye  and  the  hand  become  trained.  Lawn-tennis  calls 
for  muscular  action  in  immediate  response  to  counter-play: 
judgment  must  be  instantaneous,  and  muscular  movements 
rapid  and  fatiguing.  C.  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  its 
deliberate  strokes,  its  moderate  exercise  and  non-fatiguing 
efforts  even  when  prolonged. 

The  chief  points  of  excellence  in  C.  may  be  enumerated 
as  follows: 

First:  Accuracy  in  croqueting  or  making  one  ball  hit 
another  from  the  blow^  of  the  mallet.  Here  the  accurate 
eye  and  the  trained  hand  are  needed,  for  at  a  distance  of  80 
ft.  a  ball  3i  inches  in  diameter  subtends  a  very  small  angle, 
and  a  very  small  divergence  of  the  line  of  direction  of  the 
impinging  mallet  will  cause  the  struck  ball  to  go  wide  of 
its  desired  course. 

Second:  Ability  to  take  position  in  front  of  arches  so  as 
to  pass  through  them  successfully,  for  the  arches  being  only 
3i  inches  wide  give  little  chance  of  passing  through  to  a 
ball  of  3J  inches  when  in  a  '  wild  position. ' 

Third:  '  Wiring  '  or  '  staking  '  an  adversary's  ball  so 
as  to  leave  no  ball  *  open '  or  '  exposed. '  This  is  done 
sometimes  from  a  distance  of  15  or  20  ft. 

Fourth,  and  greatest  of  all,  is  good  generalship,  without 
which  all  excellence  attained  in  the  three  preceding  points 
m 


(CROQUET. 

v.' ill  be  vaiu  in  a  bard-fought  game.  Closely  associated 
with  the  first  is  the  ability  to  *  drive '  or  '  block '  the 
ball  at  a  certain  angle  to  reach  a  position  desired.  This 
will  be  attempted  only  when  balls  are  near  together,  for  at 
a  long  range  roquet  only  is  attempted.  Perhaps  '  jump- 
shooting  '  ought  to  be  added  to  these,  by  which  players 
frequently  are  relieved  from  an  otherwise  inextricable  po- 
sition by  a  peculiar  downward  stroke  on  the  top  of  the  ball 
just  back  of  its  centre,  causing  the  ball  to  pass  over  one  or 
more  intervening  arches  and  '  capture  '  a  ball  supposed  to 
be  safe  from  all  danger. 

In  this  as  in  every  other  game  there  are  certain  general 
principles  which  should  guide  one  in  his  play. 

As  regards  position  in  striking,  a  player  should  suit  him- 
self. Too  long  an  aim  is  to  be  avoided  :  a  quick  stroke  after 
getting  the  line  between  two  balls  is  generally  the  most 
accurate;  but  there  is  one  point  that  all  must  observe  if 
the  ball  is  to  bit  the  mark  :  after  getting  the  line  of  aim, 
and  the  mallet  resting  ready  for  the  stroke,  the  player's  eyes 
should  be  kept  fixed  on  his  own  ball.  Any  deviation  from 
this  rule,  either  for  short  or  long  shots,  will  end  in  failure. 

As  to  a  few  general  principles  to  be  observed  : 

First :  Keep  your  own  balls  together,  and  separate  those 
of  your  adversary. 

Second  :  Keep  with  you  or  your  partner  the  *  innocent ' 
or  last  played  ball  of  your  adversary. 

Thirk  :  Keep  the  '  guilty  '  or  next  playing  ball  of  your 
adversary  wired  as  much  as  possible. 

Fourth  :  When  you  can  make  no  further  run,  give  your 
partner  the  best  set-up  you  can. 

Fifth  :  Do  not  play  for  the  guilty  ball,  when  if  you  miss 
you  give  him  a  chance  better  than  he  has  before. 

Sixth  :  If  you  have  but  a  poor  chance  to  make  a  run,  set 
up  the  balls  for  your  partner. 

Seventh  :  In  making  a  run,  provide  as  much  as  possible 
for  points  ahead.  Do  not  leave  balls  behind  you  if  you 
can  avoid  it. 

The  following  (adopted  New  York,  1885)  are  the  Rules 
of  the  National  American  Croquet  Association,  with  the 
substance  (-f  tliis  article,  are  from  the  manual  of  A.  G. 
Spalding  &  Bros.,  New  York,  authorized  publishers  for 
the  association. 

INTERFERING  WITH  PLAYERS. 

1.  No  player  or  other  person  shall  be^permitted  to  inter- 
fere with  the  result  of  a  game  by  any  word  or  act  calcu- 
lated to  embarrass  the  player,  nor  shall  any  one  speak  to  a 
player  while  in  the  act  of  shooting,  except  a  partner. 

ORDER  OF  COLORS. 

2.  The  order  of  colors  shall  be  red,  white,  blue,  black. 

MALLETS. 

3.  There  shall  be  no  restriction  in  kind  or  size  of  mal- 
let used — one  or  two  hands  may  be  used  in  striking. 

4.  No  player  shall  change  his  mallet  during  a  game 
without  permission  of  his  opponent,  except  in  case  of  acci- 
dent, or  to  make  a  *  jump-shot. ' 

228 


CROQUET. 

5.  Should  a  ball  or  mallet  break  in  striking,  the  player 
may  demand  another  stroke,  with  a  new  ball  or  mallet. 

CLIPS  OR  MARKERS. 

6.  Every  player  shall  be  provided  with  a  clip  or  indi- 
cator, the  same  color  as  his  ball,  painted  on  one  side  only, 
which  he  must  affix  to  his  arch  next  in  order  in  course  of 
play,  before  his  partner  plays,  with  the  painted  side  show- 
ing the  direction  in  which  he  is  going.  Should  he  fail  to 
do  so,  his  clip  must  remain  upon  the  arch  itr  ested  on  be- 
fore he  played,  and  he  must  make  the  points  again. 
Should  he  move  his  marker  beyond  or  back  of  the  point 
he  is  for,  his  attention  must  be  called  to  such  error  before 
he  plays  again,  otherwise  it  shall  be  allowed  to  stand. 
Should  a  player  put  a  ball  through  its  arch,  he  must  at 
once  move  the  corresponding  clip. 

OPENING  OF  GAME. 

7.  The  game  shall  be  opened  by  scoring  from  the  upper 
border  for  an  imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  middle 
wicket. 

8.  The  first  play  with  each  ball  shall  be  made  after  plac- 
ing it  on  a  line  half-way  between  the  starting  stake  and 
the  first  arch,  and  play  may  be  made  for  the  arch  on  any 
ball  that  is  in  play,  or  in  any  direction  the  player  may 
choose. 

9.  A  ball  for  the  first  arch  failing  to  make  it,  must  re 
main  where  it  rests.  It  can  be  roqueted,  roquet-croqueted, 
and  can,  in  its  proper  turn,  roquet  and  roquet-croquet  any 
ball  on  the  field,  the  same  as  though  it  had  run  the  arch. 

BALLS  :  HOW  STRUCK. 

10.  The  ball  must  be  struck  with  the  face  of  the  mallet, 
the  stroke  being  delivered  whenever  touching  the  ball  it 
moves  it.  Should  a  stake  or  wire  intervene,  the  player 
cannot  strike  them  unless  the  ball  is  struck  at  the  same 
time,  and  if  the  ball  is  moved,  without  being  struck  by  the 
face  of  the  mallet,  '  it  shall  remain  where  it  rests,  and 
should  a  point  be  made,  or  hit,  it  shall  not  be  allowed,  ex 
cept  by  the  decision  of  the  umpire  as  to  the  fairness  of  the 
shot.' 

11.  When  making  a  direct  shot  (i.e.,  roquet),  the  player 
must  not  push  or  follow  the  ball  with  his  mallet;  but 
when  taking  croquet  from  a  ball  (two  balls  being  in  con- 
tact), he  may  follow  his  ball  with  the  mallet,  but  must  not 
strike  it  twice. 

12.  If  a  player  strikes  his  ball  before  his  opponent  has 
finished  his  play,  the  stroke  shall  stand,  or  be  made  over, 
at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

13.  Should  a  ball  rest  against  or  near  a  wire,  and  the 
umpire,  or  other  person  agreed  on,  should  decide  that  in 
order  to  pass  through  the  arch  less  than  half  the  ball 
would  be  on  the  far  side  when  impinging  on  the  opposite 
wire,  it  shall  be  considered  a  push  shot  and  shall  not  be 
made. 

BALLS  :  WHEN  NOT  TO  BE  TOUCHED. 

14.  A  ball  must  not  be  touched  while  on  the  field,  ex- 

2-^9 


CROQUET. 

cept  after  a  roquet,  when  it  is  necessary  to  place  it  beside 
the  roqueted  ball  for  the  purpose  of  croquet,  or  to  replace 
it  when  it  has  been  moved  by  accident— except  by  permis- 
sion of  the  opponent. 

ROQUET  AND  CROQUET. 

15.  A  ball  roquets  another  when  it  comes  in  contact 
"With  it  by  a  blow  from  the  player's  mallet,  or  rebounds 
from  a  wicket  or  stake,  also  when  it  comes  in  contact  with 
it  when  roquet-croquet  is  taken  from  another  ball;  but  not 
when  rebounding  from  any  obstacle  that  marks  the  limit 
of  the  held;  and  should  a  ball  be  thus  moved,  it  shall  be 
replaced  berore  play  can  proceed. 

16.  A  player  after  making  roquet  shall  not  stop  his  ball 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  its  hitting  another.  Should 
he  do  so,  his  play  ceases  and  all  balls  shall  be  replaced  as 
before  the  stroke,  or  remain,  at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

17.  Loose  croquet,  or  roquet-croquet,  is  striking  a  ball 
when  it  is  in  contact  with  another  where  it  has  been 
placed  for  the  purpose  of  croquet,  after  roqueting  it. 

18.  Roquet  gives  to  the  player  the  privilege  of  roquet- 
croquet  only,  and  play  must  be  made  from  the  roqueted 
ball. 

19.  If  a  player  in  taking  a  roquet-croquet  from  a  ball 
fails  to  move  it,  such  stroke  ends  his  play,  and  the  ball 
must  be  returned,  or  left  where  it  stops,  at  the  option  of 
the  opponent, 

20.  A  player,  in  each  turn  of  play,  is  at  liberty  to  ro- 
quet any  ball  on  the  ground  once  only  before  making  a 
point. 

21.  Should  a  player  roquet-croquet  a  ball  he  has  not 
roqueted,  he  loses  his  turn,  and  all  balls  moved  by  such 
play  must  be  replaced  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  umpire,  or 
adversary.  Should  the  mistake  not  be  discovered  before 
the  player  has  made  another  stroke,  the  play  shall  be  valid 
and  the  player  continued  his  play. 

22.  In  taking  roquet-croquet  from  a  ball,  if  player's 
ball  strikes  another  that  he  has  already  croqueted,  such 
stroke  does  not  end  his  play. 

23.  If  a  pla^^er  roquets  two  or  more  balls  at  the  same 
stroke,  he  must  use  the  first  ball  roqueted  only. 

MAKING  OF  POINTS. 

24.  A  player  makes  a  point  in  the  game  when  he  runs 
an  arch  or  strikes  a  stake  in  his  proper  play. 

25.  If  a  player  makes  a  point,  and  afterwards  at  the 
same  stroke  roquets  a  ball,  he  must  take  the  point,  and  use 
the  ball.  If  the  roqueted  ball  is  beyond  the  arch,  as  de- 
termined by  rule  46,  and  playing  ball  rests  through  the 
arch,  the  arch  is  held  to  be  first  made.* 

26.  If  a  ball  roquets  another,  and  afterwards  at  the 
same  stroke  makes  a  point,  it  must  take  the  ball  and  reject 
the  point,  f 


*  While  this  is  not  mathematically  correct,  the  rule  is  so  made 
to  avoid  disputes  and  diflScult  measurements, 
I  See  note  to  rule  25. 

0.50 


CROQUET. 

27.  A  player  continues  to  play  so  long  as  he  makes  a 
point  in  the  game,  or  roquets  another  ball  to  which  he  is 
in  play. 

28.  A  ball  making  two  or  more  points  at  the  same 
stroke  has  only  the  same  privilege  as  if  it  made  but  one. 

29.  Should  a  ball  be  driven  through  its  arch,  or  against 
its  stake,  by  roquet- croquet  or  concussion,  it  is  a  point  made 
by  that  ball,  except  it  be  a  rover. 

PLAYING  ON  DEAD  BALL. 

30.  If  a  player  play  by  direct  shot  on  a  dead  ball,  all 
balls  displaced  by  such  shot  shall  be  replaced  in  their 
former  position,  and  the  player's  ball  placed  against  the 
dead  ball  on  the  side  from  which  it  came;  or  all  balls  rest 
where  they  lie,  at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

31.  If  a  player,  in  making  a  direct  shot,  strike  a  ball 
on  which  he  has  already  played,  i.e.,  a  dead  ball,  his  play 
ceases.  Any  point  or  part  of  a  point  or  ball  struck,  after 
striking  the  dead  ball,  is  not  allowed.  And  both  balls  must 
be  replaced  in  accordance  with  rule  30. 

But  if  playing  ball  in  passing  through  its  arch  strike  a 
dead  ball  that  is  beyond  the  arch,  as  determined  by  rule 
46,  the  ball  shall  not  be  considered  a  dead  ball  if  playing 
ball  rests  through  its  arch,  and  the  point  shall  be  allowed.}: 

BALLS    MOVED    OR   INTERFERED    WITH   BY  ACCIDENT  OR 
DESIGN. 

32.  A  ball  accidentally  misplaced,  otherwise  than  as 
provided  for  in  rule  37,  must  be  returned  to  its  position 
before  play  can  proceed. 

33.  If  a  ball  is  stopped  or  diverted  from  its  course  by 
an  opponent,  the  player  may  repeat  the  shot  or  not  as  he 
chooses.  Should  he  decline  to  make  the  shot  over,  the 
ball  must  remain  where  it  stops,  and,  if  playing  ball,  must 
play  from  there. 

34.  If  a  ball  is  stopped  or  diverted  from  its  course  by  a 
player  or  his  partner,  the  opponent  may  demand  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  shot  if  he  chooses.  Should  he  decline  to  do 
so,  the  ball  must  remain  where  it  stops,  and,  if  playing 
ball,  must  play  from  there. 

35.  If  a  ball,  while  rolling,  is  stopped  or  diverted  from 
its  course,  by  any  object  inside  the  ground,  not  pertaining 
to  the  game  or  ground,  other  than  provided  for  in  rules  33 
and  34,  the  shot  may  be  taken  over,  or  allowed  to  remain 
at  the  option  of  the  player.  If  not  taken  over,  the  ball 
must  remain  where  it  stops,  and,  if  playing  ball,  play  from 
there. 

BALLS  IN  CONTACT. 

36.  Should  a  player,  on  commencing  his  play,  find  his 
ball  in  contact  with  another,  he  may  hit  his  own  as  he 
likes,  5and  then  has  subsequent  privileges  the  same  as 
though  the  balls  were  separated  an  inch  or  more. 


X  A  dead  ball  displaced  by  other  than  direct  shot  shall  not  be  re= 
placed. 

231 


CROQUET. 

FOUL  STROKE. 

37.  Should  a  player  in  making  a  stroke  move  with  his 
mallet  any  other  than  his  object  ball,  it  shall  be  a  foul  and 
his  play  ceases,  and  all  balls  moved  shall  be  replaced  as 
before  the  stroke,  or  remain  where  they  rest,  at  the  option 
of  the  opponent. 

See  rules  10,  11,  and  12. 

BOUNDARY  LINES. 

38.  A  ball  shot  over  boundary  line  must  be  returned  at 
right  angles  from  where  it  stops  before  play  can  proceed. 

39.  A  ball  is  in  the  field,  only  when  the  whole  ball  is 
within  the  boundary  line. 

40.  No  play  is  allowed  from  beyond  the  boundary  line, 
except  when  a  ball  is  placed  in  contact  with  another  for  the 
purpose  of  roquet-croquet. 

41.  If  a  player  strikes  his  ball  when  over  the  boundary 
line,  he  shall  lose  his  stroke  and  the  balls  shall  be  replaced 
or  left  where  they  stop,  at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

42o  If  a  player  roquet  a  ball  that  is  otf  the  field,  either 
by  direct  shot  or  from  roquet-croquet,  the  stroke  shall 
not  be  allowed;  and  such  roqueted  ball  shall  be  placed  in 
the  field  opposite  the  point  where  it  lay,  before  being  thus 
hit.  And  if  such  roquet  ball  is  made  by  a  direct  shot,  the 
play  ceases. 

43.  The  first  ball  driven  over  the  boundary  line  into  a 
corner  must  be  placed  on  the  corner  at  the  intersection  of 
the  two  boundary  lines. 

44.  If  a  ball,  having  been  struck  over  the  boundary 
line,  is  returnable  at  the  corner,  another  ball  being  on  or 
entitled  to  the  corner,  it  shall  be  placed  on  that  side  of  the 
corner  on  w^hich  it  went  off. 

45.  If  tw^o  balls  having  been  shot  over  the  boundary 
line  rest  directly  behind  one  another  at  right  angles  with 
boundary  line,  they  shall  be  placed  on  the  line  alongside 
of  each  other  in  the  direction  from  whence  they  were 
played  off.  This  can  occur  only  when  the  centres  of  the 
two  balls  rest  directly  behind  one  another  at  right  angles 
with  the  boundary  line. 

BALL:    WHEN  THROUGH  AN  ARCH. 

46.  A  ball  is  not  through  an  arch  when  a  straight  edge, 
laid  across  the  two  wires  on  the  side  from  whence  the  ball 
comes,  touches  the  ball  without  moving  the  arch.* 

balls:     WHEN  IN  POSITION. 

47.  If  a  ball  has  been  placed  under  an  arch,  for  the 


*  The  English  rule  on  Dead  Boundary  is  as  follows: 
If  in  taking  croquet,  the  striker  send  his  own  ball  or  the  ball  cro- 
queted off  tlie  ground,  he  loses  the  remainder  of  his  turn;  but  if  by 
tne  same  stroke  he  makes  a  roquet,  his  ball  being  in  hand,  may 
pass  the  boundary  without  penalty,  provided  the  croqueted  ball 
does  not  pass  the  boundary.  Should  either  ball,  while  rolling  after 
a  croquet,  be  touched  or  diverted  from  its  course  by  an  opponent, 
the  striker  has  the  option  of  taking  the  stroke  again  or  not  (in  ac- 
cordance with  rule  33  of  these  rules)  and  is  not  liable  to  lose  his 
turn  should  the  ball  which  has  been  touched  or  divevii  tl  W.^^'s,  th^ 
boundary, 


CROQUET. 

purpose  of  roquet -croquet,  it  is  not  in  position  to  run  that 
arch. 

48.  If  a  ball  be  driven  under  its  arch  from  the  wrong 
direction,  and  rests  there,  it  is  not  in  position  to  run  that 
arch  in  the  right  direction. 

49.  If  a  ball  shot  through  its  arch  in  the  right  direc- 
tion, rolls  back  through  or  under  that  arch,  the  point  is  not 
made,  but  the  ball  is  in  position  if  left  there. 

HITTING  BALL  WHILE  MAKING  WICKET. 

50.  Cage  wickets  may  be  made  in  one,  two,  or  more 
turns,  provided  the  ball  stops  within  limit  of  the  cage. 

51.  Any  playing  ball  within,  or  under,  a  wicket,  be- 
comes dead  to  advancement  through  the  wicket  from  that 
position,  if  it  comes  in  contact  with  any  other  ball  by  a  di- 
rect shot. 

ROVERS. 

52.  A  rover  is  a  ball  that  has  run  every  arch  and  hit  the 
turning  stake  in  its  proper  turn  of  play. 

53.  A  rover  has  the  right  of  roqueting  and  roquet- 
croqueting  every  ball  on  the  ground  once  during  each  turn 
of  play,  and  is  subject  to  being  roqueted  and  roquet-cro- 
queted by  any  ball  in  play. 

54.  Rovers  must  be  continued  in  the  game  until  part- 
ners become  rovers,  and  go  out  successive,  and  a  rover 
that  has  been  driven  against  the  stake  cannot  be  removed 
to  make  way  for  the  next  rover. 

PLAYING  OUT  OF  TURN,  OR  WRONG  BALL. 

55.  If  a  player  plays  out  of  his  proper  turn,  whether 
with  his  own  or  any  other  ball,  or  in  his  proper  turn  plays 
the  wrong  ball,  and  the  mistake  is  discovered  before  the 
next  player  has  commenced  his  play,  all  benefit  from  any 
point  or  points  made  is  lost,  and  his  turn  of  play  forfeited. 
All  balls  moved  by  the  misplay  must  be  returned  to  their 
former  position  by  the  umpire  or  adversary.  If  the  mis- 
take is  not  discovered  until  after  the  next  player  has  made 
his  first  stroke,  the  error  must  stand. 

POINTS  REMADE. 

56.  If  a  player  makes  a  point  he  has  already  made  his 
marker  not  being  on  that  point,  and  the  mistake  is  discov- 
ered before  the  next  point  is  made,  the  play  ceases  with 
the  shot  by  which  the  wicket  was  remade,  and  the  marker 
remains  where  it  stood  at  the  beginning  of  this  play.  All 
balls  shall  be  left  in  the  position  they  had  at  the  time  the 
wicket  was  remade.  If  not  discovered  before  the  next 
point  is  made,  the  points  so  made  are  good,  and  play  pro- 
ceeds the  same  as  if  no  error  had  been  made. 

ERROR  IN  ORDER  OF  PLAY. 

57.  If  an  error  in  order  is  discovered  after  a  player  has 
struck  his  ball,  he  shall  be  allowed  to  finish  his  play  pro- 
vided he  is  playing  in  the  regular  sequence  of  his  partner's 
ball  last  played.  In  case  of  dispute  as  to  proper  sequence 
of  balls,  it  shall  be  decided  by  the  umpire;  if  there  is  no 

m 


CROQUET. 

umpire,  by  lot.  No  recourse  shall  be  had  to  lot  unless 
each  party  expresses  the  belief  that  the  other  is  wrong, 

57.  At  any  time  an  error  in  order  is  discovered,  the 
opposite  side  shall  follow  with  the  same  ball  last  played; 
(the  proper  sequence);  but  before  playing,  their  opponents 
shall  have  privilege  to  demand  a  transposition  of  adversa- 
ries' balls. 

Example. — Black  plays  by  mistake  after  red — the  error 
is  not  discovered — blue  plays  in  the  proper  sequence  of  his 
partner  red,  and  seeing  that  black  has  just  played,  is  thus 
led  to  believe  it  the  innocent  ball,  and  upon  concluding 
his  play  leaves  black  by  red.  Now  if  error  in  order  is 
discovered, the  player  of  red  and  blue  can  demand  that  the 
position  of  black  and  white  be  transposed. 

CHANGING  SURFACE  OF  GROUND. 

59.  The  surface  of  grounds  shall  not  be  changed  dur- 
ing a  game  by  either  player,  unless  by  consent  of  the  um- 
pire; and  if  so  changed  at  the  time  of  playing,  the  shot 
shall  be  declared  lost. 

CORNER  PIECES. 

60.  In  all  subsequent  construction  of  grounds  a  corner 
piece  eighteen  inches  in  length  shall  be  inserted,  leaving 
the  boundary  of  the  grounds  inside,  however,  square  at  the 
corners. 

penalty:   general  rule. 

61.  If  a  rule  is  violated,  a  penalty  for  which  has  not 
been  provided,  the  player  shall  cease  his  play. 

TERMS  USED  IN  CROQUETS. 

To  Roquet. — To  hit  with  one's  own  ball  another  ball  for 
the  first  time. 

To  Croquet. — To  place  player's  ball  against  the  roqueted 
ball  and  then  striking  his  own  ball,  moving  both. 

In  Play. — A  ball  is  in  play  so  long  as  points  are  made, 
or  balls  hit  in  accordance  with  the  rules. 

Points. — See  rule  24. 

Dead  Ball. — The  ball  on  which  the  player  has  played 
since  making  a  point.  It  is  then  dead  to  the  player  till  he 
makes  another  point. 

Direct  Shot — Roquet. — This  is  a  direct  shot,  whether  the 
ball  in  passing  to  its  destination  does  or  does  not  carom 
from  a  wure  or  stake. 

Drim  or  Block — English  '  Rush. ' — A  roquet  played  so  as 
to  send  the  object  ball  to  some  desired  spot. 

Gut. — To  drive  the  object  ball  to  a  desired  position,  by 
causing  player's  ball  to  hit  it  on  one  side. 

Run  or  Break. — The  making  of  a  number  of  points  in 
the  same  turn. 

Set  Up. — To  locate  the  balls,  so  as  to  afford  facility  for 
making  the  next  point  or  run. 

Wiring. — To  so  leave  the  balls,  that  the  next  player  finds 
a  wire  or  stake  between  his  ball  and  the  object  ball. 

Object  Ball. — The  ball  at  which  the  player  aims. 

Jump-shot, — Striking  the  ball  so  as  to  make  it  jump  over 

234 


CHORE-CKOSIEH. 

an  J  obstacle  between  it  and  the  object  aimed  at.    To  do 
this,  the  ball  should  be  struck  with  considerable 
force  on  the  top  just  back  of  the  centre. 

Ouilty  Ball. — The  next  player  on  the  adver- 
sary's side. 

Innocent  Ball. — The  last  played  ball  of  the 
adversary. 

Rover. — One  who  has  made  all  the  points 
except  the  last. 

The  National  American  Croquet  Association 
meets  in  Norwich  on  the  Monday  preceding  the 
third  Tuesday  in  August.  In  New  York  are 
grounds  corner  of  88th  st.  and  Madison  ave. : 
also  at  Mariner's  Harbor,  Staten  Island,  and 
at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  Philadelphia  has 
grounds  at  22d  and  Brown  sts.  Danbury,  New 
London,  and  Hartford,  Conn.,  also  Florence, 
North  Adams,  and  Maiden,  Mass.,  have  good 
grounds.  Cottage  City,  Martha's  Vineyard,  has 
live  grounds  for  summer  play;  and  at  Saratoga 
Springs  there  is  a  good  ground. 

The  western  clubs  have  a  style  of  play  a  little 
different;  but  it  would  be  easy  to  unify  all 
existing  games  of  the  so-called  *  loose  '  or  '  tight ' 
croquet.  At  Elyria,  Ohio,  are  covered  grounds 
and  fine  players. 

CRORE,  n  kror:  in  the  East  Indies,  100  lacs 
of  rupees,  equal  to  about  one  million  sterling; 
ten  millions,  not  necessarily  of  rupees  only. 

CROSIER,  n.  krozher  [see  Cross  1  and 
Crutch]:  across-shaped  cmtch;  in  ecclesiology , 
a  staff  surmounted  by  a  cross,  which  is  carried 
before  an  archbishop  on  solemn  occasions.  It 
is  about  five  ft.  long,  is  generally  made  of  tin, 
and  is  hollow.  Crosiers  are  generally  gilt,  and 
often  richly  ornamented.  The  C.  differs  from 
the  pastoral  staff  (q.  v.)  with  which  it  is  often  con- 
founded—the latter  having  a  head,  in  the 
form  of  a  crook.  The  illustration  is  of  Arch- 
bishop Warham's  crosier  (1520),  from  Canterbury  Cathedral. 


CROSS,  n.  kros  [F.  croix;  OF.  crolsy  a  cross— from  L. 
cracem,  a  cross:  It.  crcc^;  Icel.  A:?'^>55;Ger.  a  cross  for 

the  punishment  of  malefactors  (see  Cross  2,  note)]:  two 
lengths  of  any  body  placed  across  each  other— thus  (-|-),  (X), 
or  (f);  a  line  drawn  through  another;  the  sj^mbol  of  the 
Christian  religion;  the  religion  itself;  the  instrument  on 
which  the  Saviour  died;  the  sufferings  and  atonement  of 
Christ;  a  hindrance;  affliction;  a  piece  of  money  so  named  as 
marked  on  one  side  with  a  cross:  V.  to  draw  a  line,  or  place 
a  body  across  another;  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross;  to  pass 
or  move  over;  to  pass  from  side  to  side;  to  cancel;  to  erase; 
to  obstruct  or  hinder;  to  contravene;  to  thwart:  Adj.  oblique; 
interchanged;  transverse;  obstructing;  adverse:  Prep,  in 
OE ,  for  across.  Cros  sing,  imp.:  N.  a  paved  part  for 
passing  across  a  street.  Crossed,  pp.  krost.  Crossette, 
n.  kros-set',  in  arch.,  the  small  projecting  pieces  in  arch-stones 
which  hang  upon  the  adjacent  stones.  Cross  ly,  ad.  -U,  ad- 
versely; in  opposition.  Cross  ness,  n.  state  of  being  cross. 
Cross'let,  n.  a  little  cross.  Cross- action,  in  law,  a  case 
in  which  A  having  an  action  against  B,  B  also  brings  an  ac- 
tion against  A  on  the  same  case.  Cross-armed,  having 
arms  across.  Cross  bar,  n.  a  kind  of  lever.  Cross- 
barred,  -hard,  secured  by  bars  crossing  each  other.  Cross- 
beam, a  large  beam  running  from  wall  to  wall.  Crossbill, 
a  bird  so  called  from  the  form  of  the  bill.  Crossbow,  n. 
a  weapon  formed  by  fastening  a  bow  at  the  end  of  a  stock: 
see  Arbalest:  Archer:  Bow  and  Arrow.  Cross-breed- 
ing: see  Breeding.  Cross-bun,  a  bun  with  the  form  of  a 
cross  on  one  side.  Cross-course,  in  mining,  a  vein  or  lode 
which  intersects  at  right  angles  the  general  direction  of  the 
veins.  Cross  crosslet:  see  Cross  below.  Cross-cut,  in 
mining,  a  level  driven  at  right  angles  with  the  view  of  inter- 
secting a  lode  or  vein.  Cross-cut  saw,  a  saw  that  cuts 
across  the  grain  of  the  wood,  thus  differing  from  a  ripping 
saw.  Cross-days,  the  three  days  preceding  Ascension-day. 
Cross-examination,  a  strict  examination  of  a  witness  by 
the  opposing  counsel.  Cross-frog,  an  arrangement  of  cross- 
ing rails  at  a  rectangular  intersection  of  roads.  Each  track 
is  notched  for  the  passage  of  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  tra- 
versing the  other  track;  a  crossing.  Cross-grained,  hav- 
ing the  fibres  cross  or  irregular.  Cross-head,  a  beam  or 
rod  across  the  top  part  of  anything.  Cross-jack,  the  lower 
yard  of  the  mizzen-mast.  Cross-purpose,  contradictory 
conduct  or  conversation  arising  from  a  misunderstanding; 
the  proposing  of  a  difficulty  to  be  solved;  a  riddle.  Cross- 
reading,  n.  the  combination  of  words  produced  by  reading 
the  lines  of  a  newspaper,  etc.,  directly  across  the  page,  in- 
stead of  down  each  column.  Cross-reference,  reference 
to  another  title  or  portion  of  the  same  work,  specially  in 
dictionaries  and  cyclopedias.  Cross-road,  an  obscure  road 
or  path  leading  from  one  main  road  to  another,  or  intersect- 
ing it.'  Cross  SEA,  waves  running  high  across  others;  a 
swell.  Cross-staff,  a  surveyor's  instrument  for  measuring 
offsets.  Cross-stone,  harmotome  or  pyramidal  zeolite. 
Cross-tie,  a  railway  sleeper;  in  arch.,  a  connecting  band 
in  a  building.   Cross-tining,  n.  a  mode  of  harrowing  cross 

236 


(moss. 

wise  or  transversely  to  the  ridges.  Cross-trees,  in  sJiips, 
certain  pieces  of  timber  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  lower  masts 
and  topmasts.  Cross-wind,  an  unfavorable  or  side  wind. 
Crosswise,  ad.  -iclz,  across;  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  A 

CROSSED   CHECH:    SCC  ChECK.     To  CROSS  THE  BREED,  to 

breed  animals  from  different  varieties  of  the  same  species 
(see  Breeding).  To  cross-question,  to  examine  again  in 
another  direction.  To  play  cross  and  pile,  to  play  at 
tossing  up  money  which  had  a  cross  on  one  side  and  a  pile 
or  pillar  on  the  other.  To  take  up  the  cross,  to  submit 
to  afflictions  and  self-denial  for  love  to  Christ,  or  in  duty. 

CROSS,  n.  k7'6s  [Gael,  ci^ois,  misfortune,  disappointment; 
crosan,  an  ill-  tempered  person  (see  Cross  1)]:  a  thwarting  of 
one's  wishes;  peevishness:  Adj.  out  of  humor;  peevish;  ill- 
tempered;  perverse;  troblesome.  Wote. — This  entry  is  partly 
included  under  Cross  1,  but  has  no  necessary  connection 
with  the  cross  on  which  the  Saviour  died,  other  than  as  one 
of  those  complications  between  sound  and  sense  so  common 
in  our  and  other  languages.  On  that  account,  therefore, we 
expect  to  find  a  confusion  in  the  etymologies  proper  to  each, 
and  no  less  so  in  the  derived  meanings. — Syn.  of  'cross,  n. 
1  and  2':  vexation;  affliction;  trial;  opposition;  disappoint- 
ment; fretfulness;  petulance;  misfortune. 

CROSS:  common  instrument  of  capital  punishment  among 
the  ancients;  esteemed  so  dishonorable  that  only  slaves  and 
malefactors  of  the  lowest  class  were  subjected  to  it  by  the 
Romans.  It  was  customary  to  proclaim  the  name  and  offense 
of  the  person  crucified,  or  to  affix  a  tablet  {album)  to, the  C, 
on  which  they  were  inscribed.  Malefactors  w^ere  sometimes 
fastened  on  a  simple  upright  stake,  and  so  left  to  die,  or 
they  were  impaled  upon  it,  and  to  this  upright  stake  the 
Latin  nsimecrux  was  originally  and  more  strictly  applicable; 
but  very  generally  a  cross-piece  (patibulum)  was  added  to 
the  stake,  to  which  the  arms  of  the  criminal  were  tied, 
or  to  which  his  hands  were  nailed.  When  the  cross-piece 
was  fastened  at  right  angles  below  the  summit  of  the  up- 
right stake,  the  C.  was  called  a^uix  irnmissa;  when  the  cross- 
piece  was  fastened  at  right  angles  across  the  top  of  the  upright 
stake,  the  C.  was  cmix  coinmissa;  and  when  it  was  formed 
of  two  beams  crossing  one  another  obliquely,  it  was  cruix 
decussata.  The  C.  was  erected  outside  the  gates  of  towns, 
but  in  places  of  frequent  resort.  The  person  crucified 
often  lived  for  days  upon  the  cross.  The  death  of  Christ 
by  crucifixion  led  Christians  to  regard  the  C.  with  pe- 
culiar feelings  of  reverence,  and  to  make  use  of  the 
sign  of  the  C.  as  a  holy  and  distinguishing  sign.  The  custom 
of  crossing,  in  honor  and  commemoration  of  Christ,  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  3d  c.  The  emperor  Constantine,  after 
obtaining  the  victory  over  Maxentius,  through  the  influence 
— as  he  believed — of  the  sign  of  the  C.,  caused  crosses  to  be 
set  up  in  public  places  and  upon  public  buildings;  and  the 
veneration  of  the  C.  increased,  particularly  after  the  Inven- 
tion of  the  C,  or  finding  of  the  alleged  true  C.  of  Christ  in 
Jerusalem  by  the  empress  Helena:  see  Cross,  Invention 
OF.    The  desire  for  relics  was  gratified,  and  numberless 

33T 


CROSS. 

portions  of  the  true  C.  were  given  away, without  its  substance 
being  diminished.  Iconoclasts  and  others  contended  in  vain 
against  the  prevalent  worship  of  the  C. ;  and  the  crucifix 
(q.v.),  a  C.  with  an  image  of  the  Savior  affixed  to  it,  was 
honored  more  than  any  other  image.  The  sign  of  the  C.  is 
made  not  only  by  Rom.  Catholics,  but  by  the  members  of 
the  Eastern  churches  also;  there  are,  however,  distinctive 
differences  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  made.  It  is  admit- 
ted by  the  Lutherans  as  a  commemorative  sign  of  the  aton- 
ing death  of  Christ,  but  by  many  Protestants  is  rejected  as 
a  human  invention  in  worship,  and  as  tending  to  supersti- 
tion. It  was  very  generally  during  the  middle  ages,  and 
still  is  among  the  less  enlightened  peasantry  in  some  Rom. 
Cath.  countries,  a  sort  of  charm,  believed  to  afford  some 
security,  like  an  amulet,  against  all  evil,  particularly  against 
evil  spirits  and  witchcraft. 

It  appears  that  the  sign  of  the  C.  was  in  use  as  an  emblem, 
having  certain  religious  and  mystic  meanings  attached  to  it, 
long  before  the  Christian  era;  and  the  Spanish  conquerors 
were  astonished  to  tind  it  an  object  of  religious  veneration 
among  the  natives  of  Central  and  S.  America,  Be  this  as 
it  may,  it  was  early  adopted  as  a  symbol  by  Christians, with 
express  reference  to  the  central  fact  of  their  religion,  and  it 
has  been  extensively  used  as  an  ornament 
in  Christian  architecture,  and  in  the  ground- 
plan  of  churches  (q.v.).  The  C.  of  the  Res- 
urrection is  distinguished  from  the  C.  of 
the  Passion  by  ecclesiastical  writers.  It  is 
a  lance,  headed  by  a  C.  instead  of  a  pike, 
and  carrying  a  banner  upon  which  a  C.  is 
depicted.  It  is  the  C.  held  by  the  paschal 
lamb,  and  carried  at  the  head  of  religious 
processions.  The  large  C.  always  placed 
over  the  entrance  of  the  main  chancel  of  a  church,  was 
called  the  rood,  or  holy  rood.  A  representation  is  here  given 
of  the  top  of  one  of  these  large  ornamental  crosses. 

The  forms  given  to  crosses  in  art  are  endless;  but  the  two 
leading  types  are  the  Latin  C,  or  crux  immissa,  supposed  to 
be  that  on  which  Christ  suffered,  and  the  Greek  C,  both  of 
which  are  subject  to  many  fantastic  variations.  The  Greek 
C.  forms  the  well-known  C.  of  St.  George,  which,  adopted 
from  the  legends  of  that  hero,  was  the  national  ensign  or 


Greek  Cross.  Latin  Cross.  St.  Andrew's  Cross, 
the  English  previous  to  the  union  with  Scotland.  The  C. 
of  St.  Andrew  differed  entirely  in  form  from  the  Latin  or 
Greek  cross.  This  C,  or  cruix  decussat a,  consisted  of  two 
shafts  of  equal  length  crossed  diagonally  at  the  middle,  as 
in  the  annexed  cut,    Accord1ri(ic  to  the  legend,  this  whs  the 


CROSS. 


form  of  C.  on  which  St.  Andrew,  the  national  saint  of  Scot- 
land, suffered  martyrdom.  As  the  Scottish  ensign,  it  is  now 
blended  with  the  C.  of  St.  George  in  the  Union  jack. 

Many  very  beautiful  crosses  are  seen  in  England,  upon 
the  points  of  gables  of  churches,  on  grave-stones,  and  in 
other  situations;  also  in  heraldry.     Among  these,  the  C. 

most  commonly  seen  is  called  the  G.  crosslet.  In 
r       this  figure,  as  seen  in  the  annexed  cut,  the  extrem- 
JW  b^jp  ities  are  intersected,  so  as  to  make  several  small 
crosses.    AVhen  employed  in  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture,  the  figure  is  usually  carved  in  a  florid  or 
highly  decorative  style.    When  the  C.  crosslet  is 
pointed  at  the  lower  extremity  instead  of  being  crossed,  it  is 
in  heraldry  said  to  be  fitched,  oxfitcMe.  It  is  of  frequent  use 
in  blazon. 

Sanctuary,  Boundary,  or  Monumental  Crosses,  consist  of 
an  upright  flat  pillar  or  obelisk,  covered  with  sculptured  de- 
vices, and  set  in  a  socket  level  with  the  ground.  Occasion- 
ally, they  appear  to  have  marked  boundaries,  but  more  fre- 
quently were  monuments  over  the  graves  of  heroes,  kings, 
bishops,  etc.  In  some  instances,  they  probably  marked  the 
verge  of  a  sanctuary.  A  characteristic  type  of  cross  is  the 
Celtic  Cross,  most  frequently  found  in  Ireland  and  in  the  n. 
and  w.  of  Scotland.    Such  crosses  vary  much,  from  a  cross 


St.  Martin's  Cross,  lona. 

incised  on  a  flat  slab  to  an  elaborate  cruciform  monument. 
The  majority  of  the  latter  seem  to  belong  to  the  period  be- 
tween the  12th  and  15th  c.  One  of  the  best  known  is  that 
at  lona  called  St.  Martin's  Cross,  in  the  grounds  of  the  cathe- 

223 


CROSS. 

dral.  It  is  a  column  of  compact  mica  schist,  14  ft.  high, 
18  inches  broad,  and  6  inches  thick,  and  is  fixed  in  a  pedes 
tal  formed  out  of  a  massive  block  of  red  granite,  about  3 
ft.  high.  In  connection  with  certain  ancient  religious  bouses 
in  Ireland,  there  were  very  fine  Celtic  crosses.  Some  cross- 
es of  this  type  show  Scandinavian  workmanship;  hence  they 
are  often  called  Runic  crosses. 

Memorial  Grosses  were  erected  in  memory  of  some  beloved 
object,  or  in  commemoration  of  some  event  of  local  impor- 
tance. In  England,  there  are  some  superb  crosses  of  this 
kind;  they  are  popularly  called  Norman  Crosses.  This  spe- 
cies of  C.  resembled  a  Gothic  turret  set  on  the  ground,  or  on 
a  base  of  a  few  steps,  and  was  decorated  with  niches  for 
figures  and  pinnacles.    The  best  known  examples  are  those 


Waltham  Cross,  restored. 

erected  by  Edward  I.  (1290)  in  memory  of  his  queen,  Elea- 
nor; being  placed  on  the  spots  where  the  body  rested  in  its 
funeral  progress  to  Westminster.  The  crosses  at  Waltham, 
Cheapside,  and  Charing  w^ere  of  the  number.  Those  at 
Cheapside  and  at  Charing  are  destroyed,  but  the  C.  at  Walt- 
ham, though  now  much  decayed,  remains  as  a  testimonial 
of  the  atfection  and  piety  of  the  greatest  of  the  Plantagenets. 
We  present  a  sketch  of  this  beautiful  Norman  cross,  as  re- 
stored. 

l^own  or  Market  Crosses  were  erected  as  stands  to  preach 
from,  or  in  commemoration  of  events  regarding  w^hich  it 
was  deemed  proper  to  evoke  pious  feelings.  As  these 
structures  were  incorporated  with  or  surmounted  by  a 
c^'ucifix,  the  term  cross  was  so  indelibly  assbci?ite4  with 

840 


CROSS. 

them  that  it  aarvived  the  religious  character  of  the  fabrics. 
'  The  general  intent  of  market- crosses  was  to  excite  pub- 
lic homage  to  the  religion  of  Christ  crucified,  and  to  in- 
spire men  with  a  sense  of  morality  and  piety  amidst  the 
ordinary  transactions  of  life.'— Milner's  History  of  Win- 
chester.   The  earliest  examples  of  this  kind  consisted, 


St.  Paul's  Cross. 

probably,  of  tall  crucifixes  of  wood,  such  as  are  still  seen 
by  the  waysides  in  some  continental  countries.  After- 
ward, stone  shafts  would  be  substituted;  and  according  to 
the  increase  of  market  revenues,  or  progress  of  taste,  these 
town  crosses  assumed  that  imposing  character  which  they 
latterly  possessed.  Of  the  larger  ornamental  crosses  of 
this  kind,  there  are  some  striking  specimens  in  England; 
e.g.  that  at  Cheddar  in  Somersetshire,  and  that  at  Malmes- 
bury  in  Wiltshire;  both  are  open  vaulted  structures,  with 
a  commodious  space  beneath,  as  a  refuge  for  poor  market- 
folks  during  rain,  and  surmounted  with  a  kind  of  Gothic 
turret.  At  Chichester,  Bristol,  and  Winchester,  the  mar- 
ket-crosses, while  similar  in  form,  are  of  a  higher  archi- 
tectural quality.  See  Britton's  Architectural  Antiquities. 
Adjoining  St.  Paul's  in  London,  stood  Paul's  C,  a  struct- 
ure which  we  read  of  as  early  as  1259,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  It  was  essentially  a  town-preaching  C,  and 
is  associated  with  some  interesting  occurrences  in  history. 
Before  this  C.  the  unfortunate  Jane  Shore  was  forced  to 
do  penance  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III.,  to  whose  malice 
she  was  made  a  victim.  This  event  was  followed  by  Dr. 
Shawe's  infamous  sermon,  attempting  to  bastardize  the 
children  of  Edward,  and  eulogizing  Richard,  who  was 
present  on  the  occasion.  In  front  of  this  C.  sat  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  to  hear  fuiminations  against  Luther ;  and  about 
ten  years  later,  by  order  of  Henry  VIII. ,  preachers  here 
delivered  sermons  in  favor  of  the  Reformation.    At  this 


241 


CROSS. 

C,  Queen  Elizabeth  attended  to  hear  a  thanksgiving  ser- 
mon for  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  Here,  sermons 
continued  to  be  delivered  until  1643,  when,  with  other  so- 
called  relics  of  popery,  the  0.  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  Puritans,  and  was  demolished  by  order  of  parliament. 
Whatever  was  the  original  form  of  Paul's  C,  it  was  in 
later  times  a  plain  pulpit-like  fabric  of  wood,  covered  with 
lead,  and,  as  seen  by  the  preceding  cut,  was  provided  with 
seats  for  an  audience.  This  inoltensive  and  really  useful 
preaching  C,  which  might  well  have  been  spared,  stood 
on  the  n.  side  of  the  church,  a  little  e.  of  Cannon  Alley. 

Scotland  olfers  no  specimens  of  memorial  or  Norman 
crosses,  excepting,  perhaps,  the  Scott  Monument,  at  Edin- 
burgh, essentially  a  Norman  C.  of  a  gigantic  order:  see 
Scott,  Sir  Walter.  As  regards  the  market-crosses  of 
Scotland,  they  never  attained  the  elaborately  ornate  char- 
acter of  those  of  Chichester  and  Winchester.  Yet  the 
Scottish  town-crosses  had  some 
distinguishing  features.  The 
more  simple  kind  consisted  of 
a  shaft  of  stone,  generally  oc- 
tangular in  shape,  and  12  or 
more  ft.  in  height.  At  top  was 
an  ornamental  capital,  which 
bore  a  dial  and  vane,  or  the  fig- 
ure of  a  unicorn.  The  shaft 
sprang  from  the  top  of  a  gradu- 
ated flight  of  circular  or  octangu- 
lar steps.  A  specimen  is  seen  in 
the  market-place  of  Melrose. 
Another  specimen,  renovated  and 
set  in  the  quadrangle  of  the 
Chambers  Institution,  Peebles, 
is  shown  in  the  annexed  cut. 
The  grander  market  C.  consisted 
of  a  tall  stone  shaft,  such  as  just  Peebles  Cross, 

described,  but  instead  of  steps, it 

sprang  from  the  centre  of  an  imposing  sub-structure.  This 
structure  was  circular,  hexagonal,  or  octagonal,  and  from 
10  to  16  ft.  high.  The  top  formed  a  platform,  surrounded 
with  an  ornamented  stone  parapet,  and  reached  by  a  stair 
inside.  The  sides  of  the  building  were  decorated  with 
pilasters,  and  bore  various  heraldic  and  other  devices. 
Such  were  the  crosses  of  Edinburgh,  and  such  is  the  reno- 
vated C.  of  Aberdeen,  the  sides  of  which,  however,  are 
open.  Losing  their  religious  character,  the  Scottish  mar- 
ket-crosses were  employed  for  royal  and  civic  proclama- 
tions, and  as  places  where  certain  judicial  writs  w^ere 
executed.  The  general  removal  of  these  ancient  and  in- 
teresting structures  has  been  often  matter  of  lamentation. 
The  oldest  C.  of  Edinburgh,  the  scene  of  a  number  of 
incidents  in  Scottish  history,  stood  in  the  centre  of  the 
High  street,  nearly  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  Parliament 
Square.  It  was  removed  1617,  to  make  way  for  a  royal 
pageant,  the  procession  of  James  VI.,  on  his  first  visit  to 
Edinburgh  after  his  removal  to  England.   A  new  market- 

248 


CROSS. 

C.  was  then  erected  a  short  way  further  down  the  street, 
ou  the  s.  side.  This  C.  consisted  of  an  octangular  sub- 
sti'ucture  16  ft.  across,  with  a  handsome  stone  shaft  of 
about  20  ft.  in  height;  its  removal  1756,  by  the  civic  au- 


Edinburgh  Market-cross, 
thorities,  is  indignantly  referred  to  by  Scott  in  Marmion. 
In  1869,  the  shaft,  or  cross  proper,  w^as  re-erected  within 
the  railings  of  St.  Giles's  church.  And  in  1885,  the 
whole  was  restored  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  according  to  the 
model  of  that  removed  1756;  and  the  ancient  shaft  re- 
erected  on  the  new  sub  structiu'e,  close  to  its  ancient  site 
at  the  entrance  of  Parliament  Square. 

CROSS,  in  Herald] y:  symbol  of  the  Christian  faith  fre- 
^qnently  introduced  into  the  escutcheons  of  ancient  and 
noble  families  everywhere  in  Europe.  This  seems  natural 
on  the  theory  that  the  art  of  blazon  originated  in  connection 
with  the  crusades.  The  cross  is  one  of  the  honorable  ordi- 
naries, and,  indeed,  from  its  sacred  character,  is  esteemed 
by  heralds  as  the  most  honorable  charge.  Its  form  varies 
so  much  that  Menestrier  counts  42  crosses;  La  Colombiere, 
72;  and  Guillim,  39.  Most  of  the  architectural  crosses  occur 
in  heraldry,  with  many  others. 

CROSS,  Invention  (Finding)  of  the:  festival  in  the 
Rom.  Cath.  Church,  commemorating  the  finding  of  the 
alleged  true  C.  of  the  Savior;  celebrated  May  3.  The  em- 
press Helena,  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  out  of  a  de- 
sire of  visiting  the  holy  places,  undertook  a  journey  to 
Palestine  326,  though  she  was  then  nearly  80  years  of  age; 
ond  being  animated  with  a  great  desire  of  finding  the  C.  on 
wh'ch  our  Savior  suffered,  she  was  so  well  directed,  it  is 
3U1 1,  in  the  search  which  she  instituted,  that  the  C.  wa^ 


CROSS. 

found,  and  with  it  the  crosses  of  the  two  thieves;  but  the 
title  being  found  separate  from  the  C,  a  miracle  readily 
determined  which  was  the  proper  object  of  reverence.  An 
order  of  friars,  founded  in  honor  of  the  Invention  of  the 
Cross,  and  carrying  in  their  hand  a  staff,  on  the  top  of 
which  was  a  C,  received  the  name  of  Croisiers  (Fr.  croix, 
cross),  corrupted  into  Grouched  or  Crutched  Friars.  They 
came  to  England  in  the  13th  c,  and  had  monasteries  in 
London,  Oxford,  and  Ryegate. — The  festival  of  the  Elec- 
tion of  the  Gross  (Sep.  14)  commemorates  its  re-erection  in 
Jerusalem  by  the  emperor  Heraclius  628,  after  it  had  been 
carried  away  by  the  Persians. 

CROSS,  Order  of  the:  originally  a  spiritual  order  of 
knighthood,  which  sprang  up  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusades,  and  was  then  called  the  Beihlehemite  Order. 
After  the  commencement  of  the  I8th  c,  the  knights  of  this 
order  adopted  the  monastic  life,  settling  chiefly  in  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Poland,  and  Silesia.  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  confirmed  the  order  1328.  Its  principal  seat  is  now  in 
Bohemia,  and  its  members  generally  hold  ecclesiastical 
preferments  or  professorships  in  the  univ.  of  Prague.  They 
are  distinguished  by  a  C.  of  red  satin,  with  a  six-pointed 
star  under  it,  and  are  sometimes  called  Steiliferi. 

CROSS,  Southern:  most  conspicuous  constellation  in 
the  s.  hemisphere;  near  the  Antarctic  Circle,  therefore  never 
visible  in  northern  latitudes.  It  consists  of  four  bright 
stars,  to  which  the  fancy,  aided  by  Christian  associations, 
readily  gives  the  cruciform  shape.  The  tw^o  brilliant  stars 
which  mark  the  summit  and  foot  of  the  C.  have  nearly  the 
same  right  ascension.  The  constellation,  therefore,  is  al- 
most perpendicular  when  passing  the  meridian,  and  these 
two  stars  act  as  pointers  to  the  Antarctic  pole. 

CROSS,  Victoria:  decoration  instituted  on  the  termi- 
nation of  the  Crimean  campaign  in  1856.  It  may  be  granted 
to  a  soldier  of  any  rank,  and  for  a  single  act  of  valor.  The 
C.  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  as  was  felt  during  the  Crimean 
campaign,  served  a  purpose  in 
the  French  army  which  w^as 
served  by  none  of  the  British 
decorations,  and  it  was  in  imita- 
tion of  it  that  the  Victoria  C.  was 
founded,  with  the  inscription 
'  For  Valour,'  and  which  can  be 
given  to  none  but  those  who  have 
performed,  in  presence  of  the 
enemy,  some  signal  act  of  valor 
or  devotion  to  their  country.  The 
general  distribution  of  the  crosses 
earned  in  the  Crimean  war  (62  in 
number)  was  in  1867;  and  the 
distinction  has  since  been  con- 
ferred from  time  to  time.  The 
V,  C.  is  in  the  form  of  a  Maltese 
cross,  of  bronze.  In  the  centre 
is  the  royal  crown  surmounted  Victoria  Cross, 

by  the  lion,  and  ])elow,  on  a  scroll,  the  words,  'For 

S44 


CROSS-BILL -CROSSBILL. 

Valour.'  The  ribbon  is  blue  for  the  navy,  and  red  for  the 
army.  On  the  clasp  are  two  branches  of  laurel,  and  from 
it  the  cross  hangs,  supported  by  the  initial  '  V.'  The  deco- 
ration is  accompanied  by  a  pension  of  £10  a  year. 

CROSS-BILL  IN  Chancery:  suit  brought  by  the  de- 
fendant against  the  plaintiff  in  the  original  suit,  for  the 
purpose  of  setting  up  some  claim  or  defense  which  could 
not  be  maintained  in  the  original  suit. 

CROSSBILL  {Loxia) :  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
FringiUidm,  much  resembling  bullfinches,  linnets,  etc., 
except  in  the  bill,  which  is  altogether  singular;  the  two 
mandibles — which  are  rather  long,  thick  at  the  base,  and 
much  curved — crossing  each  other  at  the  points,  when  the 
bill  is  closed.  In  different  individuals,  even  of  the  same 
species,  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles  are  found  variously 
directed  to  the  right  and  left.  This  conformation  was 
rashly  characterized  by  Buffon  as  '  an  error  and  defect  in 
nature,  and  a  useless  deformity;'  whereas,  it  is  an  admir- 
able adaptation  to  the  wants  and  habits  of  the  birds,  and 
other  peculiarities  of  their  structure  beautifully  correspond 
with  it — the  bill  being  articulated  to  the  head  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  mandibles  are  capable  not  merely  of  ver- 


Crossbill  {Loxia  curvirostra). 


tical  but  of  lateral  motion,  and  muscles  of  extraordinary 
power,  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  bird,  are  pro- 
vided for  moving  them.  The  result  is,  that  the  crossbills 
readily  obtain  their  principal  food,  seeds  of  firs  and  pines, 
by  tearing  up  the  cones.  They  bring  the  points  of  the 
mandibles  together — which  they  can  do  so  as  to  pick  up  a 
very  small  seed — and  insert  the  points  into  the  cone,  when 
a  powerful  lateral  movement  widens  the  opening  quite 
sufficiently,  and  the  tongue,  which  terminates  in  a  singular 
movable  scoop,  formed  of  a  bone  articulated  to  the  os 
hyoides,  or  ordinary  bone  of  the  tongue,  is  inserted  to  de- 
tach the  seed.  The  power  of  the  bill  is  such  that  it  can  be 
employed  in  its  lateral  movements  to  tear  wood  to  pieces, 
and  crossbills  in  confinement  seem  to  take  a  mischievous 
pleasure  in  so  employing  it,  and  by  this  means,  and  pulling 
at  wires,  soon  destroy  any  ordinary  cage.  An  apple  is  cut 
to  pieces  almost  in  an  instant,  in  order  that  its  seeds  may 
m 


CROSS  BUK— CROSSE. 

be  reached;  and  flocks  of  these  birds  soineliuies  do  great 
mischief  in  orchards.  Only  three  species  are  known,  of 
which  one  is  called  the  common  C.  {L.  curvirostra).  In 
Britain,  it  sometimes  occurs  in  considerable  numbers,  but 
in  most  years  is  scarcely  seen.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  N.  America,  dwelling  chiefly  in  pine  forests, 
and  extending  as  far  n.  as  they  do,  not  dreading  the  cold- 
est climates. 

CROSS  BUN:  small  cake  specially  prepared  for  Good 
Friday,  and  in  many  towns  of  England  cried  about  the 
streets  on  the  morning  of  that  day  as  'Hot-cross  buns.' 
[Bun,  means  simply  a  round  cake — properly,  a  lump,  being 
from  the  same  root  as  bunion,  Ital.  bugno,  a  bump  or  knob; 
allied  is  the  Gael.  bonnacJi,  a  cake,  iibannock.']  Good-Friday 
buns  were  appropriately  marked  with  the  cross;  hence  the 
name.  The  origin  of  the  practice  is  obscure;  probably  it 
is  a  relic  of  some  heathen  observance,  to  which  the  ancient 
church  gave  a  Christian  signiflcance.  At  Chelsea,  there 
were  formerly  two  celebrated  bun -houses,  besieged  on 
Good  Friday  from  morning  until  night  by  hundreds  of 
eager  purchasers,  but  they  have  long  since  disappeared. 

CROSSE,  kros,  Andrew:  1784,  June  17—1855,  July  6; 
b.  Fyne  Court,  in  the  Quantock  Hills,  Somersetshire:  Eng- 
lish experimenter  on  electricity.  He  was  educated  at 
Bristol  and  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1805-6, 
settled  on  his  paternal  estate,  where  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  electricity.  Happening  on  one  occasion  to  exam- 
ine a  cavern  near  his  residence,  he  found  reason  to  conclude 
that  the  crystallizations  on  the  walls  and  roof  were  par- 
tially, at  least,  the  effect  of  the  operation  of  this  subtle 
agency.  In  1807,  he  commenced  experiments  with  the 
view  of  forming  artificial  crystals  by  electricity.  He  took 
hom.e  some  of  the  water  which  dropped  from  the  roof  of 
the  cave,  and  exposed  it  to  the  action  of  a  voltaic  battery 
for  ten  days,  when  he  found  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime 
forming  on  the  negative  platinum  wire.  C.'s  endeavors 
to  form  crystals  of  various  sorts  were  very  successful. 
After  30  years  of  quiet  research,  during  which  period  he 
remained  totally  unknown  to  the  learned  world,  he  ob- 
tained no  less  than  24  minerals,  crystals  of  quartz,  arragon- 
ite,  carbonates  of  lime,  lead,  and  copper,  besides  more 
than  20  other  artificial  minerals.  Explaining  his  discoveries 
at  the  meeting  held  by  the  British  Assoc.  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  Bristol,  1836,  he  received  high  praise. 
On  this  occasion,  he  expressed  his  belief  that  every  kind 
of  mineral  would  yet  be  formed  by  the  ingenuity  of  man . 
But  his  most  startling  discovery  occurred  a  few  months 
after.  While  experimenting  with  some  highly  caustic 
solutions,  out  of  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  there 
appeared,  as  if  gradually  growing  from  specks  between 
the  poles  of  the  voltaic  circuit,  certain  animals  of  the 
genus  acarus.  C.  never  atfirmed  that  he  had  developed 
animal  life  out  of  inorganic  elements, — this  being  neither 
proved  by,  nor  necessary  to  account  for,  his  experiment, — 
but  simply  that  under  certain  physical  conditions  he  could 


CROSS-EXAMINATION— CROSSOPODIA. 

make  acari  appear,  and  not  otherwise.  The  '  discovery ' 
made  a  great  noise  at  the  time.  The  possibility  of  the 
fact  was,  of  course,  denied  by  all  those  persons  who  '  take 
the  high. priori  road,'  and  have  made  up  their  minds  as  to 
w^hat  facts  alone  are  possible:  but  Faraday  declared  that 
he  had  seen,  during  the  same  year,  similar  appearances  in 
his  own  electrical  experiments.  C.  w^as  accused  of  '  im- 
piety,'and  of  being  *  a  reviler  of  our  holy  religion,' and 
though  a  very  pious  man,  was  compelled  to  defend  him- 
self against  such  pitiable  charges,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
defense,  even  lost  various  honors  to  which  he  w^as  entitled. 
C.  also  invented  a  method  of  purifying  sea  water  by  elec- 
tricity, improved  wines,  spirits,  and  cider  by  the  same  pro- 
cess, and  showed  that  it  might  be  usefully  applied  to 
vegetation  An  excellent  memoir  of  him  was  published 
by  his  widow  (1857). 

CROSS-EXAMINATION:  examination  of  a  witness  by 
counsel  for  the  party  opposing  the  one  that  called  him.  It 
has  been  held  in  some  of  the  states  that  when  a  witness 
has  been  sworn  the  opposing  side  ma}'  cross-examine  him 
though  he  has  not  been  examined  in  chief  or  direct;  while 
in  others  and  in  the  federal  courts  the  C.-E.  is  confined  to 
matters  brought  out  in  the  direct  examination.  Inquiry 
in  regard  to  collateral  facts  may  be  made  with  the  sanction 
of  the  presiding  judge,  who  exercises  a  discretion  as  to  the 
course  of  the  examination,  but  such  inquiry  is  not  deemed 
permissible  when  made  for  the  simple  purpose  of  contra- 
dicting the  witness  by  other  evidence.  A  C.-E.  as  to  mat- 
ters not  otherwise  admissible  in  evidence  gives  to  the  party 
producing  the  witness  the  right  tore-examine  him  in  refer- 
ence to  those  matters.  Leading  questions,  excluded  on 
direct  examination,  are  allowed  on  C.-E.  But  it  is  a  gen- 
eral rule  that  if  a  strictly  collateral  question  be  answered, 
the  opposing  counsel  will  not  be  permitted  to  call  witnesses 
to  disprove  the  truth  of  the  answer. 

CROSS  KEYS,  Battle  of:  1862,  June  8,  in  Rocking- 
ham CO.,  Va.,  between  the  Union  Gen.  Fremont  and  the 
Confederate  Gen.  Ewell.  On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Con- 
federate army  from  n.  Va.  to  the  peninsula,  a  force  of 
12,000  men,  subsequently  increased  to  15,000,  w^as  left  on 
the  Shenandoah  and  Rappahannock  under  Gens.  Jackson 
and  Ewell.  After  Jackson's  defeat  near  Winchester,  he 
drove  Gen.  Banks  to  the  Potomac,  leaving  Ewell  at  C.  K. 
to  watch  Fremont.  The  latter,  with  18,000  men,  attacked 
Ewell,  who  had  8,000  men.  The  Confederates  held  their 
ground  through  the  day,  and  retired  at  night  to  unite  with 
Jackson;  the  whole  force  crossed  the  Shenandoah  the  next 
day  and  repulsed  the  advance  of  the  Union  Gen.  Shields  at 
Port  Republic,  when  the  Union  pursuit  ceased.  Confed- 
erate loss  133  killed  and  929  wounded;  Union  loss  about 
the  same. 

CROSSOPODIA,  kros-o-podi-a:  genus  of  annelids  de- 
termined from  markings  on  the  surface  of  Silurian  slates. 
>fothing  exhibiting  structure  has  been  observed — the  sur- 

847 


CROSSOPTERYGIAN— CROTALARIA. 

face  of  the  slate  is  not  even  darkened  by  tlie  organisms, 
which  the  markings  show  to  have  been  nereid-like  worms 
of  some  six  inches  in  length.  The  extraordinary  length, 
'probably  many  yards,'  ascribed  to  this  animal,  has  been 
shown  by  Alexander  Bryson  to  be  founded  on  a  confusion 
of  the  body  with  the  track  formed  by  the  passage  of  the 
creature  through  a  crisp  rather  than  a  slimy  mud,  the 
track  having  been  filled  up  with  dry  blown  dust,  which 
gives  it  an  appearance  and  structure  dilferent  from  those 
of  the  surrounding  matter. 

CROSSOPTERYGIAN,  a.  Tcros-bp'ter-ij'Uln  [Gr.  krossos, 
a  fringe;  pterugion,  a  fin]:  fringe-finned,  applied  to  a  family 
of  ganoid  fishes. 

CROS'WELL,  Edwin:  1797,  May  29—1871,  June  13;  b. 
Catskill,  ]Sr.  J.:  journalist.  He  received  his  education  in 
journalism  on  the  Catskill  Recorder,  founded  by  his  father 
1790;  succeeded  Judge  Cantine  as  editor  of  the  Albany 
Argus  1823,  changed  it  to  a  daily  newspaper,  made  it  a 
leading  democratic  organ,  and  conducted  it  till  1854;  was 
state  printer  1824-40  and  1840-47;  retired  from  politics 
and  journalism  1854,  and  became  New  York  manager  of 
an  ocean  steamship  company, 

CROS'WELL,  Harry,  d.d.:  1778,  June  16—1858,  Mar. 
13;  b.  w.  Hartford:  Prot.  Episc.  minister.  He  was  editor 
for  some  time  of  the  Catskill  Recorder;  founded  the  Bal- 
ance, a  Federalist  organ,  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  1802;  removed 
to  Albany  and  continued  his  political  journalism,  1809;  and 
being  unable  to  pay  the  awards  in  numerous  suits  against 
him  for  libel,  quitted  journalism,  and  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Prot.  Epis.  Ciiuich  1814.  He  became  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  New  Haven,  1815,  Jan.  1;  received  his 
degree  from  Trinity  College  1831;  and  published  Young 
Churchman's  Guide,  Manual  of  Family  Prayers,  Guide  to 
the  Holy  Sacrament,  and  other  devotional  works. 

CROTALARIA,  krd-ta-ld'ri-d  [Gr.  krotalon,  a  rattle]: 
genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  LeguminosfP,  sub-ord.  Pa- 
pilionacece,  deriving  its  name  from  the  inflated  pods  in 
which  the  seeds  rattle  when  ripe.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous; annual,  perennial,  and  shrubby  plants,  natives  of  the 
warm  parts  of  the  world.  Many  of  them  have  long, 
straight,  slender  stems  and  branches,  and  some  of  these 
yield  valuable  fibre,  particularly  C.  jiincea,  the  Sunn  (q.v.), 
or  Sunn  Hemp  of  India,  an  annual  species,  the  fibre  of 
which  is  now  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Jtjbbul- 
PORE  Hemp,  also  an  important  fibre,  and  regarded  as 
stronger  than  Sunn,  is  the  produce  of  C.  tenuifolia,  a  per- 
ennial species  about  nine  ft.  high,  native  of  the  s.  of  India, 
which,  when  growing  in  abundant  space,  throws  out  many 
branches;  but  when  sown  thick,  grows  with  little  branch- 
ing. C.  Burhia,  w^hicli  naturally  grows  in  very  arid 
places,  is  also  cultivated  in  Sinde  for  its  fibre;  and  that  of 
C.  retusa  is  employed  in  the  Madras  presidency.  C.  juncea 
is  often  sown  in  India,  to  be  used  in  a  young  state  for 
feeding  cattle. 

248 


CROTALID^E— CROTOK. 

CROTALID^,  krd-tdl'i-de:  family  of  venomous  ser^ 
pents,  agreeing  with  Viperidce  in  general  form  and  appear- 
ance; in  their  large  head,  which  is  broad  behind  and  has  a 
short  muzzle;  in  their  short  tail;  and  in  having  long  fangs 
in  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  destitute  of  other 
teeth;  but  dilferiug  from  them  in  having  a  large  pit — the 
use  of  w^hich  is  not  known — on  each  side  of  the  face  be- 
tw^een  the  nostril  and  the  eye;  and  in  having  the  tail  ter- 
minated by  a  sort  of  horny  spine  or  by  a  rattle.  Many  of 
the  most  dangerous  serpents  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia  and 
America  belong  to  this  family,  w^hich  receives  its  name 
from  the  rattlesnakes  (q,v.)  [Gr.  crotalus,  a  rattle]  of 
America,  and  contains  also  the  genera  TrigonocepJialmy 
Oras]}edocephalus,  Lachesis,  etc. 

CROTCH,  n  kroch  [F.  croc,  a  hook;  crochet,  a  hook,  a 
little  hook]:  a  hook  or  fork.  Crotched,  a.  krocht,  hooked. 
Crotch  et,  n.  -et,  a  fixedness  of  the  mind  on  some  particu- 
lar object  or  pursuit;  a  w^him  or  fancy;  a  musical  note  (see 
Music);  a  bracket.  Crotcheted,  a.  krdch'e-ted,  marked 
with  crotchets.  Crotch  ety,  a.  -t),  having  a  tendency  to 
fix  the  mind  too  exclusively  on  one  object  or  pursuit  for  a 
time,  to  be  in  its  turn  laid  aside  for  another;  whimsical. 

CROTCH,  kroch,  William,  mus.doc:  1775-1840, 
Dec.  29;  b.  Norwich,  England:  musical  composer.  His 
musical  genius  was  as  precocious  as  that  of  the  great  Mo- 
zart. When  little  more  than  three  years  old,  it  is  said  that 
he  could  play  God  save  the  King  almost  throughout  with 
chords,  and  the  accuracy  of  his  ear  was  such  that  he  could 
detect  in  a  moment  what  note  w^as  struck,  and  in  what  key 
the  music  w^as  composed.  At  the  age  of  22,  C.  's  abilities 
were  so  much  appreciated  that  he  w^as  appointed  prof,  of 
music  in  Oxford  Univ.,  w4th  the  degree  Doctor  of  Music. 
In  1822,  he  obtained  the  principalship  of  the  Royal  Acad, 
of  Music.  C.  composed  a  large  number  of  pieces  for  the 
organ  and  piano,  as  well  as  many  vocal  pieces.  He  was 
author  of  Elements  of  Musical  Composition  and  Thorough- 
bass, and  Styles  of  Music  of  all  Ages,  3  vols. 

CROTON,  n.  krotdn  [Gr.  kroton,  a  tick,  referring  to  the 
resemblance  of  the  seeds]:  a  genus  of  handsome  plants  of 
numerous  species.  Croton'ic,  a.  -Ik,  pertaining  to;  denot- 
ing an  acid  obtained  from  croton-oil.  Croton  ylene,  n. 
'i-len,  a  hydrocarbon  of  the  acetylene  series,  related  to  cro- 
tonic  acidl! 

CRO'TON:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  Euphm-U- 
acece,  having  male  and  female  flowers  generally  on  the 
same  plant;  the  male  flowers  with  five  petals;  the  female 
flowers  with  three  styles,  which  are  either  forked  or  di- 
vided into  many  branches;  the  capsules  3-celled,  with  one 
seed  in  each  cell.  The  species  are  numerous,  mostly 
tropical  or  sub-tropical  trees  or  shrubs,  a  few  herbaceous. 
Some  possess  in  high  degree  the  acrid  properties  charac- 
teristic of  the  order  to  w^hich  they  belong.  Among  these, 
the  most  important  is  the  Purging  C.  (C.  Tiglium),^  a 
small  tree,  a  native  of  India  and  easterly  tropical  Asia. 


CROTON  AQUEDUCT— CROTOPHAGA. 

The  leaves  are  extremely  acrid;  the  wood  in  a  fresh  state 
is  a  drastic,  and  in  a  dried  state  a  more  mild  purgative; 
and  the  seeds  {G.  Seeds,  or  Tilly  Seeds)  are  an  extremely 
powerful  drastic  purgative,  formerly  much  employed  in 
Europe,  but  latterly  disused  on  account  of  violence  and 
uncertainty  of  action,  though  still  valuable  as  yielding  C. 
Oil  (q.v.).  They  are  oval,  or  oval-oblong,  about  the  size 
of  tield-beans.  So  great  is  their  acridity,  that  dangerous 
effects  have  ensued  from  working  for  some  hours  with 
packages  of  them.  The  oil  is  obtained  mostly  by  ex- 
pression, and  partly  by  treating  the  cake  with  alcohol. — 
The  wood  and  seeds  of  0.  Pamna  are  employed  in  some 
parts  of  the  East  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  C.  Tiglium; 
and  the  wood  is  supposed  to  be  the  Lignum  Pamnce  or  Pa- 
navcB  of  commerce.  -  Other  species  have  similar  properties, 
— Very  different  are  the  properties  of  the  species  which 
yield  Cascarilla  (q.v.)  and  Copalche  (q.v.)  barks,  to  whick 
a  great  resemblance  exists  in  the  barks  of  a  number  of 
species,  natives  chiefly  of  America. — Other  species  are  still 
more  aromatic,  and  some  delightfully  fragrant,  containing 
in  great  abundance  a  thickish  balsamic  sap.  The  sap  of 
G.  gratissimus  is  much  employed  as  a  perfume  and  cos- 
metic at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  that  of  G.  origanifolium 
is  used  in  the  W.  Indies  as  a  substitute  for  Balsam  of  Co- 
paiva;  that  of  G.  halsamiferum,  also  W.  Indian,  furnishes 
Eau  de  Mantes  by  distillation;  and  the  balsamic  sap  of 
some  S.  American  species  is  dried  and  used  as  incense. 

CRO'TON  AQ  UEDUCT:  see  Aqueduct. 

CRO'TON"  OIL:  oil  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Groton 
tiglium,  varying  in  color  from  a  pale  yellow  to  a  dark  red- 
dish-brown or  deep  sherry  color.  It  is  not  miscible  with 
water,  but  dissolves  in  alcohol  and  in  ether.  It  has  an 
acrid  taste,  and  an  unpleasant  characteristic  odor,  and  is  a 
powerful  purgative,  one  drop  of  the  pure  oil  being  a  sufii- 
cient  dose.  When  rubbed  upon  the  skin,  it  produces  rube- 
faction  and  pustular  eruption,  and  thereby  tends  to  relieve 
some  affections  of  the  internal  organs.  It  is  used  either 
by  itself  in  the  unmixed  state,  or  diluted  with  olive  oil, 
soap  liniment,  alcohol,  etc.  It  is  not  to  be  used  except 
with  extreme  caution. 

CROTONA,  kro  tona,  or  Croton:  city  of  Italy,  found- 
ed by  a  colony  of  Achoeans,  b.c.  710.  During  a  war  be- 
tween the  inhabitants  and  the  people  of  Sybaris  the  latter 
were  defeated  in  a  great  battle  and  their  city  destroyed, 
B.c,  510.  C.  was  taken  by  the  elder  Dionysius  B.C.  389, 
by  Agathocles  299,  and  afterward  by  Pyrrhus;  and  was 
seized  by  the  Romans  277,  who  planted  a  colony  there  194. 
It  was  the  seat  of  the  school  of  Pythagoras,  and  its  site  is 
now  occupied  by  Cothrone. 

CROTOPHAGA,  A;?'^-?;^^/"^-^/^^^  [Gr.  tick-eater]:  genus  of 
birds  of  the  order  Scansores,  or  climbers,  allied  to  trogons 
and  toucans,  and  of  which  some  of  the  species  are  known 
by  the  names  Ani  and  Keel-bird,  the  former  from  their 
cry,  the  latter  from  the  high,  blade-like  ridge  which  sur- 


CROUCH— CROUP. 

mounts  the  short,  much  compressed,  arched  bill.  The 
tail  is  fan-shaped.  C.  Ani,  often  called  the  Savanna 
Blackbird,  is  common  in  the  W.  Indies  and  warm  parts 
of  America,  inhabiting  savannas  and  open  pastures,  par- 
chietiy  on  insects,  partly  also  on  berries.  It  uses  the  sharp 
ridge  of  the  bill  in  opening  earth,  dung,  etc.,  in  search  of 
ticularly  those  occupied  by  cattle  or  horses,  and  feeding 


Savanna  Blackbird  (Crotophaga  Ani). 


insect  prey.  It  often  perches  on  the  backs  of  horses  or 
cattle,  to  feed  on  ticks,  and  may  be  seen  clinging  to  a 
cow's  tail;  the  important  service  which  it  renders  being 
apparently  well  appreciated. 

CROUCH,  V.  krmvch  [Icel.  kroMnn,  crooked,  bowed 
down:  W.  crwcau,  to  bow,  to  curve]:  to  crook  the  body 
together;  to  stop  low;  to  bend;  to  act  meanl}^;  to  fawn  or 
cringe.  Crouching,  imp.  Crouched,  pp.  krowcht. 
Crouched  FRIARS,  same  as  Crutched-friars:  see  under 
Crutch. 

CROUP,  n.  krop  [F.  croupe,  hind  quarters:  Icel.  kroppr, 
a  bump  on  the  body  (see  Crupper)]  :  the  hinder  part  or  but- 
tocks of  a  horse;  the  place  behind  the  saddle. 

CROUP,  n.  krop  [AS.  liropan,  to  call  aloud:  Goth. 
liropjan;  Icel.  hropa;  Scot,  roup,  to  call  out,  to  cry:  Gael. 
crup,  to  contract,  to  shrink]:  severe  and  often  fatal  disease 
of  infants,  known  from  a  remote  period,  but  first  scientific- 
ally described  by  Dr.  Francis  Home  1765,  as  a  suffocative 
afl:ection  of  the  breathing,  depending  on  the  formation  of 
a  false  membrane  or  fibrinous  deposit  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  windpipe  or  Larynx  (q.v.).  The  inflam- 
matory disease  described  by  Home  has  been  frequently 
confounded  with  a  purely  spasmodic  affection  of  the 
larynx,  the  asthma  of  Millar,  or  laryngismus  stridulus  of 
Dr.  Mason  Good;  and  also  with  Diphtheria  (q.v.)  in  which 
a  false  membrane  is  formed  on  the  pharynx  and  palate,  as 

251 


CROUPADE— CROUT. 

well  as  in  the  larynx.  C,  in  the  more  restricted  sense, 
begins  with  symptoms  resembling  Catarrh  (q.v.),  but 
difi'ering  in  the  greater  degree  of  feverishness  and  hoarse- 
ness. In  a  short  time,  the  respiration  becomes  difficult  and 
noisy;  a  very  peculiar  hissing  sound  is  heard  accompanying 
the  drawing  of  each  breath;  the  cough  is  harsh  and  brassy; 
the  countenance  is  injected,  the  expression  very  feverish 
and  anxious,  the  voice  entirely  lost,  or  much  altered.  This 
state  is  soon  followed  by  one  of  suffocation,  unless  the 
little  patient  is  relieved  by  expectoration,  which,  however, 
frequently  takes  place  in  the  midst  of  vomiting  or  cough- 
ing, a  quantity  of  membranous  shreds  being  brought  up 
from  the  windpipe  with  glairy  mucus,  and  sometimes 
streaks  of  blood.  In  the  worst  cases,  the  spasms  of  ineflect- 
ual  coughing,  and  the  constantly  increasing  obstruction  to 
the  breathing,  are  most  painful  to  witness;  and  a  period  of 
tossing,  extreme  suffering,  and  anxiety  is  succeeded  either 
by  gradual  insensibility,  or  by  convulsions,  soon  followed 
by  death.  True  C.  is  rarely  seen  after  the  age  of  puberty, 
and  is  rather  uncommon  before  the  termination  of  the  first 
year  of  life.  It  may  occur,  however,  at  any  age,  and  has 
essentially  the  same  characters  as  are  above  described.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  due  in  some  measure  to  Endemic  (q.v.) 
and  partly  also  to  Epidemic  (q.v.)  causes.  It  is  most  com- 
mon in  cold  and  moist  climates  and  seasons,  and  in  low- 
lying,  but  exposed  situations.  The  variations  in  its  preva- 
lence, however,  are  not  fully  explained.  The  treatment  of 
C.  requires  to  be  very  active  and  decided,  and  yet  free  from 
rashness.  In  cases  of  highly  inflammatory  type,  and  in 
robust  children,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  blood  from  the 
arm,  or  to  place  one  or  more  leeches  (according  to  the  age 
of  the  child)  over  the  top  of  the  breast-bone.  An  emetic 
should  also  be  given  as  soon  as  possible,  composed  of  a  full 
dose  of  tartar- emetic  or  of  ipecacuanha,  or  both  together. 
Some  prefer  sulphate  of  copper  given  in  repeated  doses;  in 
the  United  States,  a  preference  is  given  to  alum  and  honey 
mixed  into  a  paste  and  given  in  teaspoonful  doses.  The 
emetic  may  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  every  two  or  three 
hours,  and  the  child  should  at  intervals  be  placed  in  the 
warm  bath.  Medical  advice  should  be  procured  without 
a  moment's  delay,  for  the  disease  is  one  of  extreme  danger, 
and  almost  all  the  effective  remedies  require  experienced 
hands  for  their  safe  administration.  In  extieme  cases, 
Tracheotomy  (q.v.)  has  been  resorted  to  with  success. 

CROUP ADE,  n.  kro-pdd'  [F.  croupe,  the  croup]:  higher 
leaps  than  those  of  curvets,  that  keep  the  fore  and  hind 
quarters  of  the  horse  in  an  equal  height,  so  that  he  trusses  his 
legs  under  his  belly  without  jerking. 

CROUPIER,  n.  kro-per'  [F.  an  assistant  at  a  gaming-table 
—from  croupe,  hind-quarters,  a  crupper:  comp.  Gael,  criih, 
to  sit,  to  squat] :  in  Soot. ,  one  who  sits  at  the  foot  of  the  table 
at  a  public  dinner  and  assists  the  chairman. 

GROUT,  n.  krowt  [Ger.  kraut,  a  plant,  a  vegetable:  Dan. 
kruid,  a  herb,  cabbage]:  sliced  or  chopped  cabbage  placed 

252 


CROW. 

in  layers  alternately  with  salt  and  spices,  closely  packed  and 
allowed  to  ferment,  usually  called  sour  crout;  a  universal 
article  of  domestic  use  in  German}^  and  called  sauer  kraut. 

CROW,  n.  kro  [Ger.  krdlien,  to  crow:  L.  crocire;  F.  cro- 
asser;  Gr.  krozein,  to  croak:  Icel.  kraki,  a  crow;  krakr,  a 
raven :  an  imitation  of  the  cry  of  different  birds] :  a  large 
passerine  bird  of  a  very  deep  blue-black  color;  the  cry  of  a 
cock;  an  iron  lever:  Y.  to  sing  or  cry  as  a  cock,  being  a 
mark  of  joy  or  defiance;  to  boast  in  triumph.  Crow  ing, 
imp.  Crew,  pt.  kro,  did  crow.  Crowded,  pp.  krod.  Crow- 
bar, a  strong  bar  of  iron  used  as  a  lever.  Crow's-bill,  in 
surg.,  a  kind  of  forceps  for  extracting  bullets,  etc.,  from 
wounds.  Crow- COAL,  among  miners,  earthy  coal  contain- 
ing very  little  bitumen.  Crow  foot  or  Crow's  foot,  n. 
kro  foot,  a  wild  flowering  plant,  the  seed-vessels  of  which 
resemble  the  foot  of  a  crow;  the  Banunculus  of  y^xyioub  spe- 
cies, ord.  Ranunculacem  (see  Ranunculus):  in  a  ship,  a 
number  of  small  cords  rove  through  a  long  block,  used  to 
suspend  an  awning  by,  etc. :  in  mil. ,  a  machine  of  iron  hav- 
ing four  points  or  spikes  abt.  4  in.  long  welded  together  so 
that  when  laid  on  the  ground  one  point  is  always  uppermost: 
see  Calthrop.  Crow's-feet,  wrinkles  under  the  eyes,  being 
the  effects  of  age.  Crow's-nest,  a  look-out  or  watch-tower 
placed  on  the  main-topmast  cross-trees,  generally  of  a 
whaling- vessel.  Crow-quill,  a  pen  made  from  the  quill 
of  a  crow,  used  for  delicate  writing  and  sketching.  To 
pluck  or  PULL  A  CROW,  to  be  contentious  about  a  trifle. 

CROW  (Corvus):  genus  of  birds,  type  of  the  family 
Coi'vidcB  (q.v.).  The  largest  species  of  this  genus  is  the 
Raven  (q.v.).  The  Rock  (q.v.)  also  belongs  to  it.  Besides 
these  and  the  Jackdaw  (q.v  ),  there  are  found  in  Britain,  the 
Common  or  Carrion  C.  (6^  corone),  and  the  Royston  C. 
or  Hooded  C.  {G.  comix),  differing  chiefly  in  color,  the 
Carrion  C.  being  black,  the  Hooded  C.  gray,  with  black 
head,  throat,  wings,  and  tail.  The  Hooded  C.  is  also 
rather  larger  than  the  Carrion  C,  which,  in  size,  nearly 
agrees  with  the  rook,  but  which  may  readily  be  distin- 
guished from  that  species  in  its  having  the  base  of  the  bill 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  throat  not  naked  and  rough,  but 
closely  feathered.  The  name  Hooded  C.  is  derived  from 
the  appearance  of  the  black  head,  contrasted  with  the  gray 
body,  but  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  is,  without  any  show  of 
reason,  popularly  transferred  to  the  Carrion  C,  under  the 
form  Hoody.  Both  these  species  have  habits  much  more 
resembling  those  of  the  raven  than  of  the  rook;  they  seldom 
or  never  associate  in  flocks,  and  not  only  prefer  carrion  to 
worms,  insects,  or  vegetable  food,  but  watch  and  attack 
very  weak  animals,  such  as  young  lambs.  On  this  account, 
a  premium  is  in  many  places  given  for  their  destruction, 
and  gamekeepers  relentlessly  pursue  them  on  account  of 
their  robbing  nests,  from  which  they  take  either  the  eggs 
or  the  helpless  young.  Their  own  nests  are  built  in  trees, 
or  if  these  are  not  to  be  found  ,  among  high  rocks.  They 
both  occasionally  frequent  the  sea-coast,  feeding  on  shell- 
tish,  etc.    Both  are  widely  distributed  over  Europe  and  the 

253 


CROWBERRY. 

northern  parts  of  Asia. — The  C.  of  N.  America  (C.  America- 
nus)  is  very  simihir  to  the  Carrion  C,  but  rather  smaller, 
and,  after  the  breeding  season  is  over,  congregates  into 
great  liocks;  it  is  also  partially  migratory,  great  numbers 
from  the  more  northerly  parts  moving  to  the  south  on  the 
approach  of  winter.  Its  habits  are  otherwise  intermediate 
between  those  of  the  Carrion  C,  and  the  rook. — The  Fish 
C.  {C.  ossifragus)  frequents  the  coasts  and  southern  rivers 
of  the  United  States,  feeding  chiefly  on  fish,  which  it 
catches  with  great  dexterity.  It  sometimes  also  assails 
gulls,  and  compels  them  to  disgorge  their  prey. — The  Jab- 
bering C.  ((7.  Jamaicenm)  of  the  Blue  Mountains 
of  Jamaica  is  remarkable  for  the  resemblance  of  its 
voice  to  human  speech,  which  some  of  the  other 
species  of  this  genus,  as  the  raven,  it  is  well  known, 
can  be  taught  to  imitate.  Sir  J.  E,  Tennent  gives  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  small  glossy  C.  of  Ceylon  (6.  splen- 
dens),  which  frequents  the  towns,  feeding  on  offal,  and 
boldly  entering  rooms  through  open  windows,  to  snatch 
some  morsel  from  the  dinner- table.    Habits  of  pilfering 


are  more  or  less  prevalent  among  the  different  species  of 
crow.  The  accompanying  cut  of  the  heads  of  the  raven 
(fig.  1)  and  the  rook  (fig.  2)  illustrates  well  the  prevalent 
characters  of  the  bill  in  this  genus,  showing  also  in  the 
raven  the  bristles  which,  as  in  most  of  the  species,  sur- 
round its  base,  but  which  are  wanting  in  the  rook;  and 
contrasting  the  greater  strength  of  neck,  head,  and  bill 
which  belongs  to  the  more  carnivorous  as  compared  with 
the  more  frugivorous  species.  The  Red-legged  C.  is  the 
Chough  (q  v.). — The  name  Carrion  C.  is  given  in  Amer- 
ica to  the  Black  Vulture:  see  Vulture.— The  Piping 
C.  of  New  South  Wales  is  a  Baritah  (q.v.). 

CROWBERRY,  or  Crake'berry  {E7)ipetrum  nigrum), 
small  procumbent  shrub,  of  the  nat.  ord.  Einpetracece: 

254 


Crowberry : 
6,  fruit  cut  open;  c,  flower 


CRO  \¥D-CRO  \YLAND. 
native  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  abundant 
in  the  moors  of  fecotlaud  and  the 
north  of  Englaud.  The  order  con- 
sists of  a  few  heath -like  shrubs, 
which,  however,  are  regarded  as 
having  a  botanical  affinity  to  Eu- 
1;  pliorbiacecB  (Spurges,  etc  ),  with 
small  unisexual  tiowers  in  the  ax- 
ils of  the  leaves,  the  fruit  a  small 
berry  seated  in  the  persistent  ca- 
lyx. The  beriies  of  the  C.  are 
near?y  black,  surround  the  branch- 
es in  crowded  clusters,  and  each 
contain  6-9  bony  seeds  and  a 
watery  acidulous  juice,  sometimes 
considered  a  refreshing  drink,  but 
generally  little  esteemed.  A  fer- 
mented or  vinous  liquor  is  pre-  - 
pared  from  them  in  some  northern 
countries.  1'hey  are  a  favorite 
food  of  game.  E.  ruhrum,  a  na- 
tive of  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn, 
dilfers  little  from  the  northern 
plant,  except  in  having  red  berries. 
The  berries  of  the  Camarinheira 
(Corema  alba)  Vi^^d.  in  Portugal  for  the  preparation  of 
an  acidulous  liquor  as  a  drink  in  fevers. 

CROWD  or  Croud,  n.  hroicd,  or  Ckowth,  n.  krowth 
[W  cn€th,  anything  swelling  out,  a  violin:  Gael,  cruit,  a 
harp]:  in  OE.,  a  fiddle;  a  kind  of  violin. 

CROWD,  n.  krowd  [W.  crwd,  a  round  lump:  Lith. 
kruwa,  a  heap,  as  stones  or  people:  Dut.  kruyden,  to  thrust 
or  push  forward:  com  p.  Gael,  curradh,  a  crowding  togeth- 
er—from cmi\  a  small  space:  connected  with  curd']:  a 
number  too  great  for  the  space;  a  confused  multitude  of 
persons;  a  throng;  a  mob;  a  number  of  things  together;  the 
populace:  V.  to  press  together;  to  fill  to  excess;  to  encum- 
ber with  numbers;  to  extend  to  the  utmost,  as  a  ship  crowds 
on  sails.  Crowd'ing,  imp.  Crowd'ed,  pp. :  Adj.  very  full. 
Crowd  sail,  to  spread  all  the  sails  widely  upon  the  yards. — 
SvN.ot  'crowd, n.':  multitude;  swarm;  the  vulgar;  the  rabble. 

CROWDIE,  or  Crowd y,  n.  krow'di  [Gael,  gvuih, 
curds;  gruthacli,  coagulated:  connected  with  crowd  2  and 
curd]:  in  Scot.,  a  mixture  of  meal  and  water,  or  meal  and 
milk:  gruel;  curds  with  the  whey  pressed  out  and  mixed 
with  butter. 

CROWLAND,  kroland.  or  Croy'land:  ancient  English 
town  in  the  south  of  Lincolnshire,  on  the  Welland,  in  a 
low  flat  district  in  the  Fens,  48  m  s.s.e.  oi  Lincoln.  Here 
formerly  was  a  large  abbey,  built  about  .1200,  and  there 
still  are  the  remains  of  a  church  founded  by  King  Ethel- 
wald  716.  At  the  confluence  of  the  Welland  and  the  Nene 
is  a  curious  triangular  bridge  built  probably  in  the  14tli  c. 
on  the  site  of  an  older  one  erected  about  660.  Ingulfus, 
the  historian,  was  abbot  of  Croyland.    Pop.  3,000. 


CROWK. 

CROWN,  n.  kroim  [F.  couronne — from  OF.  corone,  a 
crown:  L.  corona,  a  crown:  W.  crwn,  round,  circular: 
Gael,  crun,  the  boss  of  a  shield,  a  garland ;  cruinn,  a  circle, 
a  sphere] :  a  golden  or  ornamental  circlet  worn  around  the 
head;  the  state  cap  or  diadem  of  a  king  or  sovereign;  the 
executive  government;  a  wreath  or  garland;  the  top  part  of 
a  thing,  particularly  the  head;  a  silver  coin,  first  issued 
1527,  value  56'  (nearly  $1.25  in  U.  S.  currency),  so  named 
as  anciently  stamped  with  a  crown:  the  half-crown  also  is  a 
silver  coin:  Y.  to  invest  any  one  with  regal  power  by  the 
ceremony  of  placing  the  state  cap  or  diadem  on  his  head; 
to  complete  or  finish;  to  reward;  to  dignify  or  adorn. 
Crowning,  imp.:  Adj.  completing;  finishing;  in  mil., 
topping  with  works,  as  a  crest  or  summit.  Crowned,  pp. 
krownd.  Crown'less,  a.  without  a  crown.  Crown- 
antler,  topmost  antler  of  the  horn  of  a  stag.  Crown- 
gate,  in  inland-  navig. ,  the  head-gate  of  a  canal-lock. 
Crown-glass,  best  common  window -glass,  consisting  of 
silicates  of  sodium  and  calcium,  composed  of  sand  100, 
potash  35,  chalk  85.  Crown  imperial:  see  Fritillary. 
Crown-office,  an  office  belonging  to  the  court  of  queen's 
bench.     Crown-piece,  a  strap  in  a  bridle,  head-stall,  or 


halter,  which  passes  over  the  head  of  a  horse,  its  ends 
being  buckled  to  the  cheek-straps;  an  Eng.  coin  of  the 
value  of  five  shillings.  Crown-post,  in  a  building,  a  post 
which  stands  upright  in  the  middle  between  two  principal 
rafters.  Crown-prince,  a  prince  who  succeeds  to  the 
crown  or  throne;  the  heir  apparent  to  the  throne  in  Ger- 
many and  in  Sw^eden.  Crow^n- wheel,  a  wheel  having 
cogs  at  right  angles  with  its  plane;  in  a  watch,  the  wheel 
which  drives  the  balance.  Crown-work:  in  fortification, 
a  work  formed  to  strengthen  a  weak  front,  or  to  occupy 
ground  which  might  facilitate  the  enemy's  operations.  It 
consists  of  two  faces  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  angle,  with 

Si  56 


CROWK 

a  bastion  in  the  middle,  and  half -bastions  at  the  two  ends; 
and  it  is  connected  with  the  main  body  of  the  work  by 
two  long  sides.  One  form  of  C.  is  shown  in  the  annexed 
cut,  w^here  RMNPS  is  the  C,  in  front  of  and  protecting  the 
ravelin  O.  Both  of  these  works  are  entirely  beyond  the 
main  ditch  of  the  place,  but  each  has  also  a  ditch  of  its  own. 

CROWN:  circlet,  either  open  or  closed  above,  worn  as 
a  decoration  on  the  head.  Crowns  were  originally  gar- 
lands of  leaves;  and  in  this  form  they  have  probably  been 
used  as  an  ornament  for  the  head  by  almost  every  people. 
They  were  much  used  by  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins 
on  joyous  and  on  solemn  occasions.  Among  the  Greeks,  the 
C.  {stepJianos)  was  sometimes  an  emblem  of  office,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  archons;  sometimes  an  ornament  for  the  heads 
of  victors  in  the  public  games;  and  sometimes  a  mark  of 
distinction  for  citizens  who  had  merited  well  of  their 
country.  Crowns  of  the  latter  class  were  made  at  first  of 
twigs  of  laurel,  but  afterward  of  gold.  The  Romans  made 
use  of  crowns  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  Greeks,  chiefly 
as  rewards  for  valor.  The  most  hihhly  prized  was  the 
Corona  ohsidionalis,  which  was  bestowed  by  a  beleaguered 
garrison  or  army  on  the  general  who  rescued  them.  It  was 
made  of  grass  of  wild-tiow^ers,  gathered  from  the  place 
which  had  been  inclosed  by  the  enemy.  Next  in  order 
was  the  Civic  C,  a  garland  of  oak-leaves  and  acorns,  given 
as  a  reward  to  any  soldier  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a 
Roman  citizen  in  battle.  For  the  soldier  who  wore  it,  a 
place  next  to  the  senators  was  reserved  at  the  public  spec- 
tacles, and  both  the  senate  and  the  assemblage  rose  up  on 


Corona  Muralis.  Civic  Crown. 


his  entrance.  Not  only  he,  but  his  father  and  paternal 
grandfather  were  free  from  all  public  burdens;  and  the 
person  whose  life  he  had  saved  was  bound  ever  after  to 
show  him  the  duty  w^hich  a  son  owes  to  a  father.  The 
civic  C.  is  sometimes  used  in  heraldry. 

Another  of  the  Roman  crowns  was  the  Corona  muralis^ 
bestowed  on  him  who  first  scaled  the  wall  of  a  besieged 
city.  It  was  a  golden  ring  surmounted  with  turrets  or 
battlements.    It  is  often  used  in  modern  heraldry. 

The  Corona  triumphalis,  which  was  of  three  kinds,  was 
bestowed  on  a  general  when  he  obtained  a  triumph. 

But  there  was  a  totally  dilferent  class  of  crowns,  which 
were  not  honorary,  but  emblematical,  and  which  were 
regulated  not  by  law,  like  the  former,  but  by  custom.  Of 
these,  the  most  importaut  were:  li  The  Gc^om  mcerdiotaltSf 


CROWK 

worn  by  the  priests  and  bystanders  when  engaged  in  sac- 
rifice, with  the  exception  of  the  pontifex  maximus.  It 
was  sometimes  of  olive  leaves,  sometimes  of  ears  of  corn, 
sometimes  of  gold.  2.  Corona  funehris  or  sepulclimlis,  with 
which  the  dead  was  crowned,  a  custom  among  the  Greeks 
and  the  Romans.  A  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  pro- 
vided that  if  any  one  had  been  crowned  while  living,  th« 
C.  should  be  placed  on  his  head  when  carried  out  to 
burial.  Crowns  were  placed  also  on  the  bier,  and  scattered 
from  the  windows  under  which  the  procession  passed.  In 
Greece,  these  crowns  were  commonly  of  parsley.  3.  Co- 
rona  comivialis.  The  custom  of  wearing  wreaths  on  festive 
occasions,  which,  like  most  of  the  Roman  customs,  was 
derived  from  Greece,  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
the  habit  of  tying  a  woolen  fillet  round  the  head,  to  mit- 
igate the  effects  of  intoxication.  As  luxury  increased, 
they  were  made  of  such  flowers  and  shrubs  as  were  sup- 
posed to  prevent  intoxication,  roses,  violets,  mj^rtle,  ivy, 
and  even  parsley.  4.  Corona  nuptialis,  or  bridal-wreath, 
made  of  flowers  plucked  by  the  bride  herself,  and  not 
bought,  as  such  purchase  was  of  bad  omen  among  the 
Romans;  it  was  made  of  verbena.  5.  Corona  naialitia,  a 
chaplet  suspended  over  the  door  of  the  vestibule  in  which 
a  child  was  born. 

Several  other  classical  crowns  are  mentioned,  with  these, 
in  the  very  elaborate  article  on  the  subject  in  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary, 

As  the  emblem  of  sovereignty  in  modern  Europe,  the  C. 
was  borrowed  rather  from  the  Diadem  (q.v.),  than  the 
crowns  of  antiquity.  This  decoration  was  originally 
Oriental.  Alexander  the  Great  adopted  it  from  the  kings 
of  Persia;  and  Antony  assumed  it  during  his  luxurious  in- 
tercourse with  Cleopatra.  According  to  some,  its  adop- 
tion for  the  gods  originated  in  the  fillet,  which  was  assigned 
to  Bacchus  for  the  purpose  mentioned  as  that  which  led  to 
the  use  of  the  convivial  crown.  In  modern  states,  crowns 
were  of  very  various  forms,  till  heralds  devised  a  regular 
series  of  them  to  mark  the  various  gradations  of  sovereignty, 
from  that  of  the  emperor  down  to  what  are  now  called  the 
coronets  of  counts  and  barons.  The  pope  also  had  his 
triple  crown  :  see  Tiara.  So  entirely  was  the  C.  regarded 
as  the  symbol  of  sovereignty,  that  the  word  came  often  to 
be  used  as  synon3anous  with  the  monarchy — a  sense  in 
which  we  still  speak  of  the  C.  of  England,  and  the  do- 
mains and  possessioub  of  the  crown. 

The  crowns  of  kings  and  emperors  are  closed  above, 
while  the  coronet  of  a  noble  is  merely  an  open  circlet  sur- 
rounding the  head;  hence,  to  close  the  G.  has  been  the  am- 
bition of  princes  desirous  of  shaking  off  the  authority 
of  feudal  superiors,  and  assuming  a  complete  sover- 
eignty. 

The  royal  C.  of  Great  Britain  is  a  circle  of  gold  enriched 
with  stones  and  pearls,  and  heightened  with  four  crosses 
pattee,  and  four  fleurs-de-lis  alternately.  From  these  rise 
four  arch-diadems,  adorned  with  pearls>  which  close  under 
a  mouiid,  ensigned  with  a  cross  patt^.    The  G.  used  at  tlie 

258 


coronation  of  Queen  Victoria  was  adorned  in  accordance 
with  the  taste  of  the  present  time. 

The  coronet  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  is  a  circle  of  gold, 
set  round  with  crosses  pattee  and  Meurs-de-lis,  but  has  only- 
one  arch,  decorated  with  pearls,  surmounted  with  a  mound 
and  cross,  and  bordered  with  ermine.  In  addition  to  his 
coronet,  the  Prince  of  Wales  has  a  cognizance  consisting 
of  three  ostrich  feathers,  argent,  quilled  or,  entiled  with  a 
prince's  coronet  of  the  last,  with  an  escrol  azure,  whereon 
are  the  German  words  Ich  dien  (I  serve).  For  the  tradi- 
tionary origin  of  this  badge,  see  Prtnce  of  Wales. 

The  younger  sons  and  brothers  of  the  sovereign  wear  as 
coronet  a  circle  of  gold,  bordered  ermine,  heightened  with 
tleurs-de-lis,  crosses  pattee,  and  strawberry  leaves  alter- 
nately. Nephews  of  the  blood-royal  have  strawberry 
leaves  on  their  coronets,  where  the  sons  and  brothers  have 
tleurs-de-lis.  Princesses-royal  have  a  circle  of  gold,  bor- 
dered with  ermine,  and  heightened  with  crosses  pattee, 
tleurs-de-lis,  and  strawberry  leaves  alternately.  For  the 
coronets  of  the  different  orders  of  nobility,  see  their  titles. 

The  Crown  is  a  term  often  employed  to  signify  the 
state,  and  the  matters  under  control  of  the  executive 
authority.  Thus,  in  the  interests  of  the  state  there  are  C. 
ministers,  C.  lawyers,  C.  otiicers,  C.  lands,  etc. — the  term, 
in  no  instance,  having  any  special  connection  with  the 
sovereign  personally.  In  Scotland,  certain  high  crimes 
are  technically  called  Pleas  of  the  Crown.  These  are  four 
in  number — murder,  robbery,  rape,  and  wilful  tire-raising. 
Likewise,  in  Scotland,  there  is  a  functionary  styled  C. 
agent,  taking  charge  of  criminal  proceedings. 

CROWN  DEBTS,  in  England:  debts  due  the  crown, 
and  recoverable  by  a  summary  process  called  an  extent,  on 
the  theory  that  the  crown's  prerogative  gives  it  precedence 
over  all  other  debtors.  The  rule  in  Scotland,  however,  is 
limited  to  movable  or  personal  property,  and  the  crown 
has  no  privilege  over  a  subject  in  a  competition  for  heritage, 
though  its  privilege  obtains  as  opposed  to  the  landlord's 
Hypothec  (q.v.).  Mercantile  sequestration  has  no  effect 
against  the  crown.  The  sanctuary  of  Holyrood  House 
atfords  no  protection  to  the  king's  debtor.  See  Extent: 
Exchequer. 

CROWNER,  n.  krown'er:  old  and  proper,  though  not 
usual,  spelling  of  Coroner,  which  see. 

CROWNET,  n.  krown'et,  in  OE.,  a  little  crown;  a 
coronet. 

CROWN  LANDS:  demesne  lands  of  the  crown.  In 
Britain  these  are  now  contracted  within  narrow  limits, 
having  been  almost  entirely  granted  away  to  subjects. 
King  William  III.  so  impoverished  the  crown  in  this  man- 
ner, that  an  act  was  passed,  the  effect  of  which  and  of 
subsequent  statutes  is,  that  all  grants  or  leases  from  the 
crown  of  royal  manors,  or  other  possessions  connected 
with  land,  for  a  period  exceeding  31  years,  are  void.  At 
a  much  earlier  period  (1455),  a  Scottish  statute  had  ren- 
dered the  consent  of  parliament  necessary  to  the  alienation 

259 


CR(JWN  POINT-CmOYDON. 

of  the  property  of  the  crown;  but  neither  it,  nor  the  subse- 
quent  statutes  passed  with  a  similar  object,  succeeded  in 
checking  the  practice:  see  Woods  and  Forests. 

CROWN  POINT:  post  village  in  N.  Y.,  on  the  w.  side 
of  Lake  C-hamplain,  about  75  m.  n.  of  Albany.  Being  within 
the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  it  formed  part  of  French 
Canada.  With  the  view  of  bridling  the  English  on  the  s., 
it  was  made  the  site  of  a  fort  famous  in  the  American  war, 
but  of  which  the  ruins  only  remain.  The  immediate 
neighborhood  is  now  a  township  with  a  pop.  of  abt.  3,000. 

CROWN  SOLICITOR,  in  England:  the  solicitor  to  the 
treasury,  who,  in  state  prosecutions,  acts  as  solicitor  for  the 
crown  in  preparing  the  prosecution.  In  Ireland,  there  are 
crown  solicitors  attached  to  each  circuit,  whose  duties 
correspond  in  some  degree  to  those  of  the  procurators-liscal 
(q.  V.)  and  crown  agent  in  Scotland:  see  Crown.  In  England, 
there  are  no  analogous  officers,  and  prosecutions  are  con- 
sequently conducted  by  solicitors  appointed  either  by  the 
parisli,  or  by  private  parties  bound  over  by  the  magistrates 
to  prosecute.  But  in  cases  of  great  importance  to  the  pub- 
lic, such  as  unusual  or  monstrous  crimes,  it  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  that  the  solicitor  to  the  treasury  takes  charge  of 
the  case  and  instructs  counsel. 

CROWS,  kroZy  or  Absaroka:  nation  of  American  Indi- 
ans of  the  Dakota  family,  divided  into  the  Kikatsa,  Ahna- 
haway,  and  AUakaweah  tribes,  and  many  years  located  in 
the  neighborhood,  of  the  Yellowstone,  Big  Horn,  and 
Tongue  rivers.  They  made  treaties  with  the  govt.  1825,  51, 
66,  and  68;  have  generally  been  peaceably  inclined,  though 
frequently  swindled;  and  are  noted  for  skill  in  hunting, 
length  of  hair,  the  cleanliness  of  their  reservation,  and 
their  progress  in  agriculture  and  civilization. 

CROW-STONE:  top  stone  of  the  gable-end  of  a  build- 
ing: see  Corbie  Steps. 

CROYDON,  Tcroy'don  [Fr.  ci^oie  dune,  chalk-hill]: 
town  in  the  n.e.  of  Surrey,  England;  on  the  London  and 
Brighton  railway,  10^  m.  s.  of  London  Bridge.  It  lies  on 
the  edge  of  the  chalk  and  plastic  clay,  near  the  Banstead 
Downs,  at  the  source  of  the  Wandle.  C.  was  one  of  the 
first  towns  in  England  to  grapple  eifectually  with  the  ques- 
tion of  the  economical  disposal  of  town-sewage.  In  1868, 
owing  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  town,  new  waterworks 
were  completed.  The  water,  which  is  of  great  purity,  is 
from  an  artesian  well.  There  are  7  railway  stations  at 
C,  from  which  about  200  trains  are  dispatched  daily.  The 
archbishops  of  Canterbury  had  a  palace  here  till  1750. 
This  palace  is  now  a  factory,  and  the  summer  seat  of  the 
archbishops  is  at  Addington,  4  m.  e.  of  Croydon  About 
a  mile  from  C.  is  Addiscombe  House,  former  residence  of 
the  first  Earl  of  Liverpool,  but  purchased  by  the  E.  India 
Co.  1809.  When  enlarged  by  other  buildings,  it  became  a 
military  acad.,  at  which  cadets  were  educated  for  the  artil- 
lery and  engineer  services  of  the  company.  At  a  later 
date,  the  infantry  cadets  also  received  their  professional 
education  there.    In  1858,  when  the  government  of  India 

2(i0 


CROZE-CRUCIFER^. 

was  transferred  from  the  company  to  the  crown,  Addis- 
combe  Acad,  was  transferred  in  like  manner,  and  became 
the  royal  military  college.  This  college  no  longer  exists; 
the  buildings  were  demolished  1863;  and  the  site  has  been 
covered  with  streets  of  villas.— Pop.  (1881)  78,947. 

CROZE,  n.  kruz:  in  coapering,  a  tool  used  for  making  the 
grooves  for  the  heads  of  casks,  after  the  ends  of  the  staves 
have  been  levelled  by  a  tool  called  a  sun-plane.  The  C. 
resembles  a  gauge,  except  that  it  is  much  larger;  the  head 
is  nearly  semicircular  and  terminates  in  two  handles. 

CROZET  ISLANDS,  kroza  :  volcanic  group  s.  of  the 
Indian  Ocean;  between  Kerguelen's  Land  on  the  e.  and 
Prince  Edward's  Islands  on  the  w.,  almost  on  a  line  be- 
tween the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  s.  end  of  New  Zea- 
land; abt.  lat.  46^  s.  and  long.  52°  east. 

CROZOPHORA,  n.  kroz-ofer-a:  genus  of  plants,  ord. 
Euphorhiacem,  tribe  Orotonece. 

CRUCIAL,  a.  kroshl-al  [F.  crucial;  It.  cruciale,  crucial 
— from  L.  crucem,  a  cross]:  in  mrg.,  passing  across;  inter- 
secting; in  form  of  a  cross;  severe;  trying.  CRU'ciATE,"a. 
kroshUat,  in  hot.,  in  the  form  of  a  cross^  Cru'ciated,  a. 
-d-ted,  tormented.  Crd'cia'tion,  n.  -a  shun,  torture;  ex- 
quisite pain.  Crucif  EKOUS,  a.  -s)f  er-us  [L.  fero,  I  bear]: 
in  hot.,  pertaining  to  an  order  of  plants,  the  Crucif  er^, 
-er-e  (q.v.),  having  the  four  petals  of  the  flower  in  the  form 
of  a  cross.  Cru  ciform,  a.  -si-fawrm  [Jj.fa)'ma,  a  shape]: 
in  hot,  consisting  of  four  equal  petals  disposed  in  the  form 
of  a  cross. 

CRUCIAN,  kroshl-an  or  kro'shan  {Cyprinus  carassius): 
fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  Carp  (q.v.),  from  which  it 
differs  in  the  lack  of  barbules  at  the  mouth,  in  the  much 
greater  depth  of  body,  and  in  the  almost  square  tail.  It 
attains  considerable  size,  and  is  excellent  for  food.  It  in- 
habits lakes,  ponds,  and  slowly  flowing  rivers,  in  the  n.  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia.  It  is  called  Karussa  in  Sweden.  It  is 
found  rarely  in  the  Thames,  and  is  called  the  Gerinan  Carp. 
CRUCIBLE,  n.  krosi-hl  [F.  creuset,  a  little  earthen  pot: 
but  connected  with  mid.  L.  cruclh' ulum,  a 
hanging  lamp,  a  melting-pot— from  L.  crucem, 
a  cross,  as  formerly  marked  with  a  cross] :  pot 
for  melting  glass,  metallic  ores,  etc.,  usually 
of  Stourbridge  clay,  plumbago,  platinum,  or 
other  fire-resisting  materials. 

CRUCIFERJE,  kro-sif'er-e  [Lat.  cross 
carrying  (see  Crucial)]:  important  nat.  ord. 
of  exogenous  plants,  including  about  1,600 
known  species,  and  corresponding  with  the 
class  Tetradynamia  of  the  Linn(3ean  system:  see  Botany 
The  flowers  have  a  calyx  of  four  sepals,  which  fall  off  after 
flowering;  and  a  corolla  of  four  petals,  placed  in  the  form  of 
a  cross — whence  the  name  C. — and  alternate  with  the  se- 
pals. There  are  six  stamens;  four  long  in  opposite  pairs, 
and  two  short  between  the  pairs  of  long  ones.  The  ovary- 
is  superior,  and  there  are  two  stigmas.    The  fruit  is  either 

2«1 


CRUCIFIX. 

long  and  podlike  (a  silique),  or  a  short  and  roundish  povxh 
(sUicule);  one-celled,  or  (usually)  spuriously  two-celled,  by 
the  parietal  placentae  (see  Placenta)  meeting  in  the  middle 
and  forming  a  kind  of  Dissepiment  (q.v.);  and  contains 
either  one  seed,  or  many  in  a  single  row.  Linnaeus  divided 
his  class  Tetradynamia  into  the  orders  Siliquosa  and  Sili- 
culosa,  according  to  the  form  of  the  fruit,  and  these  may  be 
regarded  also  as  forming  sub-orders  of  this  nat.  ord. ;  but 
another  division  has  recently  been  adopted,  founded  on  the 
character  of  the  Cotyledons  (q.v.),  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  radicle  is  folded  upon  them  (cotyledons  accumbent,  in- 
cumbent, or  conduplicate).  The  general  character  of  the  or- 
der  is  antiscorbutic  and  stimulant,  with  more  or  less  acrid- 
ity. It  contains  many  plants  extensively  cultivated  fot 
the  food  of  man  and  of  domestic  animals,  or  valuable  in 
medicine,  as  kale  (cabbage,  cauliflow^ers,  broccoli,  cole  wort, 
etc.).  turnip,  rape,  radish,  cress,  horse-radish,  scurvy-grass, 
mustard,  sea-kale,  gold  of  pleasure,  etc.  The  dye-stuff 
called  Woad  is  produced  by  a  plant  of  this  order.  It  in- 
eludes  also  a  number  of  garden-flowers  highly  esteemed 
for  their  beauty  and  fragrance,  as  wallflower,  stock,  rocket, 
etc.  The  pungency  and  acridity  of  the  C.  seem  to  depend 
on  a  volatile  oil,  or  on  different  volatile  oils  of  very  similai 
character,  present  in  very  various  degree  in.  different  spe- 
cies, or  in  the  same  species  under  different  circumstances, 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant.  This  diversity 
is  well  illustrated  in  the  common  turnip;  in  the  differ- 
ent qualities  of  the  root,  as  to  sweetness  and  acridity,  in 
different  soils  or  seasons,  and  in  the  difference  between  th6 
flesh  and  the  rind.  The  seeds  of  the  C.  contain  a  fixed  oil, 
which  is  extracted  from  some  (rape,  colza,  in  Europe;  Mya- 
grum  sativum  and  Erysimum  perfoliatum  in  Japan),  to  be 
used  as  a  lamp-oil  and  in  the  arts,  and  the  oil- cake  is  valu- 
able for  feeding  cattle.  The  plants  of  this  order  belong 
mostly  to  the  temperate  parts  of  the  world,  and  abound 
particularly  in  Europe.  Comparatively  few  are  found 
within  the  tropics. 

CRU'CIFIX:  cross  with  the  effigy  of  Christ  fixed  to  it. 
The  principal  C.  in  Rom.  Cath.  churches  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  high-altar.  It  overtops  the  tapers,  and  is  re- 
moved only  at  the  elevation  of  the  host.  In  well-appointed 
Rom.  Cath.  churches,  the  altar  crucifix  is  generally  either 
of  gold  or  silver.  Crucifixes  are  used  in  Lutheran  churches, 
and  in  Prussia  they  are  often  of  Berlin  iron.  The  C.  be- 
gan to  take  the  place  of  the  plain  cross  first  in  the  time  of 
Constantlne,  but  it  was  never  publicly  acknowledged  by 
the  Greek  Church,  and  did  not  come  into  general  use  in 
the  East  till  toward  the  end  of  the  8th  c.  It  was  not  till 
the  Carlo vingian  age  that  it  became  general  in  the  Latin 
Church.  On  the  earlier  crucifixes  (see  the  illustration) 
Christ  is  represented  as  alive,  with  open  eyes,  and  gener- 
ally clad,  and  fastened  with  four,  not  three  nails,  and  with 
the  nimbus  of  glory  round  the  head. — ¥ii\v\io\V^  Dictionary 
of  Terms  of  Art.  In  later  times,  all  these  circumstances 
varied.   Christ  was  often  represented  as  dead,  naked,  ex 


CRUCIFY— CRUDEN. 


cept  a  cloth  round  the  loins,  and  fastened  with  three  nails; 
i.e  ,  the  two  feet  fastened  together  by  one  nail.  The  earlier 
artists  usually  represented  the  figure  of  Christ  as  haggard. 


and  his  countenance  as  sorrowful  in  the  last  degree;  but 
latterly  the  custom  was  introduced  of  representing  him  as 
the  ideal  of  human  beauty,  and  of  throwing  into  his  coun- 
tenance an  expression  of  rapture  and  heavenly  joy.  See 
Cross. 

CRUCIFIX,  CRUCIFIED,  etc.:  see  under  Crucify. 

CRUCIFY,  krosl-fl  [F.  crucifier — from  mid.  L.  crttci- 
flcdre  for  crumjigere ;  It.  crucifiggere,  to  crucify — from  L. 
crucem,  a  cross;  figo,  I  fix:  Jixns,  fixed],  to  put  to  death  by 
nailing  to  a  cross,  the  body  being  in  this  way  suspended;  to 
repress  and  subdue  evil  passions  and  desires  from  love  to 
Christ.  Crucifying,  imp.  Crucified,  pp.  -fid.  Cru'ci- 
FiER,  n.  one  who.  Crucifix,  n.  krosl-flks  [F. — L.]:  a 
figure  in  wood,  metal,  or  other  substance,  representing 
Christ  fastened  to  the  cross.  Cru'cifix'ion,  n.  fik'shun 
[F. — L.]:  the  act  of  nailing  to  the  cross;  the  punishment  of 
death  by  the  cross.  The  crucifixion,  n.  the  death  of 
Christ  by  the  cross, 

CRUD,  krud,  and  Cruddle,  krud'l,  same  as  Curd  and 
Curdle,  which  see. 

CRUDE,  a.  krod  [L.  crudus,  bloody,  raw:  W.  crau, 
blood:  comp.  Gael,  cruaidh,  hard,  stiff — connected  with 
cruel]:  in  a  raw,  unprepared  state;  rough;  imperfect; 
clumsy;  hasty;  not  matured.  Crude'ly,  ad.  -It.  Crude'- 
NEss,  n.    Crudity,  n.  kro'di-ti,  rawness. 

CRUDEN,  kroden,  Alexander:  1700,  May  31—1770, 
Nov.  1;  b.  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  Mar- 
ischal  College,  with  a  view  to  the  ministry,  but  having 
exhibited  decided  sj^mptoms  of  insanity,  he  was  for  some 
time  kept  in  cbnfinement.    On  his  rel^ase>  he  l^ft  Ab^- 


CRUD  Y-  CRUIESH  ANK. 

deen,  and  after  spending  several  years  as  a  tutor,  settled  in 
London,  1782,  tirst  as  a  corrector  of  the  press,  afterward 
as  a  bookseller.  In  1737,  appeared  his  Complete  Concord- 
ance of  the  Holy  Scriptui^es  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  a 
really  great  work,  which  has  laid  divines  especially  under 
deep  obligations  to  the  laborious  author.  The  book  was 
dedicated  to  Queen  Caroline,  who  graciously  promised  to 
'  remember  him,'  but  unfortunately  died  a  few  days  after. 
C  now  relapsed  into  insanity,  and  his  friends  w^ere  obliged 
to  remove  him  to  a  private  asylum,  w^here  he  appears  to 
have  been  harshly  treated.  On  his  recovery,  he  published 
an  account  of  his  sulierings.  For  the  next  15  years  he 
acted  as  a  corrector  of  the  press,  but,  in  1753,  he  had  again 
to  be  put  under  restraint  for  a  few  days.  C.  now  believed 
himself  divinely  commissioned  to  reform  the  manners  of 
the  world,  and  styled  himself  Alexander,  the  Corrector. 
He  went  al)Out  the  country  exhorting  the  people  to  keep 
holy  the  Sabbath  day,  etc.  He  also  petitioned  the  king 
for  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  the  parliament  to  consti- 
tute him  by  act,  '  the  Corrector  of  the  People,'  hoping  by 
such  honors  to  influence  the  people  more  effectually.  Sev- 
eral other  foolish  things  were  done  by  C.  in  the  course  of 
his  life;  nevertheless  his  many  benevolent  actions  shed  a 
pleasing  light  over  his  melancholy  career.  C.  died  at  Is- 
lington. There  have  been  a  multitude  of  editions  and 
abridgments  of  C.'s  Concordance  published  both  in  Britain 
and  America. 

CRUDY,  a.  krod'l  [from  Crud]:  in  OE.,  coagulated. 
Crudy,  a.  Icro'dl  [from  Crude]:  in  OE.,  raw. 

CRUEL,  a.  kroel  [F.  cruel,  cruel,  fierce — from  L.  cru- 
delis;  It.  crudele  (see  Crude)]  :  having  pleasure  in  inflicting 
pain  or  sufferings  on  others;  barbarous;  inhuman;  extreme- 
ly unkind;  hard-hearted;  merciless.  Cru'elly,  ad.  -U. 
Cru  elty,  n.  -ti,  inhumanity;  disposition  to  inflict  suffer- 
ings; also  Cru'elness,  n.  in  OE. — Syn.  of  'cruel':  savage; 
pitiless;  brutal. 

CRUELS,  also  Crewels,  n.  plu.  kro'els  [F.  ecrouelles, 
the  king's  evil] :  in  popular  language,  the  scrofulous  disease 
of  the  glands  of  the  neck;  scrofula. 

CRUET,  n.  kroet  [F.  cruchet,  a  little  cruse;  cruche,  a 
pitcher,  a  jug:  Dut.  kruik,  a  pitcher:  Gael,  criot,  an 
earthen  bottle  (see  Crock  and  Crucible)]:  a  small  flint- 
glass  bottle,  containing  for  immediate  use  a  sauce,  pepper, 
mustard,  and  the  like, 

CRUIKSHANK,  kruk'shank,  George:  1793,  Sep.  27— 
1878,  Feb.  1;  b.  London:  gifted  pictorial  satirist.  His 
father  was  a  native  of  Aberdeenshire,  and  his  grandfather 
had  fought  for  Prince  Charles  Stuart  at  Culloden.  C.  at 
first  thought  of  the  stage  as  a  profession;  but  some  of  his 
sketches  having  come  under  the  notice  of  a  publisher,  he 
was  induced  to  engage  in  the  illustration  of  children's  books 
and  songs.  When  about  20  years  of  age,  a  publication, 
called  The  Scourge,  afforded  scope  for  his  satiric  genius, 
and  from  that  time  he  pursued  w  ith  remarkable  success  this 
hig  true  veiiiv  His  illustrations  for  Mr,  WiUiaui  Hpuc'j^ 
m 


CRUISE—CRUIVES. 

political  squibs  and  pamphlets  attracted  much  attention, 
and  sent  some  of  them  through  no  less  than  50  editions. 
But  these  political  caricatures,  many  of  which  were  per- 
sonal, were  not  altogether  to  C.'s  taste.  Nor,  indeed,  in 
this  narrow  party  field  did  he  find  verge  for  the  full  exhi- 
bition of  his  rich  fund  of  humor  and  depth  of  moral  sarcasm. 
He  consequently  abandoned  this  style  about  1824.  In 
Points  of  Humor,  and  the  designs  for  Grimm's  German 
Tales,  Tom  Thumb,  Peter  Schlemihl,  Punch  and  Judy,  My 
Sketch-hook,  Boz,  Oliver  Twist,  and  the  Coynic  Abnanac,  his 
comic  genius  first  found  ample  manifestation;  while  in  his 
Sunday  in  London,  his  Gin-shop,  The  Upas  Tree,  and  espe- 
cially The  Bottle,  he  showed  himself  a  moral  teacher  pos- 
sessed of  a  grim  Hogarthian  earnestness  and  force.  The 
Bottle  consisted  of  a  series  of  eight  large-sized  plates  repre- 
senting the  various  stages  in  a  drunkard's  career;  and 
through  temperance  societies,  and  by  its  own  merits,  the 
work  has  had  enormous  circulation.  As  a  w^ater-colorist 
he  left  work  marked  by  masterly  and  delicate  skill.  In  his 
late  years  C.  applied  himself  to  oil-painting,  and  in  this 
department  showed  perhaps  more  humor,  fervor,  and  in- 
ventive ability  than  artistic  power  (see  his  Life  by  Blanch- 
ard  Jerrold,  1882).  Several  of  his  oil-paintings  have  been 
popular  and  have  been  engraved — as  A  Runaway  Knock, 
Disturbing  the  Congregation,  and  The  Worship  of  Bacchus. 
The  list  of  his  works  amounts  to  5,500. 

CRUISE,  n.  kroz  [Dut.  kruissen,  to  cross,  to  cruise — 
from  kruis,  a  cross:  F.  croiser — from  croix,  a  cross — from 
L.  crux  or  cracem,  a  cross — the  cross  being  the  badge  of  the 
seamen  who  in  former  times  carried  on  naval  warfare  against 
the  infidels] :  a  crossing  backward  and  forward,  as  on  the 
sea;  a  voyage  among  places,  or  from  place  to  place:  V.  to 
cross  or  traverse;  to  sail  from  place  to  place  or  within  cer- 
tain parts  of  a  sea  for  a  particular  purpose,  as  for  war  or 
protection  of  commerce.  Crui  sing,  imp.:  JST.  the  act  of 
voyaging  for  observation,  pleasure,  or  practice:  Adj.  per- 
taining to.  Cruised,  pp.  krozd.  Cruiser,  n.  kro'zer,  a 
ship  of  war  cruising;  usually  a  small  vessel  sailing  about  in 
some  defined  portion  of  sea,  watching  an  enemy:  see 
Corsair. 

CRUISE,  n.  kroz,  a  cup:  see  Cruse. 

CRUITHISIE'  [L.,  Gruithnii,  Gruthini]:  name  given,  from 
the  6th  to  the  9th  c,  to  a  people  who  inhabited  the  s.  half  of 
the  county  Antrim,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  county 
Down,  and  at  one  time  established  themselves  also  in  the 
county  Meath,  in  Ireland.  They  were  otherwise  called  Da- 
laradians,  and  their  countr}^  Dalaradia.  Their  name  of  C. 
is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Celtic  cruit,  color,  and  to 
have  been  applied  to  them  because  they  painted  or  tattooed 
their  skins.  It  is  the  name  by  which  the  Irish  called  the 
Picts  of  Britain,  of  whom,  indeed,  the  Irish  C.  are  believed 
to  have  been  a  branch:  see  Dalaradia  and  Picts. 

CRUIVES,  kritvz,  and  ZAIRES:  contrivances  erected 
upon  rivers  in  Scotland  for  catching  salmon.  They  are  of 
great  antiquity,  and  consisted  of  a  *  kind  of  laedge  formed 


CRUMB -CRURAL. 

by  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  the,  interstices  being 
filled  with  brush,  and  the  mode  of  capturing  salmon  being 
similar  to  those  employed  by  bag  and  stake  nets;'  the  earli- 
est statute  now  in  force,  is  the  11th  of  the  first  parliament 
of  James  I.  (1424),  interpreted  by  one  of  1477,  'Anent 
cruives.'and  both  acts  refer  to  an  'old  statute  made  by 
King  David,'  requiring  that  'ilk  heck  of  the  foresaidis 
cruves  be  three  inch  wide.'  The  existing  arrangement,  by 
which  the  stakes  or  hecks  which  prevent  the  passage  of  the 
larger  fish  must  be  so  far  apart  as  to  permit  the  young 
salmon  or  fry  to  pass  through  freely,  is  thus  as  old  as  the 
time  of  the  great  founder  of  the  Scottish  monasteries  and 
cathedrals.    See  Salmon. 

CRUMB,  also  Crum,  n.  krum  [AS.  crume,  a  crumb: 
Gael,  criom,  a  bite,  a  nip:  Ger.  krume;  Dut.  kruime;  Dan. 
krujnme,  a  crumb,  pith]:  a  small  part  or  fragment;  the  soft 
part  of  bread,  as  distinguished  from  the  crust.  Crumb'ing, 
imp.  Crumbed,  pp.  krumd.  Crumble,  v.  krum'bl,  to 
break  or  fall  into  small  pieces;  to  m older;  to  perish. 
Crum'bling,  imp.  -Uing,  Crum  bled,  pp.  -bid.  Crum'- 
my,  a.  -mi,  inclined  to  go  to  crumbs;  soft:  Y.  to  break  into 
crumbs.  Crumb  brush,  a  curve-shaped  brush  for  sweep- 
ing crumbs  from  a  table-cloth.  Crumb- cloth,  a  cloth 
laid  on  the  top  of  a  carpet  under  the  table  for  gathering  the 
crumbs. 

CRUMP,  a.  krump  [Sw.  krumpen,  shrunk:  AS.  crump, 
bowed,  bent:  Ger.  krumm;  W.  crwm,  bending,  crooked]: 
crooked.  Crump-back,  hump-back.  Crumple,  v.  kvwmJ'pl, 
to  contract;  to  shrink;  to  press  in  folds  or  wrinkles;  to 
rumple.    Crum  pling,  imp.    Crum  pled,  pp.  -pld. 

CRUMPET,  n.  krum! pet  [Bret,  krampoez,  a  pancake  (see 
Crumb)]:  a  kind  of  cake  or  muffin;  very  thin  bread. 

CRUKCH,  V.  kransh  [see  Craunch]  :  to  crush  between 
the  teeth. 

CRUPPER,  n.  krup'per  [F.  croupiere,  a  crupper — from 
croupe,  the  ridge  of  the  back,  the  rump  of  a  horse] :  a  strap 
of  leather  buckled  to  a  saddle,  and  which,  passing  under 
the  horse's  tail,  prevents  the  saddle  from  slipping  forward 
on  to  the  horse's  neck:  V.  to  put  a  crupper  on.  Crup'per- 
iNG,  imp.    Crup  pered,  pp.  -perd. 

CRURAL,  a.  kro'rdl  [mid.  L.  crurdUs,  of  or  pertaining 
to  the  shin  or  leg:  L.  crura,  the  legs:  Sks.  m,  to  go,  to  run]: 
of  or  belonging  to  the  legs.  Crura,  n.  plu.  kro'rd  [L.]:  in 
dot.,  the  legs  or  divisions  of  a  forked  tooth. 

206 


CRUSADES,  n.  phi.  kro-sddz'  [F.  croimde,  a  crusade — 
from  Prov.  cruzada — from  croz,  a  cross — from  L.  crucem,  a 
cross:  Sp.  cruzada]:  military  expeditions  of  the  western 
Christian  nations  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  recovery  of  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  Saracens,  the  soldiers  wearing  the  fig- 
ure of  the  cross,  or  having  banners  with  crosses  on  them. 
Crusade',  n.  -sdd\  a  romantic  undertaking.  Crusa'der, 
n.  -sd'  der,  one  who.  Crusa'ding,  a.  pertaining  to.  Cru- 
SA  Do,  n.  -do,  a  Portuguese  coin,  so  called  from  the  figure 
of  the  cross  stamped  upon  it. — The  first  crusade  was  under- 
taken simply  to  vindicate  the  riglit  of  Christian  pilgrims  to 
visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  On  the  conquest  of  Palestine, 
however,  the  object  of  the  C.  changed,  or  at  least  enlarged, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  subsequent  crusaders  were  directed 
to  the  rescue  of  the  whole  land  from  the  Saracens,  who  had 
repossessed  themselves  of  it.  From  an  early  period  in  the 
history  of  the  church,  it  was  considered  a  pious  act  to 
make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  to  visit  the 
various  spots  which  the  Savior  had  consecrated  by  his 
presence.  When  Palestine  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs 
in  the  7th  c.  that  fierce  but  generous  people  respected  the 
religious  spirit  of  the  pilgrims,  and  allowed  them  to  build 
a  church  and  a  hospital  in  Jerusalem.  Under  the  Fatimides 
of  Egypt,  who  conquered  Syria  about  980,  the  position 
both  of  the  native  Christian  residents  and  of  the  pilgrims 
became  less  favorable;  but  the  subjugation  of  the  country, 
1065,  by  brutal  hordes  of  Seljuk  Turks  from  the  Caucasus 
rendered  it  intolerable.  These  barbarians,  but  recently 
converted  to  Mohammedanism  were  nearly  as  ignorant  of 
the  Koran  as  of  the  Scriptures.  They  hardly  knew  their 
fellow-religionists,  and  are  said  to  have  wreaked  their  ven- 
geance on  the  Mussulmans  of  Syria,  as  well  as  on  the 
Christians.  The  news  of  their  atrocities  produced  a  deep 
sensation  over  the  whole  of  Christendom.  The  first  to  take 
alarm  were,  naturally  enough,  the  Byzantine  monarchs. 
In  1073,  the  Greek  emperor,  Manuel  VII.,  sent  to  suppli- 
cate the  assistance  of  the  great  pope,  Gregory  VII.,  against 
the  Turks,  accompanying  his  petition  with  many  expres- 
sions of  profound  respect  for  his  Holiness  and  the  Latin 
Church.  Gregory — who  beheld  in  the  supplication  of 
Manuel  a  grand  opportunity  for  realizing  the  Catholic 
unity  of  Christendom — cordially  responded;  but  circum- 
stances prevented  him  from  ever  carrying  his  vast  designs 
into  execution,  and  the  idea  of  a  crusade  died  gradually 
away.  It  was,  however,  revived  by  his  successor.  Urban 
II.,  an  able  and  humane  man,  whose  sympathies  were  kin- 
dled by  the  burning  zeal  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  native  of 
Amiens,  in  France,  who  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land,  witnessed  the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Turks, 
and  was  now  traversing  Europe,  preaching  everywhere  to 
crowds  in  the  open  air,  and  producing  the  most  extraordi- 
nary enthusiasm  by  his  impassioned  descriptions  of  how 
pilgrims  were  murdered,  robbed,  or  beaten,  how  shrines 
and  holy  places  were  desecrated,  and  how  nothing  but 
greed  restrained  the  ruffian  Turks  (who  made  the  Chris- 
tians pay  heavy  taxes  for  their  visits  to  Jerusalem)  from 

867 


CRUSADKS. 

destroying  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  extirpating  every 
vestige  of  Christianity  in  the  land.  As  soon  as  the  feel- 
ings of  Europe  had  been  sufficiently  heated,  Urban  openly 
took  up  the  question.  Two  councils  were  held  in  1095. 
At  the  second,  held  at  Clermont,  in  France,  a  crusade  w^as 
definitely  resolved  on.  The^pope  himself  delivered  a  stir- 
ring address  to  a  vast  multitude  of  clergy  and  laymen,  and 
as  he  proceeded,  the  pent-up  emotions  of  the  crowd  burst 
forth,  and  cries  of  Deus  mlt  (God  wills  it)  rose  simultane- 
ously from  the  whole  audience.  These  words,  Deus  milt, 
by  the  injunction  of  Urban,  were  made  the  war-cry  of  the 
enterprise,  and  every  one  that  embarked  in  it  wore,  as  a 
badge,  the  sign  of  the  cross;  hence  the  name  Cru- 
sade. 

First  Crusade. — From  all  parts  of  Europe,  thousands  upon 
thousands  hurried  at  the  summons  of  the  pope  to  engage 
in  the  holy  war.  *  The  most  distant  islands  and  savage 
countries,' says  William  of  Malmesbury,  '  were  inspired 
with  this  ardent  passion.  The  Welshman  left  his  hunting, 
the  Scotchman  his  fellowship  with  vermin,  the  Dane  his 
drinking  party,  the  Norwegian  his  raw  fish.'  It  is  said 
that  in  the  spring  of  1096  not  less  than  6,000,000  persons 
were  in  motion  toward  Palestine.  This,  however,  must 
be  a  huge  exaggeration.  What  we  do  know  positively  is, 
that  previous  to  the  setting  out  of  the  great  hosts  of 
European  chivalry,  four  armies — if  disorderly  and  anarchic 
multitudes,  the  mere  dregs  and  refuse  of  Christendom, 
deserve  that  name — amounting  in  all  to  275,000  persons, 
had  departed  for  Palestine.  The  first  consisted  of  20,000 
foot,  and  was  commanded  by  a  Burgundian  gentleman, 
Walter  the  Pennyless.  It  marched  through  Hungary,  but 
was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  natives  of  Bulgaria,  only  a  few, 
among  whom  was  Walter  himself,  escaping  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  second,  consisting  of  40,000  men,  women, 
and  children,  w^as  led  by  Peter  the  Hermit.  It  followed 
the  same  route  as  its  predecessor,  and  reached  Constantino- 
ple greatly  reduced.  Here  the  two  united,  crossed  the 
Bosporus,  and  were  utterly  defeated  by  the  Turks  at  Nice, 
the  capital  of  Bitliynia.  A  third  expedition  of  a  similar 
kind,  composed  of  15,000  Germans,  led  by  a  priest  named 
Gottschalk,  was  slaughtered  or  dispersed  in  Hungary; 
which  also  proved  the  grave  of  the  fourth,  a  terrible  horde, 
consisting  of  about  200,000  wretches  from  France,  Eng- 
land, Flanders,  and  Lorraine,  who  had  swept  along  through 
Germany,  committing  horrible  ravages,  especially  against 
the  Jews,  whom  they  murdered  without  mercy.  NoWy 
however,  the  real  crusaders  made  their  appearance:  the 
gentry,  the  yeomanry,  and  the  serfs  of  feudal  Europe,  un- 
der chiefs  of  the  first  rank  and  renown.  Six  armies  ap- 
peared in  the  field,  marching  separately,  and  at  consider- 
able intervals  of  time.  Their  respective  leaders  were 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lorraine;  Hugh  the  Great, 
Count  of  Vermandois,  and  brother  of  Philippe,  king  of 
France,  Robert  Curthose,  Duke  of  Normandy,  the  son  of 
William  the  Conqueror;  Count  Robert  of  Flanders:  Bohe- 
mond,  Prince  of  Tarentura,  son  of  the  famous  Guiscard, 
m 


CRUBADEB. 

under  whom  was  Tancred,  the  favorite  hero  of  all  the  his- 
torians of  the  crusade;  and  lastly,  Count  Raymond  of  Tou- 
louse. The  place  of  rendezvous  was  Constantinople.  The 
Greek  emperor,  Alexius,  afraid  that  so  magnificent  a  host — 
there  were  in  all  not  less  than  600,000  men,  exclusive  of 
women  and  priests— might  be  induced  to  conquer  lands 
for  themselves^  cajoled  all  the  leaders,  excepting  Tancred 
and  Count  Raymond — into  solemnly  acknowledging  them- 
selves his  liegemen.  After  some  time  spent  in  feasting, 
the  crusaders  crossed  into  Asia  Minor  (accompanied  by  the 
unfortunate  Peter  the  Hermit).  Here  their  first  step  was 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Nice,  the  capital  of  Sultan  Soli- 
man,  1097,  J une  24.  This  monarch  was  defeated  also  by  Boh- 
emond,  Tancred,  and  Godfrey,  at  Dorylaeum.  Baldwin, 
brother  of  Godfrey,  now  crossed  into  Mesopotamia,  where 
he  obtained  the  principality  of  Edessa.  .  After  some  time, 
the  crusaders  reached  Syria,  and  laid  siege  to  Antioch. 
For  seven  months  the  city  held  out,  and  the  ranks  of  the 
besiegers  were  fearfully  thinned  by  famine  and  disease. 
Many  even  brave  warriors  lost  heart,  and  began  to  desert. 
Melancholy  to  relate,  among  the  list  of  cow^ards  was  the 
poor  enthusiast  who  had  planned  the  enterprise.  Peter  was 
actually  several  miles  on  his  way  home  w^hen  he  w^as  over- 
taken by  the  soldiers  of  Tancred,  and  brought  back  to  un- 
dergo a  public  reprimand.  At  length,  1098,  June  3,  Anti- 
och was  taken,  and  the  inhabitants  were  massacred 
by  the  infuriated  crusaders,  w^ho  w^ere  in  their  turn 
besieged  by  an  army  of  200,000  Mohammedans  sent  by  the 
Persian  sultan.  Once  more  famine  and  pestilence  did 
their  deadly  work.  Multitudes  also  deserted,  and  escaping 
over  the  walls,  carried  the  news  of  the  sad  condition  of 
the  Christians  back  to  Europe.  But  again  victory  crowned 
the  efforts  of  the  besieged.  1098,  June  28,  the  Moham- 
medans were  utterly  routed,  and  the  way  to  Jerusalem 
opened.  It  was  on  a  bright  summer  morning  (1099)  that 
40,000  crusaders,  the  miserable  remnant  of  that  vast  array 
which  two  years  before  had  laid  siege  to  Nice,  obtained 
their  first  glimpse  of  Jerusalem.  The  emotion  was  in- 
tense, the  scene  sublime.  On  July  15,  after  a  siege  of 
rather  more  than  five  weeks,  the  grand  object  of  the  ex- 
pedition was  realized.  Jerusalem  was  delivered  from  the 
hands  of  the  infidel.  Eight  days  after  the  capture  of  the 
city,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  unanimously  elected  king 
of  Jerusalem.  His  kingdom,  at  first  comprising  little 
more  than  the  mere  city  of  Jerusalem,  was  gradually  ex- 
tended by  conquest  until  it  included  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine. A  language  resembling  Norman  French  w^as  estab- 
lished, a  code  of  feudal  laws  drawn  up — Jerusalem  was 
erected  into  a  patriarchate,  and  Bethlehem  into  a  bishopric. 
The  best  part  of  Asia  Minor  was  restored  to  the  Greek 
empire,  while  Bohemond  became  Prince  of  Antioch.  For 
nearly  50  years,  the  three  Latin  principalities  or  kingdoms 
of  the  East — Edessa,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem — not  only 
maintained  themselves  against  the  attacks  of  the  Moham- 
medans of  Egypt  and  Syria,  but  greatly  increased  in  size, 
power,  and  wealth.    At  Jerusalem  were  founded  the  two 

269 


CKLSADiilS. 

famous  orders  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  kSt.  John  and 
the  Knights  Templars. 

Second  Crusade. — In  1144,  the  principality  of  Edessa  "vvas 
conquered  by  the  emir  of  Mosul,  and  the  Christians 
slaughtered.  His  son,  Noureddin,  advanced  to  destroy  the 
Latin  kingdoms  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Europe  once  more 
trembled  with  excitement.  A  second  crusade  was  preached 
by  the  famous  St.  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  in  Cham- 
pagne; and  early  in  1147  two  enormous  armies,  under  the 
command  of  Louis  VII.,  king  of  France,  and  Conrad  III., 
emperor  of  Germany,  marched  for  the  Holy  Land.  Their 
united  numbers  were  estimated  at  1,200,000  fighting-men. 
The  expedition,  nevertheless,  proved  a  total  failure.  The 
Greek  emperor,  Manuel  Comnenus.  was  hostile;  and 
through  the  treachery  of  his  emissaries,  the  army  of  Con- 
rad was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Turks  near  Iconium, 
while  that  of  Lotiis  was  wrecked  in  the  defiles  of  the 
Pisidian  mountains.  After  a  vain  attempt  to  reduce 
Damascus,  the  relics  of  this  mighty  host  returned  to  Eu- 
rope. 

Third  Crusade — The  death-blow,  however,  to  the  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem,  and  the  powxr  of  the  crusaders  was 
given,  not  by  Noureddin,  but  by  Salah-Eddin,  commonly 
called  Saladin,  a  young  Kurdish  chief,  who  had  made 
himself  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  who  aspired  to  the  presiden- 
cy of  the  Mohammedan  world.  He  invaded  Pales- 
tine, took  town  after  town,  and  finally,  1187,  Oct.,  com- 
pelled Jerusalem  itself  to  capitulate,  after  a  siege  of  14 
days.  The  news  of  this  led  to  a  third  crusade,  the  chiefs 
of  which  were  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa),  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, Philippe  Auguste,  king  of  France,  and  Richard 
CcPur-de-Lion,  king  of  England.  Barbarossa  took  the  field 
first  in  the  spring  of  1189,  but  accidently  lost  his  life  by 
fever  caught  from  bathing  in  the  Orontes.  His  army,  much 
reduced,  joined  the  forces  of  the  other  two  mouarchs 
before  Acre,  which  important  city  was  immediately  be- 
sieged. In  vain  did  Saladin  attempt  to  relieve  the  defend- 
ers; and  after  a  beleaguerment  of  23  months,  the  place 
surrendered.  But  the  crusaders  were  not  united  among 
themselves.  Philippe  soon  after  returned  to  France;  and 
Kichard,  after  accomplishing  prodigies  of  valor,  which  ex- 
cited the  admiration  of  the  Saracens,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Saladin,  by  which  *  the  people  of  the  West  were  to  be 
at  liberty  to  make  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  exempt  from 
the  taxes  which  the  Saracen  princes  had  in  former  times 
imposed.'  This,  as  has  been  previously  noticed,  was  all 
that  had  been  claimed  by  ihe  first  crusaders.  1192,  Oct. 
35,  Richard  set  sail  for  Europe. 

Fourth  Crusade. — Crusading  unfortunately  now  became 
a  constituent  of  the  papal  polic}^;  and  in  1203  a  fourth  ex- 
pedition was  determined  upon  by  Pope  Innocent  III., 
though  the  condition  of  the  Christians  was  by  no  means 
such  as  to  call  for  it.  It  assembled  at  Venice;  but  how  en- 
tirely secular  crusading  had  become,  will  be  seen  from  the 
fact,  that  the  army  never  went  to  Palestine  at  all,  but  pre- 
ferred to  take  possession  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  The 


CRUSADES. 

leader  of  this  host  of  pseudo-crusaders,  Baldwin,  Count  of 
Flanders,  was  seated  on  the  throne  of  the  East  in  1204, 
where  he  and  his  successors  maintained  themselves  for  56 
years 

Fifth  Crusade. — This  w^as  commanded  by  Frederick  II., 
emperor  of  Germany.  It  began  1228,  and  terminated  in 
a  treaty  between  that  monarch  and  the  sultan  of  Egypt, 
by  which  Palestine  was  ceded  to  Frederick,  who,  after 
being  crowned  king  of  Jerusalem,  returned  to  Europe, 
leaving  his  new  possessions  in  a  state  of  tranquillity. 

Sixth  Crusade, — In  1244,  a  new  race  of  Turks  burst  into 
Syria,  and  once  more  the  Holy  Land  fell  into  the  hands  of 
these  ferocious  barbarians.  Jerusalem  was  burned  and 
pillaged.  In  1249,  Louis  IX.  of  France  (St.  Louis)  headed 
a  crusade  against  them,  but  was  utterly  defeated,  and 
taken  prisoner  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt.  By  the  payment 
of  a  large  ransom  he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  that  of  the 
other  prisoners.  On  his  return  to  Europe,  he  was  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  martyr  in  the  cause  of  Christ. 

Seventh  Crusade. — This  also  was  primarily  undertaken 
by  St.  Louis,  but  he  having  died  at  Tunis  in  1270,  on  his 
way  to  Palestine,  Prince  Edward  of  England,  afterward 
Edward  I.,  who  had  originally  intended  to  place  himself 
under  the  command  of  St.  Louis,  marched  direct  for 
Palestine,  where  his  rank  and  reputation  in  arms  gathered 
round  him  all  w^ho  were  willing  to  light  for  the  cross. 
Nothing  of  consequence,  however,  was  accomplished;  and 
Edward  soon  returned  to  England,  the  last  of  the  crusaders. 
Acre,  Antioch,  and  Tripoli  still  continued  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Christians,  and  were  defended  for  some  time 
by  the  Templars  and  other  military  knights;  but  in  1291 
Acre  capitulated,  the  other  towns  soon  followed  its  ex- 
ample, and  the  knights  were  glad  to  quit  the  country,  and 
disperse  themselves  over  Europe  in  quest  of  new  employ- 
ment, leaving  Palestine  in  the  undisturbed  possession  of 
the  Saracens. 

Effects  of  the  Crusades. — While  we  cannot  help  deploring 
the  enormous  expenditure  of  human  life  which  the  C.  oc- 
casioned, it  is  impossible  to  overlook  the  fact  that  they 
indirectly  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence  on  modern 
society.  They  secured  for  humanity  certain  advantages 
which  probably  would  not  have  been  otherwise  obtained. 
Guizot,  in  his  Lectures  on  European  Cimlization,  endeavors 
to  show  their  design  and  function  in  the  destinies  of  Chris- 
tendom. 'To  the  first  chroniclers,' he  says,  'and  conse- 
quently to  the  first  crusaders,  of  whom  tliey  are  but  the 
expression,  Mohammedans  are  objects  only  of  hatred;  it  is 
evident  that  those  who  speak  of  them  do  not  know  them. 
The  historians  of  the  later  crusades  speak  quite  differently; 
it  is  clear  that  they  look  upon  them  no  longer  as  mon- 
sters; that  they  have  to  a  certain  extent  entered  into  their 
ideas  ;  that  they  have  lived  with  them;  and  that  relations, 
and  even  a  sort  of  sympathy,  have  been  established  be- 
tween them.'  Thus  the  minds  of  both,  particularly  of  the 
crusaders,  were  partly  delivered  from  those  prejudices 
which  are  the  offspring  of  ignorance,    '  A  step  was  tJaken 

271 


CRUSADES— CRUSH. 

toward  the  enfranchisement  of  the  human  mind. '  Secondly, 
the  crusaders  were  brought  into  contact  with  two  civiliza- 
tions, richer  and  more  advanced  than  their  own — the  Greek 
and  the  Saracenic;  and  it  is  beyond  all  question  that  they 
were  mightily  struck  with  the  wealth  and  comparative 
refinement  of  the  East.  Thirdly,  the  close  relationship 
between  the  chief  laymen  of  the  West  and  the  church, 
occasioned  by  the  C,  enabled  the  former  '  to  inspect  more 
narrowly  the  policy  and  motives  of  the  papal  court.'  The 
result  was  very  disastrous  to  that  spirit  of  veneration  and 
belief  on  which  the  church  lives,  and  in  many  cases  an 
extraordinary  freedom  of  judgment  and  hardihood  of 
opinion  were  iirduced — such  as  Europe  had  never  before 
dreamed  of.  Fourthly,  great  social  changes  were  brought 
about.  A  commerce  between  the  East  and  West  sprang  up, 
and  towns — the  early  homes  of  liberty  in  Europe — began 
to  grow  great  and  powerful.  The  C,  indeed,  'gave  mari- 
time commerce  the  strongest  impulse  it  had  ever  received.' 
The  united  effect  of  these  things,  again,  in  predisposing 
the  minds  of  men  for  a  reformation  in  religion,  has  often 
been  noticed.  Other  causes  undoubtedly  co-operated,  and 
in  a  more  direct  and  decisive  manner,  but  the  influence  of 
the  C.  in  procuring  an  audience  for  Luther,  cannot  be 
overlooked  by  the  philosophic  historian. 

CRUSADES,  Children's:  expeditions  undertaken  by 
boys  exclusively,  w^th  some  vague,  enthusiastic  purpose  of 
the  conversion  or  the  conquest  of  the  Moslems.  The  first  was 
preached  and  organized  1212  by  Stephen,  a  French  shep- 
herd-boy of  Yendome,  who  collected  30,000  boys  and  em- 
barked with  them  at  Marseilles  for  the  Holy  Land  in  three 
vessels,  two  of  which  were  lost  in  a  storm  with  all  on  board, 
and  the  children  on  the  third,  reaching  the  Holy  Land, 
were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  Saracens.  Another  was  or- 
ganized by  Nicholas,  a  German  boy,  who  gathered  20,000 
juvenile  pilgrims  and  led  them  from  Cologne  across  the 
Alps  at  Mont  Cenis.  A  second  German  expedition  of 
about  the  same  numbers  crossed  the  Alps  and  reached 
Brindisi.  A  third,  confined  to  the  city  of  Erfurt,  began 
1237,  July  15,  when  1,000  boys  started  for  Armstadt,  where 
their  parents  overtook  them  and  led  them  home.  In  1458 
a  company  of  100  boys  set  out  from  Halle  and  reached 
Mount  St.  Michael  in  Normandy.  Many  of  the  crusaders 
turned  back  from  homesickness,  thousands  perished  on 
their  journey,  and  the  rest  became  slaves  in  strange  coun- 
tries. 

CRUSCA,  ACADEMIA  BELLA:  SCB  ACADEMY. 

CRUSE  and  Cruise,  n.  kroz  [Icel.  krus;  Ger.  hrus; 
Dut.  kroes,  a  cup,  a  drinking- vessel:  F.  cruclie,  a  jug,  a 
cruse  (see  Crucible  and  Crock)]:  a  small  cup;  a  small 
bottle.    Cruset,  n.  kro  set,  a  goldsmith's  melting-pot. 

CRUSH,  V.  krhsli  [a  word  imitative  of  the  noise  of 
crushing  a  hard  or  brittle  body:  OF.  croissir  and  cruisir, 
to  crack  or  crash:  Sw.  krysta;  Icel.  kreista,  to  squeeze,  to 
pinch:  It.  xrosciare,  to  crush:  Lith.  kriiszti,  to  grind]:  to 
press  ^rui^e  between  two  hard  bodies;  to  t>eat  or  force 
m 


CRUSHERS— CRUST. 

down;  to  subdue;  to  overwhelm  by  superior  power  or 
weight;  to  conquer;  to  be  pressed  into  a  smaller  compass: 
IS",  a  collision;  a  violent  pressure,  as  of  a  crowd.  Crush  - 
ing, imp  :  Adj.  pressing  into  a  mass;  overwhelming. 
Crushed,  pp.  krnsht:  Adj.  broken  or  bruised  by  pressure 
or  by  a  fall.  Crush  er,  n.  one  who  or  that  which.  Crush 
CUP,  in  OE.,  to  empty  a  cup  by  drinking  its  contents. — 
Syn.  of  'crush,  v.':  to  press;  squeeze;  bruise;  pound;  beat; 
overwhelm;  overcome;  ruin;  oppress. 

CRUSHERS,  or  Bruisers:  implements  for  reduc- 
ing to  small  fragments  corn,  beans,  linseed,  oil-cake,  and 
other  similar  hard  food  of  horses,  oxen,  or  hogs,  that  it 
may  be  more  thoroughly  digested.  Seeds  which  enter  the 
stomach  with  their  husk  or  outer  pellicle  unbroken,  often 
resist  its  powers,  so  that  they  contribute  nothing  to  nour- 
ishment; and  this  is  the  case  often  with  corn  given  to  old 
horses;  but  even  with  perfect  mastication  the  previous 
crushing  of  hard  food  is  useful.  C.  generally  consist  of 
toothed,  grooved,  or  otherwise  roughened  cylinders,  revolv- 
ing so  as  to  bruise  the  food  either  against  each  other,  or 
against  a  fixed  plate  of  similar  roughness. — Clod-crusher 
is  an  agricultural  implement,  a  toothed  or  roughened 
roller:  see  Roller. 

CRUST,  n.  krust  [OF.  cruste — from  L.  crusta,  the  shell 
of  anything;  imitative  of  the  sound  of  crunching  a  crust  of 
bread:  Ger.  kriiste,  a  crust:  Bohem.  cliraustati,  to  crunch]: 
the  outward  covering  or  shell  of  anything,  generally  harder 
than  the  body  itself;  the  outer  portion  of  the  earth;  the 
rind  of  bread;  the  coating  of  a  pie;  the  tartar  deposited 
from  wine  on  the  bottle,  evidence  of  age,  the  wine  being 
then  called  crusted:  Y.  to  cover  with  a  crust;  to  harden  the 
outside  of  a  thing.  Crust  ing,  imp.  Crusted,  pp.  krust' ed. 
Crusta  cea,  n.  plu.  -tO'sM  a,  also  Crusta  ceans,  n.  plu. 
-shi-dnz,  a  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  animals  with 
jointed  shells,  as  the  crab,  lobster,  etc.  Crusta  cean,  a. 
-shi-dn,  pertaining  to;  having  jointed  shells.  Crusta'- 
CEOUS,  a.  -td'shus,  pertaining  to;  of  the  nature  of  crust  or 
shell;  in  hot.,  hard,  thin,  and  brittle.  Crus'tated,  a.  td-ted, 
covered  with  a  crust.  Crusta'tion,  n.  -td'shun.  an  adher- 
ent crust.  Crusty,  a.  krus'ti,  hard;  covered  with  a  crust 
or  shell.  Crusted  port,  port  which  has  completed  its 
fermentation  in  bottle,  known  by  the  deposition  of  a  crust 
inside  the  bottle. 

m 


CRUSTACEANS. 

CRUSTA'CEANS  (Crustacea):  class  of  articulated  ani- 
mals, agreeing  with  insects,  arachnida,  and  myriapoda  in 
having  articulated  limbs;  but  differing  from  them  in  im- 
portant respects,  and  particularly  from  all  of  them  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  organs  of  respiration  to  an  aquatic  life, 
even  those  of  them  which  live  on  land  being  generally  in- 
habitants of  damp  places,  and  breathing  by  a  kind  of  gills. 
Some  of  the  lowest  and  minute  aquatic  C,  indeed,  are  not 
provided  with  gills;  but  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  sup^ 
posed  to  take  place  through  the  surface  of  the  body. 

The  C.  derive  their  name  from  the  hard  armor  which 
in  most  of  them  covers  the  whole  body,  forming  for  it  that 
sort  of  framework  which  is  sometimes,  not  very  correctly, 
called  an  external  skeleton;  and  which,  in  those  of  highest 
organization,  is  very  complex  in  its  structure,  and  contains 
a  large  amount  of  calcareous  matter — carbonate  and  phos- 
phate of  lime,  so  that  it  is  in  its  substance  intermediate 
between  shell  and  bone — while  in  man}^  of  the  lower  and 
smaller  kinds  it  consists  principally  of  cMUne,  and  cor- 
responds  more  nearly  in  its  nature  with  the  integuments 
of  insects.  The  body  of  a  crustacean  is  composed  of  rings 
(see  Articulata),  generally  21  in  number,  and  the  crus- 
taceous  covering  corresponds  with  it  in  this  respect;  the 
rings,  alike  of  the  body  and  its  armor,  being  in  some 
cases  very  distinct,  while  in  others  some  of  them  in  a 
great  measure  coalesce  or  are  consolidated  together,  of 
which  the  thorax  of  a  crab  is  an  excellent  example.  The 
first  seven  rings  are  regarded  as  forming  the  head;  the 
next  seven,  the  thorax;  and  the  remainder  the  abdomen, 
corresponding  with  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  of  in- 
sects. The  crustaceous  covering  is  considered  as  a  peculiar 
epidermis,  having  beneath  it  a  true  skin,  from  which  it  is 
an  inorganic  exudation;  and,  like  the  epidermis,  it  is  cast 
off  from  time  to  time,  that  its  place  may  be  supplied  anew, 
as  the  growth  of  the  animal  requires  more  room  for  the 
internal  soft  parts.  In  this  moulting,  or  casting  of  the  shell, 
the  animal  divests  itself  of  its  covering  not  in  separate 
parts,  but  in  one  piece,  including  the  coverings  of  the 
limbs,  and  even  of  the  antennoe,  although  the  membranes 
which  connect  the  hard  plates  are  split  and  torn.  A  period 
of  apparent  sickness  precedes,  and  agitation  accompanies, 
the  process;  and  the  thick  muscular  parts  of  the  limbs  of 
crabs  and  lobsters  become  soft  and  flaccid,  so  as  to  be 
much  more  easily  e;^tricated  from  their  hard  coverings. 
The  loss  of  a  limb,  which  sometimes  takes  place  on  such 
an  occasion,  and  is  otherwise  a  frequent  occurrence,  is 
easily  repaired,  for  a  new  one  grows  in  its  stead;  but  it  is 
noticeable  that  in  order  to  this  reproduction,  the  limb  must 
be  broken  off  at  a  particular  joint,  the  second  from  the 
body,  thus  leaving  only  a  short  stump;  and  when  a  limb 
is  broken  elsewhere,  the  animal  itself  exercises  the  re- 
markable power  of  throwing  it  off  by  this  joint. 

The  principal  organ  of  locomotion  in  many  C,  as  in  the 
lobster,  shrimp,  etc.,  is  the  abdomen,  terminating  in  fan- 
like appendages;  by  bending  the  abdomen  suddenly  down 
under  the  thorax,  they  dart  backward  in  the  water.  In 

274 


CRUSTACEANS. 

some,  the  limbs — which  are  conuected  with  the  thoracic 
rings — are  organs  of  swimming;  those  of  others  are  used  for 
walking  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  or  on  dry  ground. 
Some  have  what  are  called  false  legs  or  pro-legs  attached  to 
the  abdomen,  often  very  different  from  the  thoracic  legs. 
The  legs  of  some  are  litted  for  burrowing.  The  first  pair 
of  legs  is  frequently  transformed  into  a  pair  of  powerful 
claws  or  pincers — the  last  joint  but  one  being  prolonged  so 
as  to  oppose  the  List  joint,  w^hich  becomes  attached  as  to 
the  side  of  it;  and  these  are  used  for  seizing  and  tearing 
food.  In  many  C.  the  limbs  of  the  first  thoracic  rings  are 
organs  still  more  intimately  connected  with  the  mouth, 
and  have  received  the  name  of  foot-jaws,  the  transition 
from  the  true  mandibles  and  maxillae  to  the  organs  of  loco 
motion  being  often  very  gradual.  The  mouth  of  some 
small  parasitic  C,  however,  is  formed  for  sucking,  and  not 
for  tearing  and  masticating  food.  The  disgestive  organs 
are  very  simple  in  all;  there  is  a  short  but  capacious  gullet, 
a  large  stomach,  and  a  straight  and  simple  intestinal  tube. 
The  pyloric  region  of  the  stomach  is  furnished  with  a 
remarkable  apparatus  of  hard  tubercles  or  sharp  teeth  for 
grinding  or  tearing  food,  supplementary  to  the  external 
organs  of  the  mouth.    Almost  all  of  the  C.  feed  on  animal 


Metamorphoses  of  the  Crab: 
1,  young  crab,  or  Zoea,  magnified;  2,  young  crab,  in  prawn  stage, 
magnified;  3,  prawn  stage,  natural  size;  4,  young  crab,  in  more 
perfect  form,  magnified;  5,  young  crab,  natural  size. 

food,  and  they  are  very  voracious.  A  few  feed  on  vege- 
table food.  The  nervous  system  of  C.  agrees  generally 
with  that  of  insects,  and  exhibits  many  gradations  of 
division  and  concentration.  C,  in  general,  appear  to 
possess  all  the  five  senses.  Their  eyes  are  either  simple 
(stemmatic),  aggregate  (consisting  of  several  stemmata 
under  a  common  cornea),  or  compound.  The  compound 
eyes  are  often  on  foot-stalks.  The  gills  are  variously  placed ; 

215 


CRUVELLI-CRUST  OF  THE  EARTH. 

in  the  internal  cavity,  under  the  carapace — the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  plate  of  a  single  ring,  which  covers  the  thoracic 
rings  in  crabs,  etc. ;  on  the  thoracic  limbs;  on  the  abdominal 
or  false  legs,  etc.  The  heart  is  always  in  the  middle  line, 
and  distributes  the  blood  by  arteries  through  the  system; 
but  the  blood  returns  to  venous  sinuses,  from  which  it  is 
sent  into  the  gills,  and  thence  to  the'  heart  again.  The 
sexes  are  distinct  in  most  of  the  C;  and  they  are  all  ovip- 
arous. 

The  Crustacea  are  one  of  the  most  instructive  of  all 
groups  to  the  comparative  anatomist,  on  account  of  the 
extraordinary  degree  of  differentiation,  sometimes  progres- 
sive, sometimes  retrogressive — w^hich  they  exhibit  from 
the  primitive  segmented  type.  Their  development  is  if 
possible  even  more  remarkable,  frequently  exhibiting  a 
series  of  metamorphoses  rivalling  in  completeness  those  of 
Insects,  almost  in  all  cases  leading  back  to  a  single  prima- 
tive  unsegmented  six-limbed  form,  the  Nauplius  embryo 
(fig.  1),  and  furnishing  the  ultimate  key  to  the  afilnities  of 
the  group.  Thus  the  free-swimming  copepod  cyclops  and 
its  numerous  parasitic  relatives,  the  branchiopods,  the 
*  multivalve'  cirripedes,  and  barnacles,  the  ancient  Silurian 
trilobites,  and  even  some  of  the  highest  forms  (Decapoda), 
leave  the  egg  as  a  nauplius.  The  prawn  Penceus  leaves 
the  egg  as  a  naulius,  moults  into  a  cyclops  form,  thence 
into  a  schizopod  stage,  and  finally  assumes  its  adult  state; 
while  the  crab  quits  the  egg  in  a  cycolps  state.  The  so- 
called  Zoea,  fig.  1,  thence  i:>asses  at  once  into  the  prawn 
stage,  fig.  2,  and  finally  into  the  adult  form,  the  devel- 
opmental history  being  here  much  more  condensed. 

The  great  majority  of  C.  are  marine;  some  belong  to 
fresh  water,  a  few  are  terrestrial.  For  an  outline  of  the 
classification  of  the  group,  see  Zoology  (under  Arthropoda): 
also  Crab:  Lobsteb;  Ckayfish:  also  Huxley,  The  Crayfisli; 
(Int.  Sci.  Series);  Huxley,  Anat.  of  Invert.  Animals;  and 
Muller,  Facts  and  Arguments  for  Darwin. 

CRUYELLI,  kro-ml'le,  Sophie  (Baroness  Vigier):  b. 
Bielefeld,  Prussia,  1824,  Aug.  29-  vocalist.  She  received 
her  musical  education  in  Paris,  made  her  first  professional 
appearance  in  Germany,  sang  with  great  success  in  Lon- 
don, Milan,  Venice,  and  other  cities,  married  Baron  Vigier 
1856,  and  retired  from  the  stage.  She  possessed  a  strong, 
pure  soprano  voice  and  high  dramatic  powers,  and  for 
many  years  was  the  most  popular  of  vocalists.  She 
received  from  Ahmed  Pasha,  son  of  Mehemet  Ali,  money 
and  diamonds  aggregating  2,000,000  francs. 

CRUST  OF  THE  EARTH:  outside  solid  covering  of  our 
planet.  It  has  been  the  theory  of  geologists  and  is  still  be- 
lieved by  many,  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  a  fiery 
molten  mass;  but  man  has  been  able  to  penetrate  but  a  short 
way  into  the  crust,  and  he  cannot  conclusively  reason  on 
liis  observations  made  at  or  near  the  surface,  regarding  the 
condition  of  the  crust  to  a  greater  depth  than  a  few  miles, 
at  the  most  ten;  all  beyond  is  little  more  than  guess-work. 
The  materials  of  the  crust  are  not  thrown  confusedly 

57$ 


CRUSTY— CRY. 

together,  but  distinct  mineral  masses  are  found  to  occupy 
delinite  spaces,  or  to  exhibit  a  certain  order  of  arrange- 
ment. These  may  be  classitied  in  reference  to  their  origin, 
as  Aqueous  or  Igneous;  or  to  their  age,  as  Primary,  Second- 
ary, and  Tertiary.  See  these  titles:  also  Refrigeration 
OP  THE  Earth:  also  Fisher's  Physics  of  the  Earth's  Crust 
(i882j. 

CRUSTY,  a.  krus'tl  [from  Curst,  "which  see]:  abrupt  in 
manner  or  speech;  ill-tempered.  Crustily,  ad.  -ti-ll. 
Crus  tiness,  n.  -tl-nes,  the  quality  of  being  crusty;  peev- 
ishness; moroseness. 

CRUT,  n.  krut  [contracted  from  Crust]:  the  rough 
shaggy  part  of  oak-bark. 

CRUTCH,  n.  krucli  [Ger.  krucke;  Dut.  kruck;  Sw. 
kri/cka;  Lith.  kruke,  a  crutch:  It.  croccia,  a  little  cross,  a 
crutch:  mid.  L.  crocia,  a  crutch — from  croca,  a  crook  (see 
Crook)]  :  a  stalf  having  at  one  end  a  crook  or  curve  for  the 
armpit;  a  support  for  the  lame  in  walking;  old  age:  V.  to 
support  on  crutches.  Crutch  ing,  imp.  Crutched,  pp. 
krucht:  Adj.  distinguished  by  wearing  the  symbol  of  the 
cross,  as  the  '  crutched- friars properly  crossed  friars,  of 
which  crutchedfriars  is  a  mere  corruption. 

CRUX,  n.  kriiks  [L.  a  cross]:  the  Southern  Cross — name 
of  a  constellation  of  the  southeru  hemisphere. 

CRUYS,  kroyZy  Cornelis:  1657,  June  14-1727:  founder: 
of  Russian  maritime  power.  He  was  a  rear-admiral  in  the 
Dutch  service  when,  1698,  Peter  the  Great  persuaded  him 
to  become  vice-admiral  in  Russia.  To  C.  Russia  owed  its 
first  dockyards,  canals,  and  charts,  the  organization  of  its 
navy,  and  its  victories  over  Sweden  and  Turkey  1708-10. 
After  a  short  period  of  disgrace,  C.  was  received  back  to 
favor.  He  died  possessor  of  an  imperial  domain  in  Kex- 
holm,  and  owner  of  the  island  Birken  in  Finland. 

CRY,  V.  krl  [imitative  of  a  shrill  sudden  exertion  of  the 
voice:  It.  gridare;  F.  crier;  Ger.  schreien,  to  cry  and  weep: 
L.  quiritdre,  to  shriek,  to  cry:  comp.  Gael,  craidh,  to  pain, 
to  cause  to  cry]:  to  utter  a  sound  as  in  pain  or  distress;  to 
speak  or  call  loudly;  to  utter  a  voice  in  weeping  or  sorrow; 
to  lament;  to  squall  as  a  child;  to  proclaim:  S".  the  utter- 
ance of  a  loud  noise;  lamentation;  clamor;  popular  agita- 
tion and  outcry;  acclamation;  noise  of  hounds  on  the  scent. 
Cries,  n.  plu.  krlz,  loud  sounds  uttered  by  any  animal; 
vocal  sounds;  loud  sounds  in  lamentation  or  weeping; 
clamor;  bitter  complaints;  street  announcements.  Crying, 
imp.  kriing:  Adj.  uttering  a  squalling  noise,  as  a  child; 
calling  for  notice;  notorious.  Cried,  pp.  krid.  Crier,  n. 
krl'er,  one  who;  a  public  officer  who  m.akes  announcements 
or  proclamations.  To  cry  against,  to  utter  a  loud  voice 
by  way  of  reproof  or  threatening.  To  cry  out  against, 
to  complain  of  or  censure  strongl3\  To  cry  out,  to  ex- 
claim. To  cry  down,  to  depreciate.  To  cry  up,  to  praise 
or  extol.  To  cry  to,  to  call  on  in  prayer;  to  implore. — 
Syn.  of  '  cry,  n.':  uproar;  exclamation;  outcry;  vociferation; 
tumult;  shouting;  bawling;  utterance;  proclamation, 
an 


CRYOLITE-CRYPT. 

CRYOLITE,  n.  krl'd-lU  [Gr.  ki^uoSy  ice,  hoar-frost; 
Uthos,  a  stone]:  a  mineral,  double  fluoride  of  aluminium 
and  sodium  (NaF, AI2F3),  found  in  the  gneiss  of  w.  Green- 
land; important  as  a  source  of  the  metal  Aluminium  (q.v.). 
In  the  flame  of  a  candle  it  melts  like  ice. 

CRYOPHORUS,  n.  krl-of  o-rus  [Gr.  kruos,  ice,  hoar- 
frost; pJiored,  I  bear]:  apparatus  for  freezing  water  by  its 
own  evaporation.  The  instrument  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
with  a  bulb  a  both  ends.  A  little  water  is  present  in  one 
of  the  bulbs,  and  when  the  second  bulb,  containing  only 
water-vapor,  is  placed  in  a  freezing  mixture,  the  vapor 
condenses,  which  causes  more  vapor  to  rise  from  the  wuter 
in  the  first  bulb.  The  result  of  this  vaporization  from  the 
first  bulb  is  the  abstraction  of  much  heat,  and  ultimately 
the  remaining  water  passes  into  a  frozen  state. 

CRYPT,  n.  kript  [L.  crypta;  Gr.  krupte,  a  vault,  a  con- 
cealed subterranean  passage — from  Gr.  krupio,  1  conceal: 
F.  crypte]:  underground  vaulted  part  of  a  church  or  other 
great  building;  sometimes  a  vault  or  cell,  either  entirely  or 
partly  underground.  Crypts  in  churches  do  not  generally 
extend  beyond  the  limits  of  the  choir  or  chancel,  and  they 
are  often  of  much  smaller  dimensions.  Crypts  were  for- 
merly used  as  chapels,  and  provided  with  altars  and  the 
other  furniture  requisite  for  the  celebration  of  religious 
services;  and  they  were  also  frequently  used  as  places  of 


Crypt  of  York  Cathedral. 


sepulture.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  new  church  has 
been  erected  over  the  C.  belonging  to  the  old  one.  One  of 
the  largest  crypts  in  England  is  that  under  Canterbury 
Cathedral;  but  there  are  few  finer  specimens  of  the  C.  any- 
where than  that  under  Glasgow  Cathedral,  recently  freed 
from  rubbish  and  restored.  Crypts  seem  to  have  originated 
in  the  customs  of  the  early  Christian  ages;  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs  were  first  used  as  churches;  and  then  churches 
were  built  above  them.  CiivPTrc,  a.  krlp'tik,  or  Cryp'- 
TiCAL,  a.  -ti-kdl,  pertaining  to;  hidden;  secret.  Ckyp'tos, 
m 


CRYPTA— CRYPTOCOKYNE. 

a.  -ios,  in  hot.j  inconspicaous  or  concealed;  in  composition, 
crypto. 

CRYPTA,  n.  krip'ta,  Crypto,  n.  plu.  krip-te  [L.]:  in 
anat.,  tubular  or  saccular  simple  gland;  in  hot.,  one  of  the 
receptacles  of  oily  secretion  in  the  leaves  of  the  Aurantiacexe 
(Oranges),  the  Myrtacem  (Myrtle-blooms),  and  various  other 
orders  of  plants. 

CRYPTANDRA,  n.  kriv-tandra  [Gr.  kruptos,  hidden; 
aner,  gen.  andros,  a  man;  by  botanists  used  for  a  stamen]: 
Australian  genus  of  under-shrubs,  order  Bhamnacece.  They 
look  like  heaths.    About  70  are  known. 

CRYPTICUS,  n.  krlp'ti-kus  [Gr.  kruptikos,  fit  for  con- 
cealing—from kruptu,  I  conceal]:  genus  of  beetles,  family 

Tenebrionidce. 

CRYPTO-CALVINISM,  i.e.  Jiidden  Calvinism:  term 
applied  to  certain  opinions  supposed  to  be  held  by  Melanch- 
thon  and  others  who  strove  to  promote  harmony  betw^een 
the  followers  of  Luther  and  those  of  Calvin.  Melanchthon, 
the  chief  author  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (q.v.),  after- 
ward published  a  revised  edition  of  it  in  which  he  left  out 
a  clause  that  condemned  the  Genevan  doctrine  concerning 
Christ's  spiritual  presence  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper. 
On  this  account  he  was  charged  with  secretly  favoring  an 
opinion  contrary  to  the  Lutheran  view.  But  his  gentle 
disposition  and  strenuous  efforts  to  secure  harmony  among 
Protestants  render  it  probable  that,  without  adopting  Cal- 
vin's opinion,  he  thought  it  w^as  not  sufficiently  erroneous 
to  exclude  believers  from  communion  with  Christ,  and 
therefore  ought  not  to  be  positively  condemned.  Luther 
neither  sanctioned  the  alteration,  nor  quarrelled  with  Me- 
lanchthon on  account  of  it.  Yet  the  controversy  to  which 
it  gave  rise  continued  during  the  peace-loving  reformer's 
life,  and  with  increasing  violence  for  50  years  after  his 
death.  During  this  time  repeated  efforts  were  made  to 
crush  the  supposed  Calvinism  by  imprisoning  the  leading 
men  who  were  charged  with  favoring  it;  and,  one  of  them. 
Chancellor  Nicolas  Crell,  was,  in  1611,  put  to  death. 
Afterward  the  chief  distinction  between  the  orthodox 
Lutherans  and  the  Reformed  churches  of  Germany  con- 
tinued to  be  adherence  to  the  'unaltered '  or  to  the  *  altered' 
confession. 

CRYPTOCEPHALUS,  n.  krip-to-sef  al  us  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden ;  kephal'e,  the  head] :  genus  of  beetles,  family  Chry- 
somelidcB;  small  insects,  with  the  head  deeply  inserted  into 
the  thorax,  the  antennae  long  and  filiform,  the  body  short 
and  cylindrical. 

CRYPTOCHILID^,  n.  krip-to-kVli-de  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  cheilos,  a  lip;  L.  suf.  -idm:  so  named  because  the 
labellum  is  not  easily  seen  on  account  of  the  contraction  of 
the  mouth  of  the  calyx] :  family  of  orchids,  tribe  Vandece. 
Cryptochilus,  krip-tti-kl'liis,  genus  of  orchids,  typical  of 
the  family  Cryptochilidce. 

CRYPTOCORYNE,  n.  krip-to-kor-l'ne  [Gr.  kruptos,  hid- 
den; korune,  a  club :  so  named  from  the  shape  of  its  flowers] : 
m 


CRYPTODONTIA— CRYPTOGRAPHY. 

genus  of  Aracece.  G.  ovata  is  used  to  bring  sugar  to  a  good 
grain  when  it  is  too  viscid  and  cannot  be  made  to  granulate 
properly  by  the  application  of  lime  alone.  Ckyptocoky- 
NE^,  krip-to-kor-l' ne-e:  tribe  of  Aracece. 

CRYPTODONTIA,  n.  plu.  krlp-to-donti-a  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  odous,  gen.  odontos,  a  tooth]:  in  zool.  diwd  paleon. , 
in  Prof.  Owen's  classification,  the  second  family  of  the  Ano- 
modontia,  the  fifth  order  of  Reptilia  or  Reptiles. 

CRYPTOGAMIA,  n.  plu.  krip'to-gd'mi-d,  or  Crypto- 
gams, n.  plu.  krip  td-gdmz  [Gr.  kruptos,  concealed;  gamos, 
marriage]:  in  hot.,  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  comprising  the  mushrooms,  lichens,  mosses, 
sea- weeds,  and  ferns,  the  organs  of  fructification  in  which 
are  concealed  or  not  apparent;  also  Ckyptog'amy,  n.  -tog'- 
d-ml.  Cryp'togam'ic,  a.  -td-gdm'ik,  or  Cryptog'amous,  a. 
-tog'd-mits,  pertaining  to  plants  of  the  order  cryptogamia. 
Cryptogamous  plants,  those  which  have  no  true  tiowers, 
and  no  known  male  or  female  organs  of  fructification,  and 
whose  seeds,  called  spores,  consist  only  of  a  single  cell,  and 
contain  no  embryo,  but  germinate  inditferently  from  any 
point;  and  which  Jiissieu  therefore  designated  Acotyledo- 
nous  Plants  (q.v.).  The  name  C.  P.  was  invented  by  Lin- 
noeus,  and  the  Cryptogamia  form  a  class  of  his  sexual  sys- 
tem, very  distinct  from  all  the  rest.  See  Botany.  Many 
C.  P.  have  no  leaves;  some  have  not  even  a  root,  and  those 
which  are  lowest  in  organization  consist  only  of  a  single 
cell.  Many  are  parasitic.  Many  look  as  if  dead  in  a  dry 
atmosphere,  and  are  revivified  by  rain.  They  are  the  low- 
est in  organization  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  are 
divided  into  Filices  (Ferns),  Marsileacem,  Lycopodiacece  (Club- 
mosses),  Equisetacem  (Horse-tails),  Musci  (Mosses),  Hepaticmy 
Lichens,  Fungi,  Characece,  and  Algce. 

CRYPTOGRAMMA,  n.  krip-to-gram' ma  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  gramma,  a  written  character,  or  from  gramme,  a 
line:  so  called  from  the  concealed  line  of  capsules] :  genus 
of  ferns,  order  Polypodiacece,  the  sori  at  length  confluent 
and  marginal. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY,  n.  krip-tog  rd-fi  [Gr.  kruptos,  con- 
cealed; graphe,  a  writing]:  the  act  or  art  of  writing  in 
secret  character.  Cryp'tograph'ical,  a.  -grdfi-kdl,  per- 
taining to.  Cryptog'rapher,  n.  -tbg'rd-fer,  one  who.  Cryp- 
togram, n.  krip'to-grdm,  a  concealed  meaning  in  any 
writing.  Cryptology,  n.  krlp-tol' d-ji  [G.  logos,  a  w^ord]: 
the  science  of  concealed  or  secret  things;  a  secret  lan- 
guage. Cryptol'ogist,  n.  -jist,  one  skilled  in  secret 
languages  or  cipher-writing. — The  art  of  secret  writing, 
more  commonly  called  the  art  of  writing  in  cipher  [from 
Arabic  sifr,  void]  has  been  in  use  from  an  early  date  in 
correspondence  between  diplomatists  and  others  engaged 
in  important  afl'airs  requiring  secrecy.  In  modern  times,  it 
has  been  the  subject  of  learned  care  to  Lord  Bacon,  the  in- 
genious Marquis  of  Worcester,  Dr.  Wallis,  Bishop  Wilkins, 
Thicknesse,  Falconer,  Blair,  etc.  In  British  history,  it  has 
at  no  time  been  in  greater  requisition  than  during  the  civil 

280 


CRYPTOGRAPHY. 

war,  and  among  the  politicians  of  the  17th  c.  And  even 
now,  when  there  is  happily  less  need  for  m3^stery  among 
statesmen,  the  need  for  a  perfectly  undecipherable  mode 
of  secret  communication  has  again  had  to  be  looked  for,  in 
order  that  information  may  pass  by  the  electric  tele- 
graph without  being  understood  by  the  officials  in  connec- 
tion with  the  apparatus. 

One  of  the  most  simple  methods  of  cryptography  is  to 
use,  instead  of  each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  a  certain  other 
letter  at  a  regular  interval  in  advance  of  it  in  that  series. 
Such  was  a  mode  of  secret  writing  devised  by  Julius 
Caesar,  w^ho  used  the  fourth  letter,  d,  instead  of  the  lirst,  a, 
and  so  on.  As  a  variety  upon  this  plan,  the  alphabet  is 
used  invertedly — z  for  a,  y  for  b,  x  for  c,  and  so  on.  Or, 
while  the  first  seven  letters  are  represented  by  the  second 
seven,  the  next  six  may  be  represented  by  the  last  six;  and 
many  other  variations  may  be  adopted.  But  for  all  modes 
like  these,  there  are  modes  of  decipherment  far  from  diffi- 
cult. It  is  necessary,  in  general,  only  to  bear  in  mind  certain 
peculiarities  of  the  language  presumed  to  be  used.  Sup- 
posing it  to  be  English — we  readily  remember  that  e  is  the 
most  frequent  letter;  that  ea  and  on  are  the  double  vowels 
which  most  frequently  occur;  that  the  consonants  most 
common  at  the  ends  of  words  are  r,  s,  and  t;  etc.  We  also 
know  that  a  single  letter  must  be  either  the  pronoun  /  or 
the  article  a;  that  ariy  at,  and  on,  are  the  most  common 
words  in  two  letters;  that  the  and  and  Sive  the  most  frequent 
words  in  three  letters;  etc.  By  taking  advantage  of  these 
few  obvious  principles,  a  moderately  skilled  decipherer 
will  read  almost  any  such  piece  of  cryptographic  writing 
in  five  minutes.  Newspapers  often  give,  in  advertising 
columns,  correspondence  on  delicate  subjects,  even  assigna- 
tions for  elopements,  written  in  this  manner,  whose  writers 
are  little  aware  how  open  their  secrets  may  become.  Poe's 
interesting  tale,  the  Gold-Bug,  gives  some  instructive  hints 
on  the  construction  and  decipherment  of  secret  writings. 
For  languages  of  continental  Europe,  see  Breithaupt's  A7'8 
Decifratoria,  1737,  and  other  works. 

Politicians  and  important  personages  conducting  affairs 
of  difficulty  became  sensible  long  ago  of  the  necessity  of  us- 
ing ciphers  of  greater  abstruseness.  The  celebrated  letter  of 
Charles  I.  to  the  Earl  of  Glamorgan,  in  which  he  made 
some  condemning  concessions  (elsewhere  denied)  to  the 
Rom.  Catholics  of  Ireland,  was  composed  in  an  alphabet  of 
24  short  strokes  variously  situated  upon  a  line.  Other 
letters  by  the  same  monarch  are  to  appearance  a  mere  series 
of  numbers  of  two  and  three  figures,  divided  by  semico- 
lons. In  such  cases,  it  was  necessary  that  the  two  parties 
in  the  correspondence  should  have  previousl}^  concerted 
what  words  each  number  was  to  represent.  Bacon  devised 
what  he  thought  a  not  easily  penetrable  cipher,  in  which 
he  employed  only  a  and  b,  arranging  each  of  these,  in 
groups  of  five,  in  such  collocations  as  to  represent  all  the 
24  letters.  Thus,  aabab  ababa  babba  conveyed  the  word 
Fly.    The  great  philosopher  thought  that  preconcertment 

'281 


CRYPTOHYPM  US-CRYPTOPHAGID^. 

would  here  be  necessary;  bat  in  reality  any  clever  modern 
decipherer  would  have  found  no  ditiiculty  in  reading  any 
long  letter  composed  in  such  a  manner.  The  unfortunate 
Earl  of  Argyle,  preparing  his  expedition  against  the  tyran- 
nical government  of  James  II.,  used  a  mode  of  secret  writ- 
ing which  consisted  in  setting  down  the  words  at  certain 
intervals,  which  he  afterward  filled  up  with  other  words, 
making  on  the  whole  something  intelligible,  but  indilter- 
ent.  In  our  day,  such  a  mode  would  not  have  been  found 
proof  against  the  ingenuity  of  those  who  have  studied  the 
means  of  decipherment.  There  are  many  other  modes  of 
secret  writing,  which  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  detail, 
as  the  art  has  become  little  more  than  a  matter  of  curiosity. 
Among  these  are  the  trellis  or  card-board  cipher,  wheel- 
cipher,  string- cipher,  and  circle-cipher. 

A  good  treatment  of  the  subject  is  an  article  by  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Blair  in  Rees's  Cyclopcedia.  See  also  Chambers's  Jour- 
No.  506  (Second  Series),  andNos.  87  and  115.  The  best 
modern  presentation  of  cryptography  is  J.  L.  Kruber's 
Cryptographik.  Older  treatises  of  value  are:  PoligrapMay 
by  John  Trithemius,  Abbot  of  Spanheim  (1500),  John  Bap- 
tist Porta's  BeFurtwis  Liter  arum  Notis  (1563),  Blaise  de  Yi- 
genere's  Traite  des  C/iiffres  (Paris,  1587),  Bp.  John  Wilkin's 
Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger  (1641),  John  Fal- 
coner's Gryptomenysis  Patefacta  (1685),  John  Davy's  Essay 
on  the  Art  of  Deciphering  (1737),  Philip  Thicknesse's  Trea- 
tise on  the  Art  of  Deciphering  (1112),  C.  Yon  Marten's  Cour 
Diplomatique  (4th  ed.  1851).  A  curiously  illustrative  at- 
tempt to  import  arbitrarily  a  secret  meanin  g  into  a  familiar 
writing,  is  Ignatius  Donnelly's  recent  book,  assuming  to 
trace  in  Shakespeare's  writings  a  cipher  concealing,  and 
revealing,  the  fact  that  not  Shakespeare,  but  Lord  Bacon 
was  the  author. 

CRYPTOHYPNUS,  n.  krip-to-hip' niis  [Gr.  kruptos,  se- 
cret, hidden;  hapnos,  sleep]:  genus  of  beetles  belonging  to 
the  family  Elateridce. 

CRYPTOLITE,  n.  krip'to-llt  [Gr.  kruptos,  hidden;  lithos, 
stone] :  an  apparently  hexagonal  mineral  occurring  in  acicu- 
lar  prisms  and  minute  grains. 

CRYPTONEME^,  n.  plu.  krip-to-ne' me-e  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  nema,  that  which  is  spun,  yarn — from  ned,  I  spin]: 
sub-order  of  algae  (sea-weeds),  order  Ceramiacea>.  Crypto- 
ne'mia,  n.  genus  of  Algce,  the  typical  one  of  the  sub-order 
Cryptonemece  (q.v.). 

CRYPTOPENTAMERA,  n.  krip-to-pen-tam'er-a  [Gr. 
kruptos,  hidden;  pentameres,  in  five  parts]:  term  sometimes 
applied  to  the  beetles  ranked  by  Latreille  under  his  section 
Tetramera,  or  Beetles  with  four  joints  to  the  tarsi.  They 
have  really  five,  but  the  fifth  joint  is  minute  and  concealed 
within  the  one  adjacent. 

CRYPTOPHAGID^,  n.  plu.  krip-to  fafi-de  [Gr.  krup- 
tos,  secret;  phagein,  to  eat]:  family  of  beetles,  order  Penta- 
mera.  They  are  minute  in  size,  and  found  in  fungi.  Crtp- 


CRYPTOPORTICUS-CRYSTAL. 

TOPHAGus,  krip-i'jfa-gus:  genus  of  beetles,  typical  of  the 
family  Cryptophafjidce. 

CRYPTOPORTIOUS,  krip-to-por'ti-kus,  or  Cryptopor'- 
Tico  [Gr.  kruptos,  hidden;  L.  porticus,  a  portico]:  an  inclosed 
portico  or  gallery,  having  a  wall  with  openings  or  windows 
in  it,  instead  of  columns  at  the  side. 

CRYPTOPROCTA,  n.  krip-to-prok' ta  [Gr.  kruptos,  hid- 
den ;  proktos,  hinder  parts,  bottom,  tail] :  genus  of  mammals, 
i^imiXj  Viverridm  (q.v.). 

CRYPTORHYNOHIDES,  n.  plu.  krip-to-ringk'i~dez 
[Gr.  kruptos,  hidden;  rungchos,  snout]:  according  to  Schoen- 
herr,  author  of  an  elaborate  work  on  GurculionidoB,  this  is 
a  family  of  Rhyncophora:  see  Weevil. 

CRYPTORNIS,  n.  krip-tawr' nis  [Gr.  kruptos,  hidden;  or- 
nis,  a  bird] :  in  paleon. ,  genus  of  birds,  founded  on  ornithic 
remains  from  the  upper  Eocene. 

CRYPTOSTEGIA,  n.  plu.  krip-to-st?' gUt  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  stege,  a  roof]:  in  zooL,  famil}^  of  Foi'aminifem  with 
a  perforate  test,  in  the  classification  of  Ruess;  in  hot.,  a  genus 
of  twining  Asclepiadaceft'.. 

CRYPrOT^MA,n.  krlp-to-tln'i-a  [Gr.  kruptos,  hidden; 
L.  t'Euia;  Gr.  a  band] :  genus  of  Umbellif era.  Gryp- 

totimla  canadensis  (Honewort)  is  the  only  species  de- 
scribed. 

CRYPTOTETRAMERA,  n.  plu.  krip-to-tet-rdm' er-a 
[Gr.  krupt"S,  hidden;  tetrameres,  quadrupartite,  divided  into 
four]:  name  sometimes  given  to  Latreille's  section  of  Coleop- 
tera  (beetles).  They  are  called  Triinera  because  they  have 
apparently  only  three  joints  to  the  tarsi.  The  name  implies 
that  there  is  a  fourth  joint  concealed.  It  is  nearly  inclosed 
within  the  adjacent  one. 

CRYPTOTHECIT,  n.  plu.  krlp-to-tM si-l  [Gr.  kruptos, 
hidden;  tJu'ke,  a  box,  a  chest]:  small  group  of  Muscacem 
(Mosses).    Type  Spiridens. 

CRYPTURID.^,  n.  plu.  krip-tur't-de  [Gr.  kruptos,  hid- 
den; aura,  tail]:  in  the  classification  of  Prince  Bonaparte, 
family  of  gallinaceous  birds, type  Grypturus.  Crypturin^, 
krip-titr-Vne,  sub-family  of  TetraonidcB.  Cryptijrus,  krip- 
tOr' as:  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  by  Swainson  and  others 
placed  under  Teiraonid(e,  and  by  some  made  the  type  of  a 
sub-family  Gryptarince,  but  by  Prince  Bonaparte  elevated 
into  a  family,  Grypturido^. 

CRYSTAL,  n.  kristdl  [F.  cristal — from  L.  crystallum, 
rock-crystal:  Gr.  krustallos,  ice,  rock-crystal — from  kruos, 
frost:  It.  crlstallo]:  a  regular  solid  bounded  by  symmetrical 
faces,  meeting  each  other  at  definite  angles;  anything  con- 
gealed like  ice  with  smooth  surfaces;  any  natural  body 
transparent  or  semi-transparent;  a  transparent  substance 
made  by  fusing  certain  bodies  together,  as  an  alkali  with 
flint  or  sand  and  lead;  a  fine  kind  of  glass:  Adj.  consisting  of 
crystal;  dear;  transparent.  Crystalline,  a.  -Un^  like 
m 


CRYSTAL  ISLAND^— CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS. 

crystal;  clear;  transparent.  Ckys'tallize,  v.  -llz  to  cause 
to  form  into  crystals;  to  be  converted  into  crystals.  Crys  - 
TALLi'ziNG,  imp.  Crystallized,  pp.  -rtzd.  Crys'tal- 
Li'zABLE,  di.-li  zd-hl, ihdii  may  be  formed  into  crystals.  Crys  - 
talliza'tion,  n,  -zd'sliun,  the  act  or  process  of  being 
formed  into  crystals.  Crys'talli  zer,  n.  -ll'zer,  he  who 
or  that  which.  Sub-crystalline,  indistinctly  or  faintly 
crystalline.  Rock-crystal,  transparent  or  colorless  quartz. 
Crystalline  lens  or  humor,  a  white,  transparent,  firm 
substance  having  the  form  of  a  convex  lens,  situated  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  vitreous  himior  of  the  eye:  see 
Eye. 

CRYS  TAL  ISLANDS:  see  Coral  Islands. 

CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS:  all  rocks  having  a  crystal- 
line structure.  They  belong  to  every  division  of  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  but  are  abundant  especially  in  the  most  ancient 
azoic  rocks;  the  greater  proportion  of  intruded  igneous 
rocks  also  possess  this  structure.  When  attempting  in  the 
laboratory  to  produce  crystals,  it  is  known  that  the  build- 
ing material  must  be  in  a  fluid  condition,  and  this  is  ob- 
tained either  by  heating  to  fusion  or  by  solution.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  all  C.  R.  have  been  produced  under  sim- 
ilar circumstances;  and  no  one  can  doubt  that  lavas  and 
moi^  ancient  rocks  having  similar  origin,  have  assumed 
this  structure  while  solidifying  from  a  condition  of  igneous 
fusion,  while  rock-salt  is  as  certainly  obtained  from  a  sat- 
urated solution  of  salt.  There  are,  however,  many  rocks, 
such  as  some  fossiliferous  limestones,  in  which  this  struct- 
ure occurs,  where  it  is  not  possible  to  conceive  of  their 
being  in  either  condition.  It  is  known  that  crystallization 
takes  place  in  solid  material,  as  in  the  axles  of  railway  car- 
riages, or  in  the  crystals  of  pyrites  in  the  chalk,  where  the 
iron  has  been  gathered  from  the  surrounding  material  while 
in  a  solid  state.  We  know  not  what  is  the  force  that  in- 
duces such  a  change  in  solid  materials:  it  may  be  called 
metaraorphic  or  molecular  action,  but  these  are  names  that 
merely  hide  our  ignorance.  That  such  a  force,  inducing 
crystalline  structure  in  amorphous  masses,  has  been  and  is 
now  at  work  on  the  solid  strata  of  the  earth,  cannot  be 
doubted 

284 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,  n.  kris  tal-log' ra-fi  [Gr.  krus- 
tallos,  ice,  rock-crystal;  graphe,  a  writing]-  that  department 
of  mineralogy  which  investigates  the  relation  of  crystalline 
forms,  and  the  origin  and  structure  of  cr^^stals.  Crys'tal- 
LOG  RAPHER,  n.  oiiC  who.  Crys'tallograph'ic  or  Crys'- 
TALLOGRAPH  ICAL,  a.  pertaining  to.  Crys'tallograph'- 
ICALLY,  ad.  -kfd-ll.  Crys  TALLOiD,  a.  -loyd  [Gr.  eidos,  form]: 
having  the  form  or  likeness  of  a  crystal;  that  is  able  to  crys- 
tallize—opposed to  colloid:  that  which  has  the  form  or 
likeness  of  a  crystal.  Crystallomancy,  n.  kris  tdl  ld-indn' - 
si  [Gr.  manteia,  divination]:  ancient  sort  of  divination  by 
means  of  translucent  stones,  the  beryl  being  deemed  most 
effective.  The  operator  first  muttered  over  it  certain  formu- 
las of  prayer,  and  then  gave  it  into  the  hands  of  a  youth  or 
virgin — none  others  wei  e  pure  enough  to  discern  its  revela- 
tions— who  beheld  in  it  the  information  required.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  sometimes  the  desiderated  facts  appeared  written 
on  the  crystal, and  that  sometimes  the  spirits  invoked  appeared 
in  the  crystal  to  answer  the  questions.  Crystal'lo  ceramic, 
n.-se-rdm'ik  [Gr.  keramos,  potter's  clay,  earthenware]:  a  kind 
of  glass  incrustation.  It  consists  of  an  opaque  substance 
imbedded  in  a  mass  of  colorless  glass.  Crystal'lo-en- 
GRAviNG,  a  mode  of  impressing  arms  or  badges  upon  a  glass 
vessel  in  intaglio,  produced  by  pressure  of  the  heated  glass 
against  a  hot  die  in  the  process  of  blowing. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY:  department  in  mineralogy 
which  concerns  the  classification  of  crystalline  forms,  and 
the  origin  and  structure  of  crystals.  A  crystal  is  a  piece 
of  matter  that,  by  the  action  of  molecular  forces,  has  as- 
sumed a  definite  geometrical  form  of  some  kind,  with  plane 
faces.  There  is  great  variety  of  crystalline  forms,  each 
form  being  characteristic  of  one  or  more  substances.  The 
great  majority  of  substances  are  capable  of  undergoing  the 
process  of  crystallization,  the  exceptions  being  principally 
complex  organic  substances  which  tend  to  assume  a  globu- 
lar or  spherical  form  approaching  that  of  organized  struct- 
ures. The  most  favorable  condition  for  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  any  substance  is  from  its  solution  in  water  or  other 
liquid.  A  liquid  usually  dissolves  more  of  a  salt  when 
warm  than  when  cold;  and  when  a  warm  saturated  solution 
is  allowed  to  cool,  a  portion  of  the  salt  deposits  itself  in 
crystals.  This  process  is  that  generally  followed  in  the 
crystallization  of  saline  substances.  A  second  process  re- 
sorted to  in  the  case  of  the  metals,  such  as  bismuth,  anti- 
mony, etc.,  and  sulphur,  is  to  fuse  the  material  in  a  vessel, 
and  when  it  is  cooled  down  so  as  partially  to  solidify  the 
mass,  the  crust  is  broken  through,  and  the  liquid  still  re- 
maining is  poured  off,  when  a  net-work  of  crystals  is  ob- 
tained. A  third  method  is  to  vaporize  the  substance,  which 
on  condensation  resolves  itself  into  crystals.  Examples  of 
this  class  are  the  formation  of  snow  crystals  from  the  water- 
^  vapor  in  the  atmosphere,  and  the  minute  black  crystals  of 
iodine  obtained  by  allowing  its  vapor  to  condense  in  a  cold 
vessel  or  on  a  cold  surface. 

Many  circumstances  affect  the  crystallizing  power  of 
substances.    Thus,  water  may  be  cooled  down  below  its 

d»5 


CRYSTALLOORAPHY. 

freezing  or  crystallizing  point  (32°  F.),  provided  it  be  kept 
perfectly  still,  without  becoming  solid;  but  on  subsequent 
agitation,  it  instantly  crystallizes.  Similarly,  a  hot  sat- 
urated solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  or  glauber  salt,  if 
cooled  down  in  a  still  place,  does  not  crystallize,  but  im- 
mediately does  so  when  the  liquid  is  agitated,  or  a  frag- 
ment of  any  solid  substance  is  introduced  into  it.  The  size 
of  the  crystals  obtainable  from  any  fluid  depends  much  on 
the  rate  of  cooling,  and  the  state  of  commotion  of  the  liquid. 
The  more  slowly  the  solution  cools  down,  and  the  more 
quietly  the  process  of  crystallization  is  allowed  to  proceed, 
the  larger  are  the  crystals  obtained;  while,  when  the  liquid 
is  rapidly  cooled,  and  agitation  is  kept  up,  the  crystals  are 
comparatively  small,  and  generally  not  completely  formed. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  that  a  large  crystal  is  constructed  of 
a  multitude  of  smaller  crystals,  built  up  regularly  so  as  to 
constitute  a  compound  crystal  of  the  same  form  as  the 
more  minute  crystalline  atoms;  and  when  a  liquid  is  cooled 
slowly  in  a  state  of  rest,  only  a  few  minute  crystals  are 
produced  at  first,  and  these  are  gradually  built  round  on 
all  sides  by  successive  layers,  till  large,  well-defined  crys- 
tals are  the  result;  while,  when  the  liquid  is  rapidly  low- 
ered in  temperature,  and  especially  when  agitation  is  kept 
up,  numerous  minute  crystals  are  formed  at  once,  and  do 
not  adhere  together.  In  either  case,  the  liquid  from  which 
the  crystals  have  separated  is  called  the  mother -liquor,  and 
is  a  saturated  solution  of  the  salt. 

The  external  forms  of  crystals  amount  to  several  thou- 
sands,  but  they  all  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  six  dif- 
ferent systems. 

The  regular  system  (otherwise  called  the  cuhic,  octoliedral. 


Fig.  1.       "  Fig.  2. 


tesseral,  tesmlar,  spheroidal,  or  equi-axed  system)  is  charac- 
terized by  having  three  axes  or  straight  lines  passing 
through  the  same  point,  of  equal  lengths,  and  placed  at 
right  angles  to  each  other.  The  best  illustration  of  this 
system  is  the  cube  or  hexahedron  (fig.  1),  which  has  six 
square  faces  or  planes,  and  the  three  equal  axes  (printed 
in  bold  lines)  terminate  in  the  centre  of  each  of  the  square 
faces.  The  planes  or  squares  are  symmetrically  arranged, 
so  that  each  is  perpendicular  to  one  axis,  and  parallel  ^o 
the  other  two.  The  crystals  have  each  6  square  faces,  with 
12  equal  edges,  and  8  equal  angles.  Examples  of  sub- 
stance which  crystallize  in  the  form  of  the  cube  or  hexa- 

286 


CRYSTALLOGKAPHV. 

hedron,  are — common  iron  pyrites  (FeSj),  common  salt,  or 
the  chloride  of  sodium  (XaCl;,  fluor-spar  (CaF),  galena,  or 
the  sulphuret  of  lead  (PbS),  and  the  metals  gold,  silver, 
platinum,  and  copper.  Another  important  crystalline  form 
belonging  to  the  regular  system  is  the  octohedron  (fig  2), 
where  the  terminations  of  the  axes  are  in  the  angles  of  the 
crystals,  as  represented  in  the  figure  by  the  bold  lines.  It 
has  8  faces,  all  of  which  are  equilateral  triangles,  and  12 
edges,  with  6  angles,  each  of  which  has  4  faces.  The  dia- 
mond (C),  alum,  zinc-blende  (ZnS),  sal  ammonia  C. 
(XH4CI),  magnetic  iron  ore  (Fe304),  tiuor-spar  (CaF),  and 
chrome  iron  ore,  are  examples.  There  are  various  second- 
ary forms  belonging  to  this  system,  de- 
rivable from  the  cube  and  octohedron,  such 
as  the  rhombic  dodecahedron  (fig.  3),  which 
has  12  faces,  and  is  the  form  in  which  the 
garnet  crystallizes. 

The  square  jyrismatic  system  (known  as  the 
pyramidal,  tetragonal,  or  quadratic  system) 
has  three  axes  pUiced  at  right  angles  to  each 
^'ig-  3.        other,  of  which  two  are  of  equal  length, 
but  the  third  may  be  longer  or  shorter.    To  this  belong  the 
right  square  prism  (fig.  4j,  in  which  the  lateral  axes,  termi- 


base  to  base,  and  having  8  faces,  which  form  isosceles  tri- 
angles.   Examples  of  substances  which  crystallize  in  this 

2i7 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 

system  are— yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  native  binoxide  of 
tin,  zircon,  apophylite,  calomel,  etc. 

The  right  prismatic  system  (otherwise  known  as  the  rigid 
rhomhoidal,  or  rectangular  'prismatic  system)  is  characterized 
by  having  three  axes,  all  of  unequal  or  dilterent  lengths, 
but  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The  right  rhombic 
prism  (lig.  6),  and  the  right  rhombic-hased  octohedron  {^.g.  7), 
are  forms  included  in  this  class,  and  examples  of  materia-s 
which  crystallize  in  this  form  are — sulphur,  arsenical  iron 
pyrites,  nitrate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
baryta  (heavy  spar),  topaz,  arragonite,  etc. 

The  oblique  prismatic  system  [oblique  rhomboidal,  or  rectan- 
gular prismatic)  has  three  axes,  which  may  be  all  of  unequal 


Fig.  8.  Fig.  9. 


lengths,  tw^o  of  which  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  while  the  third  axis  is  so  inclined  as  to  be  perpen- 
dicular to  one  of  the  two  axes,  and  oblique  to  the  other. 
To  this  belong  the  oblique  rhombic  prism  (tig.  8),  and  the 
oblique  rhombic-based  octohedron  (fig.  9).  Many  salts  crys- 
tallize in  this  form,  such  as  green  vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron), 
borax,  sulphate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  phosphate  of 
soda,  realgar  (native  bisulphuret  of  arsenic),  etc. 

Tii^  doubly  oblique  prismatic  system  has  three  axes  of  une- 
qual length,  which  intersect  obliquely  with  each  other. 
The  forms  are  very  irregular,  which  render  them  very 
puzzling  to  make  out  satisfactorily.  Nitrate  of  bismuth, 
sulphate  of  copper,  sulphate  of  manganese,  quadroxalate 
of  potash,  and  pyrotartaric  acid,  are  examples. 

The  rhombohedral,  or  the  regular  hexagonal  system,  is 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 


known  by  the  presence  of  four  axes,  three  of  which  are  in 
the  same  plane,  and  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  angle  of 
60°,  while  the  remaining  fourth  axis  is  perpetidicular  to  the 

288 


CRYSTAL  PALACE— CSOMA  DE  KOROS. 

three.  To  this  belong  the  regular  six-sided  piHsm  (tig.  10), 
2iiid  the  rJiombohedron(1^g.  11).  Examples  of  this  system 
are — calcareous  spar,  ice,  quartz  or  rock  crystal,  nitrate  of 
soda,  ber}'!,  arsenic,  antimony,  and  apatite. 

CRYS  TAL  PALACE:  see  Syeenham. 

CSx\.BA,  clwbo:  town  of  Hungary,  7  m.  s  s.w.  of  Bekes. 
It  is  well  built;  some  of  the  houses  are  even  very  elegant. 
It  has  a  trade  in  grain,  wine,  and  cattle.  The  women  are 
noted  for  skill  in  making  sacks  and  mattresses.  Pop.  of 
township  (1880)  32,616. 

CSANAD,  cho-ndd' :  county  in  Hungary;  640  sq.  m.; 
level  and  very  fertile,  producing  wheat,  fruit,  tobacco,  and 
wine.  The  district  is  not  healthful.  Mako  is  the  chief 
town.    Pop.  of  county  (1869)  95,847. 

CSANAD:  name  of  two  agricultural  towns  in  Hungary, 
both  on  theMaros;  one  with  a  pop.  of  4,000;  the  other  with 
a  pop.  of  5,500. 

CSAT,  or  CSATH,  cMt  (Mezo):  market  town  of  Hun- 
gary, near  the  Theiss,  in  the  dist.  Borsod;  about  15  m. 
s.e.  of  Miskolez.    Pop.  5,000. 

CSERYENA,  cJier-Ten'ko:  town  of  Hungary,  county  of 
upper  Bacs,  on  the  Franzens  Canal,  about  130  m.  s.  of 
Pesth.    Pop.,  mostly  German, 7, 000. 

CSOMA  DE  KOROS,  clw  mb  dlh  ke'resh,  Alexander, 
(in  HuDgcirian  Korose  Csoma  Sandor):  1790-1842,  Apr. 
11;  b.  Koros  in  Transylvania:  educated  first  at  the  college 
of  Nagy-Enyed,  subsequentl}'  at  Gottingen,  where  he  zeal- 
ously studied  Oriental  tongues.  The  dream  and  inspira- 
tion of  his  boyhood  was  the  hope  of  one  day  discovering 
the  original  home  of  his  Magyar  ancestors;  and  as  he  grew 
up,  it  became  the  single  thought  and  passion  of  his  life. 
In  1820,  he  set  out  on  his  visionary  pilgrimage.  After  a 
year's  interval,  his  friends  got  a  letter  from  him,  dated 
Teheran,  in  which  he  expressed  his  conviction  that  the  ob- 
ject of  his  search  would  speedily  be  obtained.  Leaving 
Teheran,  he  wandered  n.e.  through  Little  Bokhara,  and  at 
length  reached  Tibet,  where  he  spent  about  four  years 
( 1 827-30)  in  the  Buddhist  monastery  of  Kanam,  studying  Ti- 
betan. He  soon  discovered  that  there  was  little  connection 
between  that  language  and  his  native  one,  but  still  he  hoped 
to  make  use  of  his  researches,  and  set  out  for  Calcutta. 

'  Here  he  learned,  to  his  dismay,  that  the  literature  of  Ti- 
bet was  simply  a  translation  from  the  Sanskrit — a  language 
which  he  might  easily  have  learned  at  home.  Fortunately 
for  C,  the  librar}' of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  con- 
tained upward  of  1,000  volumes  in  Tibetan  which  no  one 
could  catalogue.    C.  undertook  and  successfully  executed 

.  the  task.     By  the  great  Anglo-Indian  scholars,  Prinsep, 

,  Wilson,  and  others,  he  was  very  generously  treated.  He 
next  prepared,  at  the  expense  of  the  government,  a  Tibetan 

'  grammar  and  dictionary  (Calcutta,  1834),  the  first  really 
accurate  and  valuable  European  work  on  the  subject.  It  is 
still  a  standard  treatise,  and  has  been  tke  guide  of  all  gooti 

'  289 


CSOKGRAD— CTENOID  FISHES. 

scholars  since.  C.  wrote  many  articles  on  Tibetan  litera- 
ture in  the  Asiatic  Researclies,  but  still  haunted,  as  of  old, 
by  the  hope  of  discovering  the  early  home  of  the  Magyars, 
he  once  more  set  out  on  an  expedition  to  the  western  con- 
fines of  China,  but  died  at  Darjeeling  in  Sikkim. 

CSONGRAD,  clwn-grdd' :  county  in  Hungary,  through 
which  flows  the  Theiss;  1,280  sq.  m. ;  level  and  fertile,  pro- 
ducing grain,  fruits,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Chief  town,  Sze- 
gedin.    Pop.  of  county,  27,585. 

CSONGRAD':  town  of  Hungary,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Theiss  and  the  Koros,  70  m.  s.e.  of  Pesth.  The  inhabi- 
tants rear  cattle,  and  cultivate  the  vine.  Pop.  (1880) 
17,837. 

CTENIZA,  n.  plu.  ten-iz'a  [Gr.  ktenizo,  I  comb]:  genus 
of  spiders,  family  MygdalidcBj  called  Trapdoor  Spiders:  see 
Spider. 

CTENOBRANCHIATA,  ten-o-hrangk-l-a' ta  [Gr.  kteis, 
gen.  Menos,  a  comb;  hrangcliion,  a  fin.  plu.  gills]:  name  given 
by  Van  der  Hoeven  to  a  family  of  mollusks  characterized  by 
spiral  shells,  in  the  last  turn  of  which  are  comb-like  branchiae, 
as  in  the  whelks. 

CTENODACTYLLUS,  n.  ten-o-ddk' til-lus  [Gr.  kteis,  gen. 
ktenos,  a  comb;  daktiilos,  a  finger:  so  called  because  the  toes 
are  pectinated  internally]:  genus  of  Rodentia,  family  Octo- 
dontidcB.  There  are  on  each  foot  four  perfect  toes  and  an 
imperfect  thumb,  the  latter  destitute  of  a  claw. 

CTENODONTID^,  ten-o-don'ti-de,  n.  plu.  [Gr.  kUis, 
gen.  ktenos,  a  comb;  odmis,  gen.  odontos,  a  tooth:  L.  suf. 
-idee]:  family  of  algae,  order  Ceramiacem,  tribe  Gryptone- 
mm. 

CTENOID,  a.  te'noyd  [Gr.  ktena,  a  comb;  eidos,  form]: 
comb-shaped;  having  the  appearance  of  a  comb;  applied  to 
the  third  order  of  fishes  in  the  arrangement  of  Agassiz  hav- 
ing S(.'ales  whose  hinder  edges  are  toothed  or  comb-like,  as 
the  perch.  Ctenocyst,  n  tend-sist  [Gr.  kustis,  a  bag]:  a 
supposed  sense-organ  found  in  the  Ctenophora.  Ctenoph- 
ORA,  n.  plu.  te-m^f' d-ra  [Gr.  plwred,  I  bear]:  order  of  Ac- 
tinozoa,  of  which  the  Berve  (q.v.)  may  be  taken  as  type; 
related  to  the  jelly-fish,  having  comb-like  bands  of  cilia:  see 
Acaleph^:  Zoology  (Classification).  Ctenophore,  n. 
ten' o- for,  a  band  of  cilia  arranged  in  comb -like  plates. 
Such  an  apparatus  is  used  by  the  Ctenophora  for  swim- 
ming. 

CTENOID  FISHES,  tenJoyd  or  te'noyd:  order  of  fishes, 
according  to  a  classification  proposed  by  Agassiz  (see 
Fishes),  characterized  by  ctenoid  scales,  i.e.,  imbricated 
scales,  generally  rounded  or  ovoid,  with  teeth  or  sharp 
projections  on  their  hinder  margin.  The  scales  of  C.F.  are 
horny  or  bony  and  unenamelled.  There  are  sometimes 
numerous  rows  of  teeth  or  little  spines,  sometimes  only  one 
row,  the  rows  successively  wearing  ofl!  as  new  ones  are 
formed  in  the  enlargement  of  the  scale.     Living  C.  F.  are 


CTEKOMYS-CUB. 


numerous,  fossil  ones  comparatively  few.  Perches,  fLoxxn* 
ders,  and  turbot  may  be  mentioned  as  examples. 


Ctenoid  Scales. 


CTENOMYS,  n.  ten'o-mis  [Gr.  kteis,  gen.  ktenoSy  a  comb; 
miis,  a  mouse] :  genus  of  rodent  animals,  family  OctodontidcE. 
The  toes  are  five  on  all  the  feet,  the  innermost  much  shorter 
than  the  others. 

CTESIAS,  tesM-as:  B.C.  5th  c;  Greek  historian  and 
physician.  Abridgments  of  his  works  are  extent,  of  which 
his  history  of  Persia  is  most  important,  though  little  author- 
ity is  credited  to  it. 

CTESIBIUS,  te-sih'e-us:  Greek,  abt.  the  middle  of  the  3d 
c.  B.C.  He  was  born  at  Alexandria,  and  was  famous  for 
inventions  in  mechanics.  We  owe  to  him  and  his  pupil 
Hero  Alexandrinus,  the  pump,  the  bent  siphon,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  elastic  force  of  air,  and  its  application  as  a 
motive  power. 

CTESIPHOlSr,  tes'e-fon  (now  Al-Madatn):  city  of  As- 
syria, on  the  e.  bank  of  the  Tigris;  the  common  winter  resi- 
dence of  the  Parthian  kings,  and  finally  cap.  of  the 
Parthian  kingdom.  Its  ruins  attest  its  ancient  magnifi- 
cence. 

CUB,  n.  Mib  [Icel.  kobhi,  a  seal:  Gael,  cuheag;  Ir.  cuih,  a 
young  dog] :  the  young  of  certain  animals,  generally  of  the 
bear  and  fox;  a  boy  or  girl  in  contempt:  V.  to  bring  forth 
young.    Cub  bing,  imp.    Cubbed,  pp.  MM. 

291 


CUBA. 

CUBA,  kvJba:  largest  island  of  the  Antilles,  and  most 
important  transmarine  possession  of  Spain;  n.  lat.  from.  19* 

50'  to  23°  9',  and  in  w.  long,  from  74°  8'  to  84"  58';  length, 
rather  more  than  750  m.,  average  width  50  m  ;  about 
45,700  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1877)  1,894,516;  somewhat  more 
than  seven-twelfths  being  white  (see  more  fully  below). 
It  is  larger  than  Ireland,  and  less  than  England.  The  sur- 
face is  mountainous  at  the  s.e.  coast,  where  the  Sierra 
Maestra,  rising  in  some  places  8,000  ft ,  runs  from  Cape  de 
Cruz  to  Cape  de  Mayzi.  In  the  central  part  of  the  island 
there  are  rugged  hilly  districts  between  Santa  Clara  and 
Puerto  Principe,  also  n.w.  of  Trinidad.  The  remainder 
of  the  country,  though  undulating,  consists  chiefly  of  well- 
watered  plains,  which  everywhere  support  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. Rocky  reefs  and  muddy  shallows  beset  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  coast.  In  some  localities,  however,  the  sea  is 
deep  to  the  very  shore,  offering  many  excellent  havens,  and 
those,  too,  on  the  busiest  marine  thoroughfares  of  the  w. 
hemisphere;  the  chief  of  these  being  the  harbor  of  Havana, 
a  city  whose  admirable  siutation  makes  it  the  emporium  of 
Central  America.  A  somewhat  elevated  watershed  crosses 
the  island  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  as  the  streams 
run  at  right  angles  to  it,  they  are  necessarily  short.  There 
is  in  C.  no  distinction  of  dry  and  rainy  seasons,  and  there 
are  showers  every  month.  Hurricanes  are  less  frequent 
than  in  the  other  W.  India  Islands,  but  they  sometimes 
cause  widespread  desolation.  One  which  swept  over  C. 
1870,  Oct.,  caused  the  loss  of  2,000  lives.  Another  occurred 
1873,  Sep.  Earthquakes  are  frequent.  The  cultivated  por- 
tions of  C.  produce  in  abundance  sugar,  tobacco,  maize, 
rice,  yams,  bananas,  coffee,  and  all  the  products  of  the 
tropics;  while  in  the  districts  left  in  a  state  of  nature  are 
reared  countless  herds  of  cattle.  Sugar  is,  however,  the 
chief  product  of  the  island;  and  all  over  the  w.  districts  the 
traveller  sees  vast  level  or  undulating  tracts  covered  with 
cane -fields,  and  factories  employed  in  crushing,  boiling, 
and  refining  the  sugar. 

Since  the  close  of  the  war  of  secession  in  the  United 
States,  the  Cuban  sugar-trade  has  immensely  increased, 
and  the  quantity  exported  in  good  years  has  recently  been 
valued  at  75  or  100  millions  of  dollars.  Of  this  sugar  7& 
per  cent,  goes  to  the  United  States,  and  15  per  cent,  to  Eng- 
land. The  exportation  of  tobacco  is  a  large  item  of  the 
experts  from  Cuba.  The  chief  imports  are  flour,  salted  fish, 
manufactured  goods,  hardware,  and  machinery. 

The  enormous  development  of  Cuban  commerce  cannot 
be  ascribed  either  to  the  enterprise  of  the  inhabitants  or  to 
good  government — least  of  all  to  the  latter,  for  the  Spam 
iards  have  done  nothing  for  C.  but  to  make  it  supply  Madrid 
with  the  largest  possible  revenue.  It  is  due  to  the  great 
demand  for  sugar  in  America,  and  the  monopoly  which  C. 
now  has  of  slave-labor. 

The  following  shows  the  recent  trade  of  C.  with  the 
United  States;  exports:  (1883)  $65,544,534;  (1884)  $57,181,- 
497;  (1885)  $42,306,093;  (1886)  $51,110,780;  (1887)  $49,515,- 
434;  imports:  (1883)  $14,567,918;  (1884)  $10,562,880;  (1885) 


CUBA. 


$8,719,195;  (1886)  $10,  020,879;  (1887)  $10,138,930.  Pop. 
(1872)  1,370,211,  of  whom  730,750  were  whites,  about 
34,000  Chiuese  and  Hindu  coolies,  and  605,461  blacks; 
(1877)  1,394,516;  (^1880)  1,521,684,  of  whom  1,764,  160  were 
whiteS;  Spaniards,  and  Spanish  Creoles,  344,400  free  people 
of  color,  227,902  slaves,  58,400  Chinese.  The  slaves  of 
pure  blood  alone  have  the  strength  necessary  to  do  the  hard 
work  of  the  sugar  estates,  and  the  prosperity  ©f  the  island 
is  dependent  on  them.  Although  the  Creoles  and  the 
'  peninsulares  '  are  of  the  same  origin,  the  difference  be- 
them  is  most  striking.  They  can  be  distinguished  at  a 
glance  in  the  streets  of  Havana.  The  Creoles  are  feeble  and 
indolent,  even  when  they  are  children  of  parents  born  in 
Spain c  The  Cuban  Spaniards,  on  the  other  hand,  are  sturdy 
and  energetic.  Recruited  from  the  n.e.  parts  of  Spain, 
they  go  to  C.  as  adventurers,  chiefly  to  lind  employment  as 
traders  and  mechanics,  but  obtain  the  greater  share  of  the 
wealth  of  the  island.  There  are  upward  of  200,000  adult 
male  Creoles,  and  half  that  number  of  Spanish  Cubans; 
but  the  latter— all  men — through  the  large  volunteer  force, 
which  they  almost  exclusively  recruit,  and  the  favor  of 
the  Spanish  government,  which  distrusts  the  Creoles,  have 
absolute  control  over  the  government  of  the  island,  which 
is  administered  in  a  manner  scandalously  unjust.  They 
treat  the  Creoles  with  a  scorn  and  contempt  only  exceeded 
by  the  hatred,  mixed  with  fear,  with  which  the  latter  re- 
gard the  dominant  population.  '  Cuba  for  the  Cubans,'  is 
the  watchword  of  the  Creoles,  whose  most  anxious  desire  it 
is  to  be  rid  of  the  adventurers, who  have  secured  for  them- 
selves the  best  share  of  the  wealth  of  the  island.  If  they 
could  secure  this  object,  they  believe  that  even  with 
emancipation  they  would  be  in  a  better  position  than  now, 
and  accordingly  they  manifest  sympathy  for  the  negroes, 
and  join  with  them  in  opposition  to  the  'peninsulares.' 

C.  is  divided  into  three  intendencias — the  western,  mid- 
dle, and  eastern.  In  the  western,  there  were  (1880)  upward 
of  a  million  of  inhabitants.  It  includes  Havana  with  250,000 
inhabitants,  Matanzas  with  36,000,  Cardenas  with  13,000, 
and  several  other  towns  connected  by  railways.  The  mid 
die  division,  which  extends  eastward  to  the  n.e.  corner  of 
the  Great  Bay  and  the  Boca  deNuevitas,  has  a  pop.  of  only 
75,000,  of  whom  30,000  live  in  the  cap.,  Puerto  Principe. 
The  eastern  division  has  249,000  inhabitants;  cap.  Santiago, 
with  pop.  60,000.  The  chief  towns  of  the  western  division 
are  connected  by  railways, and  it  is  well  settled  and  prosper- 
ous, the  great  sugar  factories  and  tobacco  plantations,  which 
constitute  the  wealth  of  the  island,  lying  there.  The  mid- 
dle and  eastern  divisions  are  very  partially  cultivated,  and, 
owing  to  civil  war,  are  becoming  much  less  productive 
than  they  were.  Many  of  the  land-owners  of  the  e.  part 
of  the  island  have  sold  their  slaves  to  those  of  the  Havana 
district,  and  have  migrated  to  Jamaica  and  the  United 
States. 

C,  which  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  '  Pearl '  or*  Queen  of 
the  Antilles,'  was  discovered  by  Columbus  during  his  first 
Yoyage,  1492.  In  1511,  the  island  began  to  be  permanently 


CUBA. 

colonized,  becoming,  within  ten  years,  the  base  of  all  the  va- 
rious operations  against  Mexico.  While,  in  the  first  quarter 
of  the  present  c,  every  continental  portion  of  Spanish 
America  established  its  independence,  C.  remaining,  like 
Puerto  Kico,  faithful  to  the  mother- country,  largely  prof- 
ited by  the  intestine  broils  of  the  revolted  provinces,  for, 
when  the  old  Spaniards  were  expelled  in  mass  from  the 
mainland,  many  of  them  naturally  took  refuge  in  the  still 
loyal  islands,  enriching  them  with  their  capital,  and  en- 
ergy, and  skill.  C.  has  long  been  coveted  by  other  nations. 
In  1762,  Havana  was  captured  by  a  British  armament,  but 
was  restored  in  the  following  year.  During  the  present 
age,  the  island  has  been  an  object  of  cupidity  to  certain 
politicians  and  adventurers  of  the  United  States— a  cupidity 
checked  more  by  jealousy  on  the  part  of  France  and  Eng- 
land than  by  Spain's  own  resources.  In  fact,  the  island  has 
been  twice  attacked — 1850  and  1851 — by  individual  Ameri- 
cans, in  small  marauding  bands,  without  success.  They 
were  commanded  by  a  Spaniard  named  Lopez,  who,  being 
taken  prisoner,  was  put  to  death  as  a  traitor.  The  termi- 
nation of  the  war  of  secession  had  an  unexpected  effect  on 
the  position  of  C.  The  island  had  been  coveted  by  the 
pro-slavery  party  in  the  United  States  because  it  was  the 
only  market  from  which  slaves  could  be  imported  into  the 
southern  states;  and  this  trade  was  ended  by  the  war  bring- 
ing the  abolition  of  slavery.  This  was  not;  however,  the 
only  effect  of  the  war.  It  destroyed  the  production  of  sugar 
in  the  southern  states,  and  C.  supplied  the  want.  Great 
interests  were  created  in  New  York, — which  has  long  been 
and  remains  largely  southern  in  sentimnent  and  sympathy, 
having  a  prominent  southern  element  in  its  social  and  busi- 
ness life-interests  which  favored  the  perpetuation  of  slavery 
in  C;  and  its  existence  as  an  independent  state,  or  a  de- 
pendency of  a  foreign  power,  became  more  desirable  for 
the  Americans  than  its  annexation.  The  Spanish  revolution 
of  1868,  when  Queen  Isabella  was  driven  from  the  throne, 
effected  another  change  in  Cuban  politics.  The  Madrid 
ministry,  1870,  passed  a  measure  known  as  the  Morlet  law, 
from  Senor  Moret  y  Prendergast,  colonial  minister  at  the 
time,  which  declared  that  every  slave  at  the  age  of  60 
'  should  become  free — and  emancipated  all  the  unborn  off- 
spring of  slaves.  This  law  never  was  enforced,  its  public 
cation  even  having  been  prohibited  by  the  '  peninsulares;' 
and  the  Madrid  government  have  never  been  in  a  position 
to  enforce  it  or  any  other  measure  which  meets  the  disap- 
proval of  the  *  loyal  party '  in  Cuba.  Instead  of  doing  so, 
it  has  accepted  their  alliance,  and  aided  them  by  sending 
troops  to  crush  the  Creole  and  negro  insurrection,  which 
broke  out  1868.  The  struggle  was  carried  on  with  vary- 
ing success,  and  often  with  unexampled  ferocity,  for  11 
years.  It  was  not  till  the  end  of  1879  that  the  authorities, 
partly  by  military  energy,  partly  by  terms  of  compromise, 
succeeded  in  quelling  the  rebellion.  Pardon  was  offered 
to  rebels  laying  down  their  arms,  and  restoration  of  con- 
fiscated property.  See  The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,  by  A. 
Gallenga  (Loud.  1873).  For  a  picturesque  description  of 
m 


CUBAGUA— CUBEB. 

Cuban  life  and  manners,  see  another  work  also  called  The 
Pearl  of  the  Antilles,  by  W.  Goodman,  (1873).  See  also 
The  Mambi-land,  by  James  J.  O 'Kelly  (1874). 

CUBAGUA,  ko-mgwd:  island  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  oil 
the  n.e.  coast  of  Venezuela  in  S.  America.  It  is  in  the 
dept.  of  Maturin,  between  Margarita  and  the  mainland, 
about  30  m.  n.  of  the  town  of  Cumana. 

CUBATION,  n.  ku-ba'shtin  [L.  cubdre,  to  lie  down:  It. 
cubare]:  a  reclining;  the  act  of  lying  down.  Cubatory,  a. 
kd  bd  ter'i,  lying  down;  recumbent. 

CUBE,  n.  hub  [F.  cube—iYom  L.  cubus,  a  square  on  all 
sides:  Gr.  kiibos:  Ar.  ki'ab,  anything  in  the  form  of  a  block]: 
a  solid  body  with  six  equal  sides,  all  squares;  a  number 
multiplied  twice  by  itself,  as4x4x4=64,  64 being  the  cube 
of  4:  V.  to  raise  to  the  third  power.  Cu  bing,  imp.  Cubed, 
pp.  kilbd.  Cubic,  a.  kd'Mk,  or  Cubical,  a.  kd'bi-kdl,  solid; 
not  superficial;  pertaining  to  the  length,  breadth,  and  thick- 
ness of  a  body.  Cu'bically,  ad.  -11.  Cu'bicalness,  n. 
state  or  quality  of  being  cubical.  Cu  biform,  a.  -bi-fawrm 
\h.  forma,  shape]:  having  the  form  of  a  cube.  Cu  boid,  a. 
-hoyd,  orCuBOi  DAL,  a.  -ddl  [Gr.  cidos,  form]:  having  nearly 
the  form  of  a  cube.  Cube  root,  the  first  power  of  a  cube, 
as  4  is  the  cube  root  of  64.  Cubo-cube,  n.  ku'bd-kiib,  the 
square  of  the  cube,  or  the  sixth  power  of  a  number.  Cubo- 
CUBO-CUBE,  the  cube  of  the  •cube,  or  the  ninth  power  of  a 
number.  Cubature,  n.  kv'bd-tur,  the  finding  exactly  the 
solid  or  cubic  contents  of  a  body.  Cube-ore,  an  arseniate 
of  iron,  occurring  in  perfect  cubes  in  copper  ores.  Cuboid 
bone,  one  of  the  small  bones  of  the  foot. 

CUBE:  a  solid  with  six  square  faces,  each  of  which  is 
parallel  to  the  one  opposite  to  it.  It  is  a  form  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  nature,  especially  among  crystals:  see 
Crystallography. — In  arithmetic,  the  C.  of  a  number  is 
the  product  of  its  multiplication  three  times  by  itself. 
This  use  of  the  term  arises  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
solid  contents  of  a  C.  may  be  expressed  by  the  third 
power  of  the  number  which  expresses  the  length  of  one  of 
its  edges.  Thus,  if  the  edge  of  a  C.  be  a  line  of  4  inches,  its 
solid  contents  are  equal  to  4  X  4  X  4  =  64  cubic  inches. 
Conversely,  the  C.  root  of  an^imber  is  that  number  which, 
multipled  three  times  by  itself,  produces  the  first  number: 
see  Doubling  the  Cube. 

CUBEB,  kubeb  [Hind.  kubdba\.  dried  small  spicy  berry 
of  Cubeba  officmalis  and  other  species  of  Oubeba,  a  genus  of 
climbing  shrubs  of  the  nat.  ord.  Plperacem,  very  closely 
allied  to  the  true  peppers  (thence  called  sometimes  Oubeb 
Pepper),  but  distinguished  at  once  by  the  contraction  and 
elongation  of  the  berries  at  the  base,  so  that  they  appear  to 
be  stalked,  upon  which  account  C.  are  called  sometimes 
Piper  caudatum,  or  tailed  pepper.  Cubeba  officinalis  is  a 
native  of  Penang,  Java,  New  Guinea,  etc.,  and  is  said  to 
be  extensively  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Java.  Its  spikes 
are  solitary,  opposite  to  the  leaves,  and  usually  produce 
about  50  berries,  which  are  globular,  and  when  dried, 
bave  much  resemblance  to  black  pepper,  except  in  theii 

21.5 


CUBICLE  NITRE— CUBIT. 


lighter  color,  and  the  stalk  with  which  they  are  furnished. 
Guheha  canina,  native  of  the  Sunda  and  Molucca  islands, 
is  supposed  also  to  yield  part  of  the  cubebs  of  commerce, 
and  the  berries  of  G.  Wallichii  have  similar  properties. 
Cubebs  are  less  pungent,  and  more  pleasantly  aromatic 
than  black  pepper;  they  are  used  in  the  East  as  a  condi- 
ment, but  in  Europe  chiefly  for  medicinal  purposes;  they 
act  as  a  stimulant,  and  are  sometimes  useful  in  cases  of  in- 
digestion, also  in  chronic  catarrhs,  and  in  many  affections 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  particularly  those  of  the  urino- 
genital  system.  Cubebs  contain  a  principle  called  Cube- 
bine,  analogous  to  that  contained  in  pepper  {piperine). 
They  appear  to  have  been  known  in  Europe  from  ancient 
times.  In  1305,  Edward  I.  granted  to  the  corporation  of 
Loudon  the  power  of  levying  a  toll  of  one  farthing  on  every 
pound  of  cubebs  passing  over  London  Bridge. 

CUBICAL  NITRE,  kit'bl-kl  nl'Ur:  commercial  name 
for  nitrate  of  soda  (NaONOs):  see  Soda. 

CUBIC  EQUATION,  kii  bik  e-kwa'shim,  containing  but 
one  unknown  quanity:  equation  in  which  the  highest  ex- 
ponent of  the  quantity  in  any  term  is  3.  Every  such  equa- 
tion can  be  reduced  to  the  general  form  -\-  px  -\-  q  =  o, 
in  which  the  coefticient  of  is  1,  and  that  of  x^-  is  zero. 
Every  cubic  equation  of  this  form  has  three  roots,  all  of 
which  may  be  real,  or  one  only  may  be  real,  and  the  other 
two  imaginary.    The  roots  will  all  be  real,  whenp  is  es- 

sentially  negative,  and  ^  > numerically.  One  root  only 
will  be  real  when  p  is  essentially  positive,  or  when  it  is 
negative,  and  ^  ^  ^  numerically.     If  p  is  essentially 

negative,  and  —^  =  ^,  two  of  the  roots  are  equal.  When 

one  of  the  roots  only  is  real,  the  equation  may  be  solved 
by  the  following  formula,  known  as  Cardan's  formula: 


-;/-|+^(f  +  6)  +  t/-|-Kr+l> 

When  the  roots  are  all  real,  this  formula  fails  to  give  their 
values.  Methods  of  solving  C.  E.  are  to  be  found  in  most 
books  on  trigonometry  and  algebra.  They  all  are  trouble- 
some. For  the  theory  of  their  solution,  see  Yooing's 
Theory  of  Equations:  see  also  Equations. 

CUBICLE,  n.  ku'bi  kl  [L.  cubUe,  a  couch;  cumbo,  I  lie 
down] :  a  small  compartment  or  division  of  a  dormitory  for 
a  single  sleeper. 

CUBILE,  n.  ku'bt-le  [L.]:  in  masonry,  the  ground-work 
or  lowest  course  of  stones  in  a  building. 

CUBIT,  n.  ku'bit  [Gr.  kubiton,  the  elbow  or  bending  of 
the  arm— from  kupto,  I  bend :  L.  cubUum,  the  elbow,  bend- 
ing or  curvature  of  a  shore— from  cubdre,  to  lie  or  bow 
down:  It.  cubito:  comp.  Gael,  cub,  to  bend;  cnbacli,  ])ent]: 
ancient  measure,  equal  to  the  length  of  a  man's  arm  from 

216 


CUBOID— CUCKOO. 

the  elbow  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger;  its  precise 
length  is  not  known,  and  is  supposed  Lo  have  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times;  also  the  use  of  a  greater  and  a  less  cubit  is  in- 
ferred by  many  writers;  in  general  the  Hebrew  cubit  or 
ammali  seems  to  have  measured  from  abt.  18  in.  to  a  little 
more  than  22  in. ;  and  the  Roman  cubit  to  have  been  not 
far  from  18  inches;  in  anat.,  the  forearm.  Cu  bital,  a. 
-hi-tal,  of  the  length  or  measure  of  a  cubit;  pertaining  to 
the  elbow.  Cu  bited,  a.  -bl-ted,  having  the  measure  of  a 
cubit. 

CUBOID,  a.  kuhoyd:  see  under  Cube. 
CUCA:  see  Coca. 

CUCKING-STOOL,  n.  kuJc'tng-stol  [Manx,  cugh,  excre- 
ment in  children's  language:  L.  cacoj  Gr.  kakdd,  I  go  to 
stool:  Icel.  ciika,  to  goto  stool]:  chair  on  which  females 
for  certain  offenses,  as  for  brawling  and  scolding,  were  for- 
merly fastened  and  ducked:  see  Ducking  Stool.  Isote. — 
Cucking-stool  may  only  be  a  corrupt  spelling  for  Chuck- 
ING-STOOL— from  Scotch  chuck^  to  toss  or  throw  smartly 
out  of  the  hand. 

CUCKOLD;  see  under  Cuckoo. 

CUCKOO,  n.  kuk'kO  [F,  coucou,  the  cuckoo — from  L. 
cticulus,  the  cuckoo:  Gr.  kokku,  the  cry  of  a  cuckoo]:  a 
well-known  bird,  so  called  from  its  note  in  spring. 
CucKOO  SPIT,  or  -SPIT  TLE,  n.  a  frothy  matter  found  on 
plants,  containing  the  larva  of  the  frog-hopper.  Cuckold, 
n.  kak'vld  [OF.  coiicuol,  a  cuckold— from  coucou:  comp. 
Gael,  caochladh,  change]:  a  husband  whose  wife  is  false  to 
his  bed,  in  reference  to  the  cuckoo,  which  lays  its  eggs  in 
the  nests  of  other  birds.  Cuck  oldly,  a.  -11^  having  the 
qualities  of  a  cuckold;  poor;  mean;  cowardly.  Cuckold- 
maker,  one  who  corrupts  men's  wives.  Cuck'oldom,  n. 
act  of  adultery;  state  of  a  cuckold.  Cuck'odry,  n.  -ri, 
system  of  making  cuckolds.  Cuckoo-bees,  n.  plu.  bees  of 
the  family  Andrenklce,  genus  Nomada:  so  called  because  in- 
stead of  making  nests  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  cells  of 
other  bees.  They  are  elegant  in  form  and  brightly  colored. 
Cuckoo-bud,  the  Ranancalus  bulbdsus,  a  native  wild  plant, 
ord.  Ranunciddcem.  Cuckoo-flies,  name  often  given  to 
the  hymenoplerous  insects  called  Ichneumonides,  which  de- 
posit their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  insects  or  in  the  bodies 
of  their  larvae.  The  eggs  when  hatched  give  egress  to 
predator}^  larvae,  which  devour  the  insects  that  have 
sheltered  them.  Cuckoo-flower,  the  Carddm'lne  praten' - 
sis,  a  native  wild  flower,  ord.  Cruciferce.  Cuckoo-pint,  a 
native  poisonous  plant  called  Mords  and  ladies,'  or  the 
'  wake-robin  ';  the  Arum  mdcdldtum,  ord.  Ardcm. 

CUCKOO:  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  of  Climbers 
(q.v.);  type  of  a  family,  CucuUdce,  which  contains  a  large 
number  of  species,  mostly  confined  to  the  warmer  regions 
of  the  globe,  though  some  of  them  are  summer  visitants  of 
cold  climates.  The  beak  is  compressed  and  slightly 
arched,  and  the  tail  long  and  rounded,  the  wings  rather 
long,  the  tarsi  shc^rt^  two  toes  directed  forward,  and  t?w6 


CUCKOO. 

backward,  the  outer  bind-loe  capable  of  being  brought 
half  round  to  the  front.  The  feet  are  thus  adapted  for 
grasping  and  moving  about  upon  branches,  rather  than 
for  climbing,  and  the  long  tail  is  much  used  by  many  of 
the  species  for  balancing  the  body,  as  they  hop  from 
branch  to  branch  in  the  thick  tropical  woods  which  they 
frequent.  The  name  C.  is  derived  from  the  note  of  the 
male  of  the  Common  C.  {Guculus  canorus),  which,  although 
monotonous,  is  always  heard  with  pleasure,  being  associ- 
ated with  all  that  is  delightful  in  returning  spring.  A 
similiar  name  is  given  to  the  bird  in  many  languages. 
The  C.  is  very  widely  diffused;  it  is  found  in  India  and 
in  Africa,  and  migrates  northward  in  summer,  even  to 
Lapland  and  Kamtchatka.  It  appears  in  Britain  in  April, 
and  all  except  the  young  birds  are  believed  to  migrate 
southward  again  before  the  middle  of  August.  It  fre- 
quents both  cultivated  districts  and  moors.    There  is  no 


Common  Cuckoo  (Cuculus  canorus). 


pairing  or  continued  attachment  of  the  male  and  female, 
and  the  female,  after  having  laid  an  egg  on  the  ground, 
deposits  it,  with  her  beak,  in  the  nest  of  some  other  smaller 
bird,  leaving  the  egg  to  be  hatched  and  the  young  one  to 
be  fed  by  the  proper  owners  of  the  nest.  The  egg  of  the 
C.  is  very  small  for  so  large  a  bird,  being  not  larger  than 
the  skylark's,  and  the  number  she  will  lay  is  uncertain; 
but  the  young  one  soon  acquires  size  and  strength  enough 
to  eject  from  the  nest  any  eggs  which  may  remain  in  it, 
or  unfortunate  young  birds,  the  true  offspring  of  its  foster- 
parents,  and  it  seems  restless  and  uneasy  till  this  is  accom- 
plished. It  works  itself  under  them,  and  then  jerks  them 
out  by  a  motion  of  its  rump.  Its  back  at  this  early  age 
exhibits  a  peculiar  depression  between  the  shoulders,  so 
that  an  egg  or  a  young  bird  can  easily  be  got  to  lie  upon 
it;  but  this  depression  soon  disappears,  and  along  with  it 
the  singular  instinct  with  which  it  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
nected. The  hedge-sparrow,  the  yellow-hammer,  the 
pied  wagtail,  and  the  meadow  pipit,  are  among  the  birds 
most  frequently  selected  by  the  C.  as  its  substitutes  in  in- 
cubatitfei  and  the  care  of  its  young.    A  pair  of  meadow 

.  .298 


CUCUBALUS-CUCUMBEK. 

pipits  usually  accompany  the  cuckoo  wherever  it  goes. 
The  reason  of  this  curious  fellowship  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained.— Among  the  CuculidtB  of  N.  America,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  is  the  Yellow-billed  American  C,  some- 
times called  from  its  note  the  Cow-cow  or  Gow-Urd  {Coccy- 
zus  Americanus).  It  does  not  lay  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of 
other  birds,  but  builds  and  hatches  for  itself— exhibiting, 
however,  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  laying  its  eggs  at 
such  long  intervals,  that  a  very  evident  difference  of  age 
appears  among  the  young  in  the  same  nest. 

CUCUBALUS,  n.  ku-kuhal-us:  genus  of  plants,  ord. 
Caryophillacece,  tribe  Sileneca;  genus  of  jelly  fishes. 

CUCUJID^,  n.  kit  ku'ji-de  [mod.  L.  cucujus,  and  suf. 
-id(B] :  a  family  of  beetles.  Cucujus,  ku-kii  jus:  genus  of 
beetles,  typical  of  the  family  Cucujidoe. 

CUCULID^,  n.  plu.  ku-kul'i-de  [L.  cuculus,  and  suf. 
-td(p]:  family  of  scansorial  birds.  It  is  divided  into  five  sub- 
families: (1)  CucuUnoi  (true  Cuckoos),  (2)  CrotophagincB 
(Anis),  (3)  C'6>cc^^^7W^' (Hook-billed  Cuckoos),  (4)  Saurotherirm 
(Ground  Cuckoos),  (5)  Indicatomm  (Honey -guides).  See 
Cuckoo. 

CUCULLATE,  a.  ka-Mil'ldty  or  Cu'culla'ted,  a.  [L.  cu- 
cuUus,  a  cowl  or  hood:  It.  cucuUo]:  in  bot.,  formed  like  a 
hood;  covered  as  with  a  hood  or  cowl. 

CUCUMBER,  n.  kukum-her  [OF.  coucombre— from  L. 
cucumis  or  cacam'erem,  a  cucumber] :  genus  of  plants  of  the 
nat.  ord.  Gucurbitacece.  The  Common  C.  ((7.  sativus),  dis- 
tinguished by  heart- shaped,  acuminately  pentangular  leaves, 
which  are  rough  with  hairs  approaching  to  bristles,  and  ob- 
long fruit,  is  a  native  of  the  middle  and  south  of  Asia,  and 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  Its  fruit  is  an 
important  article  of  food  in  its  native  regions,  the  south  of 
Europe,  etc.,  and  an  esteemed  delicacy  in  colder  countries^ 
where  it  is  produced  by  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  Many 
varieties  are  in  cultivation,  with  fruit  from  four  inches  to 
two  ft.  long,  rough,  smooth,  etc.  Young  cucumbers  are 
much  used  for  pickling,  and  are  called  gherkins.  The  C. 
has  a  trailing  growth,  and  requires  a  sunny  situation,  and  a 
free  rich  soil. — To  this  genus  belong  other  species  valued 
for  their  edible  fruit.  G.  Anguria  is  a  W.  Indian  species, 
with  fruit  about  as  large  as  a  pullet's  egg,  much  esteemed 
as  an  ingredient  in  soups.  The  Snake  C.  (G.  flexuosus) 
grows  to  a  great  length,  and  is  similar  in  quality  to  the 
common  cucumber.  G.  serotinus  is  cultivated  in  Turkey, 
G.  macrocarpus  in  Brazil;  the  Conomon  {G.  conomon)  is 
much  cultivated  in  Japan.  For  the  Melon  {G.  melo),  Water 
Melon  {G.  citrullus),  Chate  {G.  chate),  and  Kaukoor  {G.  uti- 
lissimus),  see  Melon;  for  the  species  yielding  colocynth,  see 
CoLOCYNTH. — The  Dud  AIM  {G.  dudaim)  is  yerj  generdily 
cultivated  in  gardens  in  the  East  for  the  fragrance  of  its 
fruit,  which,  however,  is  almost  tasteless.  It  is  supposed 
that  this  plant  is  sometimes  meant  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  the  English  version  has  mandrake. — The  SpiRTma 
C,  Squirting  C,  or  Wild  C,  which  yields  the  drug 
called  Elaterium  (q  v.),  belongs  to  an  allied  genus, 

p9 


CUCUMBER-TREE-CUDBEAR. 

CUCUMBER-TREE:  forest  growth  of  the  United  States, 
of  the  magnolia  family,  native  of  the  Alleghany  mountain 
region,  though  found  in  many  states  between  Niagara  Falls 
and  Ga.  It  grows  tall,  with  foliage  of  a  darker  green  shade 
than  other  magnolias,  hears  small  light  green  flowers,  and 
fruit  similar  in  size  and  shape  to  the  edible  cucumber.  The 
fruit  Is  very  bitter,  and  its  expressed  juice  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  tonic  and  anti-rheumatic  medicine,  cosmetic, 
ointment,  and  pomade.  Pumps  and  boats,  especially  canoes, 
are  made  from  its  wood,  because  of  its  lightness. 

CUCURBIT,  n.  ku-ker'bit  [L.  and  It  cucurhita,  a  gourd: 
F.  cucui'bite]:  a  chemical  vessel  in  the  shape  of  a  gourd  hav- 
ing a  wide  mouth.  Cucurbita,  -M-ta,  typical  genus  of  the 
order  Cucurbitacece.  Cucur'bita'ceous,  a.  -bi-taslius,  re- 
sembling a  cucumber  or  gourd.  CucuR'BiTA'cE^,n.  -td'shl-e, 
nat.  ord.  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  herba- 
ceous plants,  natives  of  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe, 
having  succulent  stems  v^hich  climb  by  means  of  lateral 
tendrils.  There  are  some  shrubby  species.  The  fruit  ipepo) 
is  peculiar;  it  is  more  or  less  succulent,  has  a  thick  fleshy 
rind,  and  the  seed  bearing  parietal  placentse  either  surround- 
ing a  central  cavity,  or  sending  prolongations  inward.  The 
seeds  are  fiat  and  ovate,  embedded  in  a  sort  of  pulp,  which 
is  either  dry  or  juicy. — This  order  contains  about  300  species, 
very  many  of  which  yield  fruits  much  used  for  food  in 
v/arm  climates,  and  some  are  cultivated  in  colder  regions  as 
articles  of  luxury.  The  fruit  of  some  attains  a  very  large 
size.  To  this  order  belong  the  cucumber,  melon,  gourd  (of 
many  kinds),  pumpkin,  squash,  vegetable  marrow,  bottle 
gourd,  etc.  The  young  shoots  and  leaves  of  many  species 
are  used  also  as  potherbs;  and  the  roots  of  some  abound  in 
a  bland  fecula,  and  are  edible,  as  those  of  Momordica  cUoica 
and  Bryonia  umhellata,  E.  Indian  plants.  Yet  acridity  is  a 
prevailing  characteristic,  of  which  the  Spirting  Cucumber 
(see  Elaterium)  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  the  common 
Bryony  (q.v.)  are  examples.  These  are  not  without  their 
use  in  medicine,  but  still  more  im.portant  is  the  Colocynth 
(q.v.).— Among  the  more  interesting  species  of  this  order  is 
Hodgsonia  heterocUta,  a  gigantic  species,  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  growing  even  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  ft.  The 
seeds  of  some  C.  are  used  as  almonds,  and  yield  oil  by  ex- 
pression, as  those  of  Telfairia  pedata,  an  African  plant. 

CUD,  n.  kud  [AS.  cud,  what  is  chewed,  a  cud:  comp. 
Gael,  cuid,  a  small  piece,  a  bit:  Icel.  quidr,  the  womb,  the 
paunch:  Esthon.  koM,  the  belly]:  the  food  which  a  ruminat- 
ing animal,  as  the  cow  or  sheep,  throws  up  from  its  first 
stomach  to  chew  at  leisure.  Cud'chewing,  applied  to 
ruminating  animals  To  chew  the  cud,  fig,  to  refiect, 
as  to  chew  the  cud  of  bitter  refiection. 

CUDBEAR,  n.  kud'bdr  [after  Dr.  Cuthbert  Gordon  under 
whose  management  the  manufacture  was  begun  in  Leith, 
Scotland,  abt.  1777]:  purple  or  violet  dyestuff  similar  to 
Archil  (q.v.)  and  Litmus  (q.v.),  and  obtained  in  the  same 
manner  from  lichens  by  the  action  of  ammoniacal  liquids. 
It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  purple  dye  for  woolen  yarn,  but  the 

8(0 


CUDDALORE-CUDDAPAH. 

color  is  rather  fugitive.  The  name  C,  or  C.  Lichen,  is 
often  appropriated  to  one  particular  species  of  lichen,  Leca- 
nova  tartarea,  which  is  abundant  on  rocks  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  and  in  the  Alpine  and  n.  districts  of  Europe, 
and  from  which  the  dyestuff  C.  is  usually  obtained  by 
maceration  for  10  or  12  days  in  urine  with  water  and  chalk. 
The  species  of  the  genus  Lecanora  are  crustaceous  lichens, 
with  a  flat  uniform  thallus,  and  unstalked  shields.  L.  tar- 
tar ea  forms  a  thick,  granulated,  and  tartareous  grayish- 


Cudbear  {Lecanora  tartarea). 


white  crust,  with  scattered  yellowish -brown  shields.  It  is 
sometimes  called  White  Swedish  Moss,  being  largely  im- 
ported from  Sweden. 

CUDDALORE,  kiid-da-lar' :  chief  town  in  the  s.  division 
of  Arcot  (q  v.);  one  of  the  few  seaports  on  the  Coromandel, 
or  e.  coast  of  Hindustan.  It  is  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Southern  Pennaur,  a  considerable  tributary  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal;  lat.  IV  43'  n.,  and  long.  79°  50  e.  It  is  15  m.  s. 
of  Pondicherry,  and  100  s.  of  Madras.  Though  the  river 
itself  is  beset  by  a  bar,  which  admits  vessels  only  of  moder- 
ate size,  yet  there  is  good  anchorage  off-shore  at  the  distance 
of  a  mile  and  a  half.  The  site  is  not  more  than  5  ft.  above ' 
high- water  mark;  nevertheless  the  climate  is  said  to  be 
peculiarly  healthful.  C.  was  formerly  a  place  of  great 
strength ;  and  in  that  respect  it  was  frequently  an  object  of 
contention  in  the  desolating  wars  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  18th  c.  In  1758,  it  was  taken  by  the  French  from  the 
English,  who  had  held  it  for  77  years;  and,  after  various 
Intermediate  vicissitudes,  it  was  finally  ceded  to  its  original 
possessors,  1783.    Pop.  (1881)  43,545. 

CUDDAPAH,  kud'dd-pd:  district  in  the  presidency  of 
Madras;  lat.  from  13°  12'  to  16°  19'  n.,  and  long,  from  77°  52' 
to  79°  48'  e. ;  8,745  sq.  m.  Sloping  toward  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
the  counti'y  ranges,  in  general  elevation  above  the  sea, 
between  1,182  and  450  ft.  C.  is  traversed  in  its  length  from 
n.  to  s.  by  numerous  parallel  ridges,  part  of  the  Eastern 
Ghauts — some  of  the  peaks  rising  3,500  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  maximum,  mean,  and  minimum  temperatures  are  said 
to  be  respectively  98°,  81°,  and  65°  F.    In  the  hot  season, 

301 


CUDDAPAH-CUDWEEI). 

the  climate  is  understood  to  be  peculiarly  trying  to  European 
constitutions.  The  most  striking  feature  in  the  physicjd 
character  of  the  district  is  the  remains  of  diamond  mines, 
now  abandoned,  and  probably  exhausted,  about  seven  m. 
from  the  capital.  C.  was  ceded  to  Britain  1800;  and  in  1846 
it  was  the  scene  of  serious  disturbances,  occasioned  by  an 
unwise  interference  on  the  part  of  government  with  the 
prescriptive  titles  to  landed  property.  Pop.  (1881)  1,121,038. 

GUDDAPAH:  a  native  town  with  a  military  cantonment 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  from  which  it  lies  about  140 
m.  n.w.  It  is  507  ft.  above  the  sea;  near  the  right  or  south 
bank  of  the  Northern  Pennaur,  which  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  Lat.  14°  32'  n.,  and  long.  78''  52  e.  The  native 
town  itself  claims  notice  merely  as  the  cap.  of  the  dist.  of 
its  own  name;  and  the  military  cantonment,  pleasantly 
overhanging  the  Bogawanka,  an  auxiliary  of  the  Pennaur, 
contains  barracks  for  Europeans,  and  spacious  lines  for 
sepoys.    Pop.  17,000. 

CUDDLE,  V.  Mid'l  [a  corruption  of  OE,  coutUle,  to  be 
frequently  familiar — from  couth,  well-known:  Dan.  kudde, 
a  flock:  old  Dut.  kudden,  to  come  together:  comp.  Gael. 
cadail,  sleep,  rest  in  bed] :  to  embrace  so  as  to  keep  warm ; 
to  fondle;  to  lie  close  and  snug.  Cud  dling,  imp.  Cud- 
dled, pp.  kud'ld, 

CUDDY  or  Cuddie,  n.  Mid'dl  [Gael.  euidicTi,  to  assist 
in  farm  work,  to  help:  probably  a  familiar  corruption  of 
Guthbert]:  a  farm  laborer;  a  boor;  a  donkey -driver;  a 
donkey;  a  three-legged  stool  employed  as  a  fulcrum  on 
laying  or  repairing  railway  lines;  the  coal-fish— one  of  the 
cod-fish  family.  JVote. — The  coal-fish  is  popularly  called  a 
cuddy,  from  the  corruption  of  ctUh  =  cud,  the  name  of  the 
young  of  the  coal-fish  in  its  first  year,  the  Icel.  dtli,  hav- 
ing been  treated  as  if  an  Eng.  d^ 

CUDDY,  n.  kuddi  [probably  a  contraction  of  cuddle,  to 
lie  close  and  snug:  W.  caued,  shut  up  or  inclosed]:  name 
applied  first  in  E.  India  trading  ships  to  a  cabin  under  the 
poop,  where  the  men  messed  and  slept;  afterward  to  the 
only  cabin  in  very  small  vessels;  and  sometimes  to  the 
cooking-room,  or  even  any  small  low-roofed  apartment  on 
shore. 

CUDGEL,  n.  kiij'el  [Gael,  cuigeal,  a  distaff — from  cuaille, 
a  club:  Ir.  cuigeal,  and  coigeal,  a  distaff — from  cuaill,  a 
pole:  W.  cogyl,  a  cudgel;  cogail,  a  distaff]:  a  short  thick 
stick  of  wood  which  may  be  held  in  the  hand  and  used  as  a 
weapon:  V.  to  beat  with  a  thick  stick.  Cudg  elling,  imp. 
Cudg'elled,  pp.  -eld.    Cudg'eller,  n.  one  who. 

CUDWEED,  n.  kud'wed  [probably  a  contraction  of  cotton- 
weedy,  popular  name  of  many  species  of  plants  of  the  gen- 
era GnapJialium,  Filago,  and  Antennaria,  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Compositce,  sub-order  Corymbiferce,  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
which  are  more  or  less  covered  with  a  whitish  cottony 
down;  and  the  heads  of  flowers  consist,  in  great  part,  of 
dry  involucral  scales,  and  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time 
without  undergoing  much  apparent  change,  so  that  they 


CUDWORTH— CUE. 

m^y  he  reckoned  ^mong  Everlasting  Flowers  (q.v.)  The 
cudweeds  are  small  plants  of  unpretending  appearance. 
Anteiinaria  dioica,  sometimes  called  Cat's  foot,  is  frequent 
in  dry  mountain  pastures;  its  heads  of  tiowers,  from  the 
appearance  of  which  it  derives  this  name,  were  formerly 
othciual,  and  were  employed  as  an  astringent  in  pectoral 
diseases. 

CUDWORTH,  kud'w(yrtli,  Ralph,  d.d.:  1617-1688,  July 
26;  b.  AUer,  in  Somersetshire,  England.  He  was  admitted 
pensioner  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  1630,  where 
he  took  his  degrees  m.a.,  and  became  an  eminent  tutor. 
About  1641  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  North  Cad- 
bury,  Somersetshire;  and  1644,  upon  taking  his  degree  of 
B.D.,  maintained  two  theses,  in  w^hich  can  be  discerned 
the  germs  of  his  Intellectual  System.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  master  of  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  1645, 
1  egius  prof,  of  Hebrew;  after  w'hich  he  began  to  apply  him- 
self assiduously  to  the  study  of  Jewish  antiquities.  In 
1651,  he  took  his  degree  d.d.;  1654,  was  chosen  master  of 
Christ's  College;  1662,  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  Ashwell; 
1678,  installed  prebendary  of  Gloucester.  He  died  at  Christ's 
College, 

C'^  magnum  opus,  entitled  The  True  Intellectual  System 
of  the  Universe,  was  published  1678.  It  is  a  w^ork  of  great 
learning,  acuteness,  and  loftiness  of  thought;  but  some,  at 
the  time,  thought  that  C.  exhibited  too  much  impartiality 
in  stating  the  atheistic  arguments.  Dryden  said  *  that  he 
raised  such  strong  objections  against  the  being  of  a  God 
and  Providence,  that  many  thought  he  had  not  answered 
them.'  Lord  Shaftesbury  and  Bayle  were  of  this  opinion 
also.  The  accusation  of  impartiality — a  rare  offense  in 
those  contentious  days — is  not  likely  to  lessen  modern  ad- 
miration of  Cudwor'th.  The  philosophy  to  w^hich  he  was 
attached  was  that  of  Plato,  and,  in  consequence,  he  esti- 
mated highly  the  writings  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  to 
which  his  own  bear  some  resemblance.  The  obloquy  to 
w^hich  his  adventurous  studies  exposed  him,  does  not  seem 
to  have  greatly  affected  him.  Besides  The  Intellectual  Sys- 
tem, C.  left  in  MS.  A  Treatise  concerning  Eternal  and  Immut- 
able Morality,  published  by  Dr.  Chandler,  Bp,  of  Durham, 
1731;  forming,  or  intended  to  form,  the  second  part  of  The 
Intellectual  System;  also  a  discourse  On  Liberty  and  Neces- 
sity, On  Moral  Good  and  Evil,  On  the  Creation  of  the  World 
and  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  etc.  These  mss.  are  now  in 
the  British  Museum. 

CUE,  n.  ku  [F.  queue,  a  tail,  a  handle]:  a  braided  tress 
of  long  hair,  growing  from  the  crown  of  the  head,  and 
dangling  down  the  back;  the  end  of  a  thing;  the  last  words 
of  the  preceding  speech  written  with  the  speech  of  an  actor, 
in  order  to  let  him  know  when  he  is  to  proceed  with  his 
part,  marked  with  the  letter  Q  as  an  abbreviated  form;  a 
hint;  an  intimation;  a  short  direction;  the  straight  rod  used 
at  billiards;  humor,  as  to  be  in  the  cue.  Note. — The  ob- 
solete cue,  meaning  '  a  farthing,'  arose  from  the  sound  of  the 
letter     the  initial  of  L.  quadrans,  a  fourth  part,  a  farthing. 


CUENCA— CUFF. 

CUENCA,  to^Ti'H;  mountainous, well-watered  province 
of  Spain;  yielding  excellent  timber,  honey,  wine,  and 
grain,  with  good  pasture,  and  various  minerals,  including 
iron,  coal,  copper,  and  silver;  6,722  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1887) 
237,497. 

CUENCA:  city  of  Spain,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Jucar 
and  Huecar,  about  midway  between  Valencia  and  Madrid. 
It  is  romantically  situated  on  a  rocky  eminence,  3,400  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  surrounded  by  hills.  It  appears 
to  have  derived  its  name  [L.  concha,  a  shell]  from  its  posi- 
tion and  appearance.  Ford  says  it  is  'indeed  a  hill-girt 
slielL'  The  town  is  of  Moorish  origin.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  crooked.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
the  bishop's  palace,  and  a  fine  bridge  over  the  Jucar  (erected 
1523),  connecting  the  city  with  the  convent  of  San  Pablo. 
C.  was  celebrated  for  arts,  literature,  and  industry,  but  its 
glory  has  now  quite  departed.  It  sulfered  much  during 
the  Peninsular  campaign.    Pop.  8,200. 

CUENCA:  city  of  Ecuador,  S.  America;  on  a  wide  plain 
or  table-land,  8,640  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  85  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Quito,  cap.  of  the  republic;  lat.  1^°  s. — its  proximity 
to  the  equator  being  largely  neutralized,  with  regard  to 
climate,  by  its  altitude.  It  has  a  cathedral  and  a  univer- 
sity.   Pop.  estimated  30,000. 

CUEVA,  toa'm,  Beatriz  de  la:  d.  1541,  Sep.  11;  b. 
Spain:  wife  of  Pedro  de  Alvarado.  She  was  the  second 
wife  of  the  conqueror  of  Guatemala,  and  after  his  death, 
1541,  July,  was  elected  to  succeed  him  as  head  of  the  govt, 
by  the  council  of  the  colony.  The  day  after  her  inaugura- 
tion she  was  killed  during  the  destruction  of  the  city  by 
earthquake  and  flood. 

CUEYA  DE  VERA,  kwd'm  da  m'rd  :  town  of  Spain, 
province  of  Granada,  42  m.  n.e.  of  Almeria;  on  a  plain  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Almanzor,  near  its  entrance  into  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  generally  well  built,  and  its  streets 
are  regular.  The  principal  edifices  are  an  old  Moorish 
castle,  and  the  parish  church  in  the  Doric  style.  C  has 
manufactures  of  hardware,  earthenware,  and  of  wine  and 
oil;  and  many  persons  are  employed  in  mines  in  the  vicin- 
ity.   Pop.  20,644. 

CUEVAS  DAYALOS,  kwd'vds  dd~m'lds,  Alonzo:  1590, 
Nov.  25—1665,  Sep.  2;  b.  Mexico  City:  Rom.  Cath.  bp. 
He  was  educated  at  San  Ildefonso  College,  and  became 
prof,  of  theology  in  the  Univ.  of  Mexico,  first  prebend  of 
the  Puebla  Cathedral  1635,  bp.  of  Oaxaca,  and  abp.  of 
Mexico  City  1664.  He  was  the  first  native  Mexican  exalted 
by  the  church  to  that  high  ofiice,  and  noted  for  his  chari- 
tal)le  and  educational  labors  as  well  as  for  his  rare  execu- 
tive abilities. 

CUFF,  n.  kuf  [Hamburg,  kuffen,  to  box  the  ears:  It. 
schiaffo,  a  cuff,  a  clap  with  the  hand  on  the  check:  Sw. 
/cuffa,  to  thrust,  to  knock]:  a  blow  with  the  clenched  hand 
or  fist;  a  box  or  stroke;  V.  to  strike  with  the  fiet  or  clenched 

2b'4  • 


CUFF— CUIRASS. 

hand,  or  with  wings,  as  a  bird.  Cuf  fing,  imp.  Cuffed, 
pp.  kaft. 

CUFF,  n.  huf  [Dan.  Map,  a  flap:  Sw.  klaff,  anything 
that  hangs  broad  and  loose:  OF.  coeffe,  head-dress]:  the 
part  of  a  sleeve  which  flaps  or  claps  back;  a  wrist-band. 

CUFFEE,  kr<f  'fe,  Paul:  1757-1812,  Mar.  7;  b.  Montauk, 
L.  L:  Indian  preacher.  He  belonged  to  the  Shinnecock 
tribe  of  Indians  which  at  one  time  occupied  a  large  part  of 
Long  Island,  was  educated  by  the  New  York  Missionary^ 
Soc,  and  was  the  fourth  missionary  employed  by  it  for* 
service  in  his  tribe.  He  was  a  man  of  great  activity  and 
influence,  and  preached  among  his  people  with  considera- 
ble success  for  13  years. 

CUFFEE,  Paul:  1759-1818,  Sep.  7;  b.  near  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass.:  son  of  a  Negro  slave  and  an  Indian  mother- 
At  an  early  age  he  became  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  adopted  a  sea-faring  life,  in  which  he  gained 
wealth.  He  subsequently  applied  much  of  his  time  and 
money  to  the  colonization  of  liberated  American  slaves  on 
the  w.  coast  of  Africa;  visited  the  region  in  his  own  ship 
to  select  a  location,  1811,  andtook  out  and  establisheda  col- 
ony, 1815.  He  died  while  negotiating  with  the  British 
govt,  for  permission  to  locate  similar  colonies  in  Sierra 
Leone. 

CUFIC,  a.  kuflk  [from  Cufa,  the  city  where  it  was  most 
early  in  use]:  an  Arabic  alphabet  so  called:  see  Kufic 
Writing. 

CUI  BONO?  kV  bond  [L.  for  whose  good?]:  a  common 
expression  signifying,  '  for  whose  benefit?'  often  improp- 
erly used  in  the  sense  of,  'what's  the  good?  what's  the 
use?' 

CUICHU;^{CHUL'  (lonidium  parmjkyi'um) :  Peruvian 
plant  of  the  nat.  ord.  Yiolacm,  half-shrubby,  with  minute 
leaves,  possessing  very  active  emetic  and  purgative  proper- 
ties, and  said  to  be  a  certain  remedy  for  Elepliantiasis 
tuherculata.  Other  species  of  lonidium  share  the  same  name, 
properties,  and  reputation.  One  of  them  was  formerly 
supposed  to  yield  ipecacuanha,  and  its  root  is  still  known 
as  White  ipecacuanha:  see  Ipecacuanha. 

CUINAGE,  n.  kwln'dj  [a  corruption  of  coinage]-,  the 
stamping  of  pigs  of  tin  with  the  arms  of  the  duchy  of  Corn- 
wall. 

CUIRASS,  n.  kwi-rds'  [F.  cuirasse — from  cuir,  leather — 
from  It.  corazza — from  mid.  L.  cordtid,  a  breastplate — from 
L.  cormm,  hide,  leather]:  originally  a  jerkin,  or  garment  of 
leather  for  soldiers,  so  thick  and  strong  as  to  be  pistol-proof, 
and  even  musket-proof;  afterward,  a  portion  of  armor 
made  of  metal,  consisting  of  a  back-plate  and  breast-plate 
hooked  or  buckled  together;  with  a  piece  jointed  to  the 
back  called  a  culet  or  garde  de  reines.  Cuirassiers,  n.  kwi- 
rds-ser',  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary,  heavy  horsemen  wear- 
ing body-armor  over  buff-coats.  They  carried  swords  and 
pistols,  and  the  reins  were  strengthened  with  iron  chains. 
In  modern  armies,  the  name  is  often  given  to  the  heaviest 

305 


CUISINE-CUJACIUB. 

cavalry.  Napoleon's  12  regiments  of  cuirassiers  attracted 
much  attention  during  his  wars.  The  first  rank  of  Russian 
cuirassiers  are  armed  with  Lmces.  The  only  cuirassiers  in 
the  British  army  (wearing  tlie  cuirass)  are  the  Life  Guards 
(red)  and  Horse  Guards  (blue);  and  in  these  the  cuirass  is 
rather  for  show  than  for  use. 

CUISINE,  kwi-zen  [F.  cuisine — from  It.  ciicina;  Sp. 
cocina — from  mid.  L.  coquina  or  cocina,  a  kitchen— from 
L.  coquo,  I  boil,  I  cook:  comp.  AS.  cycene,  a  kitchen];  the 
kitchen;  the  cooking  department. 

CUISSE,  n.  kiois,  or  CuiSH,  n.  kicisJi  [F.  cuisse,  the  thigh, 
the  leg — from  L.  coxa,  the  hip]:  in  OE.,  ancient  armor  for 
troopers,  consisting  of  small  strips  of  iron  plate  riveted 
horizontally  upon  one  another  over  the  thigh — generally  in 
plu.  Cuiss  Es  and  Cuish  es,  also  Cuissarts. 

CUJACIUS,  ku-jd'shi-us,  properly  Jacques  de  Cujas, 
or  CuJEUs:  distinguished  jurist:  1522-1590,  Oct.  4;  son  of 
a  tanner  of  Toulouse.  After  studying  law,  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  the  same  at  Cahors  (1554),  and  in  the  following 
year,  by  the  recommendation  of  the  Chancellor  L'Hopital, 
gained  the  chair  of  law  in  the  univ.  of  Bourges.  In  1557, 
he  became  prof,  at  Valence.  After  several  changes,  he 
returned  to  Bourges,  1577,  where  he  resided  till  his  death. 

His  great  reputation  as  a  jurist  was  founded  on  his  study 
of  original  mss.  of  the  Roman  laws,  and  on  his  classical 
treatment  of  these  authorities.  He  had  in  his  library  500 
MSS.  on  Roman  law,  and  by  his  emendations  contributed 
greatly  to  remove  the  obscurities  of  jurisprudence.  A 
complete  collection  of  his  w^orks  was  edited  by  Fabrot  (10 
vols.  Par.  1658),  and  has  since  been  republished  frequent- 
ly. Uhl  has  edited  ^Q^^2LmiQ\j  C.'^  Animadversiones  et  Ob- 
sermtiones.  C.'s  daughter  made  herself  notorious  by  her 
immoralities.  See  Spangen  berg's  C.  und  seine  Zeitgenossen 
(Leip.  1822). 

306 


CULDEE. 

CULDEE,  n.  kalde,  also  Keldee  [Gael.  Cuilteach,  a 
Caldee:  Ir.  ceilede,  a  servant  of  God,  a  Culdee:  Gael,  gille 
Be,  servant  of  God:  mid.  L.  CaldU,  corrupted  from  L.  cut- 
tar  Dei  ^  a  worshipper  of  God]-  ancient  monkish  priest 
whose  order  ministered  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales, 
and  are  thought  to  be  traceable  at  one  or  two  points  in 
England.  Culdean,  a.  kal-dedn,  pertaining  to  the  anc.  Cul- 
deesor  their  doctrines.— The  word  Culdee  seems  of  Celtic 
origin,  and  in  the  Irish  language  signiHes  an  '  attendant  of 
God.'  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  writing  toward  the  end  of 
the  12th  c,  w^hen  the  order  still  flourished,  interprets  the 
name  in  one  place  by  the  Latin  word  codicola,  i.e.,  '  wor- 
shipper of  heaven;'  and  in  another  by  cmlebs,  i.e.  '  single,' 
or  *  unmarried.'  Boece  and  Buchanan,  in  the  16th  c, 
translate  it  cultores  Dei,  i.e.  '  worshippers  of  God.' 

There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  first  appearance  of 
the  order.  There  is  no  trace  of  it  in  the  w^orks  of  Adamnan, 
of  Bede,  of  Alcuin,  or  of  any  other  ecclesiastical  historian 
of  the  8th  or  9th  c.  An  abbot  and  bishop  of  the  north  of 
Ireland,  who  compiled  a  metrical  calendar  of  Irish  saints 
about  A.D.  800,  was  know^n  in  his  own  time  as  *  ^ngus  the 
Ceile-De.'  But  it  has  been  questioned  whether  the  title 
was  not  used  rather  to  denote  his  great  personal  piety,  than 
to  describe  his  ecclesiastical  character.  The  Four  Mas- 
ters, again,  in  their  Annals  of  Ireland,  compiled  about 
1636,  record  certain  great  wonders  wrought  by  a  Ceile-De 
in  the  year  806.  But  no  such  event  is  recorded  in  the  an- 
cient chronicles  from  which  the  Four  Masters  compiled 
their  w^ork,  and  Irish  antiquaries  think  that  the  passage 
must  therefore  be  rejected  as  apocryphal.  But  in  Irish  an- 
nals of  undoubted  authority,  it  is  chronicled  that,  in  919, 
*  a  Ceile-De  came  across  the  sea  westw^ard  to  establish  laws 
in  Ireland;'  in  other  words,  as  Irish  archeologists  conject- 
ure, to  bring  the  Irish  into  conformity  with  the  rule  for 
canons  which  had  been  enacted  in  816,  at  the  council  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  annals  of  Ulster  record  that,  in  920, 
Armagh  was  plundered  by  Godfrey,  son  of  Ivor,  the  Dane, 
but  that  he  spared  the  oratories  with  the  C.  and  the  sick. 
^  The  Culdees  of  Armagh,  who  thus  appear  in  the  beginning 
of  the  10th  c,  survived  till  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c. 
Abp.  Usher  (died  1655)  writes  that  they  continued  until 
within  his  owm  memory.  They  were  secular  priests  or 
canons,  about  12  in  number,  living  in  community,  under 
the  rule  of  a  prior,  who — after  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
c,  when  the  metropolitan  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  was  re- 
modelled after  the  English  fashion — officiated  as  precen- 
tor, his  Culdees  being  the  clerks  or  choir.  The  antipho- 
nary  or  service-book,  with  the  musical  notation,  from  w^hich 
they  sang,  is  still  preserved  in  the  library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin;  and  its  calendar  records  the  deaths  of  several 
of  their  number,  one  of  them  so  lately  as  1574.  The  prior 
seems  generally  to  have  been  a  pluralist,  it  having  been 
formally  ruled  in  1448,  after  an  appeal  to  Rome,  *  that  the 
l)riory  of  the  college  of  secular  priests,  commonly  called 
Culdees,  being  a  simple  office,  and  without  cure  of  souls, 
is  not  incompatible  with  a  benefice.'   The  Culdees  of  Ar- 

.307 


CULDEE. 

magh,  dissolved  at  the  Reformation,  1541,  were  resuscitated 
for  a  brief  space,  1627.  Their  old  possessions — among 
which  were  seven  town-lands  containing  1,423  acres,  seven 
rectories,  and  four  vicarages  —  were,  1634,  bestowed 
upon  the  vicars  choral  of  the  cathedral,  who  still  hold 
them. 

There  were  at  least  seven  other  houses  of  Culdees  in  Ire- 
land, viz.,  at  Clonmacnois,  Clondalkin,  Devenish,  Clones, 
Popull,  Monanincha,  and  Sligo. 

If  tradition  be  trusted,  the  first  appearance  of  Culdees 
in  Scotland  should  be  placed  about  the  middle  of  the  9th 
c.  A  leaf  of  the  Register  of  St.  Andrews,  written  about 
1130,  relates  that  Brude,  the  son  of  Dergard,  last  king  of 
the  Picts  (ceased  to  reign  about  843),  gave  the  island,  since 
called  St.  Serf's  Inch,  in  Lochleven,  to  God,  St.  Servan, 
and  the  Culdee  hermits  serving  God  there.  They  were 
governed  by  an  abbot,:  and  about  1093,  during  the  rule  of 
Abbot  Ronan,  they  gave  up  their  island  to  the  Bp.  of  St. 
Andrews,  on  condition  that  he  should  find  them  in  food 
and  raiment.  They  had  grants  of  lands  or  immunities 
from  all  the  kings  of  the  Scots  who  reigned  1039-1153, 
the  roll  of  these  royal  benefactors  being  headed  by  the  re- 
nowned Macbeth  (1039-56)  and  his  wife  Gruoch,  daughter 
of  Bodbe.  They  had  a  grant  of  a  church  from  each  of  the 
three  bishops  who  ruled  the  see  of  St.  Andrews,  1040-93; 
and  about  1120,  they  had  a  grant  of  lands  from  one  of  the 
sons  of  King  Malcolm  Canmore  and  St.  Margaret — Ethel- 
red,  Earl  of  Fife,  and  hereditary  lay-abbot  of  the  Culdee 
monastery  of  Dunkeld„  A  few  years  afterward,  the  Bp. 
of  St.  Andrews  gives  their  island,  and  all  their  possessions, 
including  their  church  vestments  and  their  books,  to  the 
newly  founded  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Andrews,  in  order 
that  a  priory  of  that  rule  might  supplant  the  old  abbey  of 
Culdees  in  St..  Serf's  Inch.  About  1140,  the  bishop's  grant 
was  enforced  by  a  charter  from  King  David,  in  which  it 
was  ordered  that  such  of  the  Culdees  as  chose  to  live  ca- 
nonically  and  peacefully  under  the  new  canons  should  re- 
main in  the  island.  '  If  any  one  of  them  refuse  so  to  do,* 
says  the  king,  '  my  will  is,  and  I  command,  that  he  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  island.'  We  hear  no  more  of  the  Culdee 
hermits  of  Lochleven.  The  Canons  Regular  who  came  in 
their  place  continued  till  the  Reformation,  and  we  are  in- 
debted to  one  of  their  priors,  Andrew  W^Titoun  (died 
about  1429)  for  a  valuable  metrical  Chronicle  of  Scotland. 
A  catalogue  of  the  books  of  the  Culdee  abbey,  when  it  was 
bestowed  upon  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Andrews,  about 
1140,  has  been  preserved.  The  number  of  volumes  was 
not  quite  20.  They  were — a  Pastoral,  a  Gradual,  a  Missal, 
some  of  the  works  of  Origen,  the  Sentences  of  St.  Bernard 
(still  living),  a  Treatise  on  the  Sacraments,  in  three  parts, 
a  part  of  the  Bible,  a  Lectionary,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
the  Gospels,  the  works  of  Prosper,  the  books  of  Pioverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles,  a  Gloss  on  the  Canticles,  a 
work  caWed  Interp7'etationes  .DlQiionum,  a  Collection  of  Sen- 
tences, a  Commentary  on  Genesis,  and  a  Treatise  on  the 
Exceptions  from  Ecclesiastical  Rules. 

30tJ 


CULDEE. 

The  Culdees  of  St.  Audiews  were  of  more  importance, 
and  not  perhaps  of  less  antiquity,  than  those  of  Lochleven. 
The  death  of  an  abbot  of  St.  Andrews  is  chronicled  by  the 
Irish  annals  in  747.  It  is  not  said  that  he  was  a  Culdee; 
but  in  944,  when  Constantine,  king  of  Scots,  exchanged 
his  crown  for  a  monk's  cowl,  it  is  recorded  that  he  became 
'abbot  of  the  Culdees  of  St.  Andrews.'  No  more  is  heard 
of  them  till  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  c.  A  priory  of 
Canons  Regular  had  now  been  planted  beside  them,  and 
from  its  records  we  learn  that  in  the  church  of  St.  An- 
drew, such  as  it  then  was,  there  were  13  Culdees  holding 
their  office  by  hereditary  tenure,  and  '  living  rather  ac- 
cording to  their  own  pleasure  and  the  traditions  of  men, 
than  after  the  rules  of  the  holy  fathers;'  that  some  few 
things  of  little  importance  they  possessed  in  common; 
that  the  rest,  including  what  was  of  most  value,  they  held 
as  their  private  property,  each  enjoying  what  he  got 
from  relatives  and  kinsmen,  or  from  the  benevolence 
granted  on  the  tenure  of  pure  friendship,  or  otherwise; 
that  after  they  became  Culdees  they  were  forbidden  to 
have  their  wives  in  their  houses,  or  any  other  women  of 
whom  evil  suspicion  could  arise;  that  the  altar  of  St.  An- 
drew was  left  without  a  minister,  nor  was  mass  celebrated 
there  except  on  the  rare  occasion  of  a  visit  from  the  king 
or  the  bishop,  for  the  Culdees  said  their  own  otfice  after 
their  own  way  in  a  corner  of  the  church.  The  attempt  to 
supplant  the  Culdees  by  Canons  Regular,  which  had  suc- 
ceeded at  Lochleven,  was  repeated  at  St.  Andrews,  but 
failed.  The  Culdees  kept  their  own  church — St.  Mary's, 
or  the  Kirk  of  the  Heugh — and  had  a  voice  with  the  Can- 
ons Regular  in  the  election  of  the  bishop.  Their  abbot 
disappears  about  the  middle  of  the  11th  c. ;  and  soon  after- 
ward their  '  prior '  exchanges  that  title  for  the  name  of 
'  provost.'  Their  distinctive  character  was  gradually  pass- 
ing away;  before  the  end  of  the  14th  c.  they  lose  their 
share  in  the  election  of  the  bishop;  their  name  of  Culdee 
is  heard  no  more;  their  church,  about  the  same  time,  takes 
the  name  of  the  King's  Chapel-royal;  and  henceforth  there 
remains  nothing  to  distinguish  them  from  the  secular 
priests  of  other  collegiate  churches. 

The  Culdees  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  at  Monymusk, 
in  Aberdeenshire,  appear  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Bp. 
of  St.  Andrews  toward  the  end  of  the  11th  c.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  c.  they  are  found  making  claim  to 
be  regarded  as  Canons  Regular.  The  claim  was  resisted 
by  the  Bp.  of  St.  Andrews,  and  1211,  after  an  appeal  to 
Rome,  the  dispute  was  settled  by  a  compromise,  which 
provided  that  there  should  be  13  Culdees  at  Monymusk,  of 
whom  one — to  be  chosen  by  the  bishop  from  a  list  of  three 
presented  by  the  other  Culdees — should  be  the  master  or 
prior;  that  they  should  have  a  refectory,  a  common 
dormitory,  and  an  oratory,  but  no  cemetery;  that  they 
should  not  adopt  the  monastic  or  canonical  life  or  rule 
without  leave  of  the  bishop;  and  that  when  he  came  to 
Monymusk,  he  should  be  received  by  the  Culdees  in  solemn 
procession.    Before  this  agreement  is  50  years  old,  the 

309 


CULDEE. 

name  of  Culdees  disappears  from  Moiiymusk,  and  their 
house  is  recognized  as  a  priory  of  Canons  Regular. 

Culdees  are  found  at  Abernethy,  in  Strathearn,  about 
1120.  In  the  end  of  that  c,  their  possessions  appear  to 
have  been  divided  between  their  hereditary  lay -abbot  (the 
founder  of  the  noble  family  of  Abernethy)  and  the  prior 
and  Culdees  by  whom  the  burden  of  the  ecclesiastical 
ofiices  was  borne.  In  1273,  they  were  transformed  into 
Canons  Regular.  The  same  partition  of  the  Culdee 
revenues  which  appears  at  Abernethy,  is  found  at  Brechin. 
A  layman,  abbot  only  in  name,  inherits  a  large  share  of  the 
Culdee  patrimony,  and  transmits  it  to  his  descendants, 
who  soon  lose  even  the  name  of  abbot.  The  prior  and  his 
Culdees,  meanwhile,  are  absorbed  into  the  chapter  of  the 
new  bishopric,  founded  at  Brechin  by  King  David  L, 
about  1145;  in  less  than  a  hundred  years,  the  name  of 
Culdees  disappears,  and  the  chapter  is  one  wholly  of  secular 
canons.  The  same  silent  change  of  Culdees  into  secular 
canons,  which  took  place  at  Brechin  during  the  13th 
c,  took  place  also  at  Dunblane,  at  Dunkeld,  at  Lismore, 
at  Rossmarky,  and  at  Dornoch.  Culdees  are  found 
in  the  bishop's  chapter  at  each  of  these  places  in  the 
12th  c. ;  they  disappear  before  the  end  of  the  13th  c,  leav- 
ing the  chapter  one  of  secular  canons.  At  Dunkeld,  as  at 
Brechin  and  at  Abernethy,  great  part  of  the  Culdee 
revenues  was  held  by  a  lay-abbot,  whose  olfice  was  of  such 
mark  as  to  be  hereditary  in  the  royal  family.  The  father 
of  'the  gracious  Duncan,' and  the  son  of  St.  Margaret, 
were  Culdee  abbots.  If  a  tradition  of  the  16th  c.  can  be 
received  as  authority  for  what  passed  in  the  12th  c,  the 
Culdees  of  Dunkeld  were  married,  like  the  priests  of  the 
Greek  Church,  but  lived  apart  from  their  wives  during 
their  period  of  service  at  the  altar. 

Culdees  are  found  holding  land  at  Monifieth,  near  Dun- 
dee, about  1200;  and  there  was  a  lay-abbot  of  Monifieth; 
but  there  is  nothing  to  show  whether  he  was  or  was  not  a 
Culdee.  The  Culdees  of  Muthill,  in  Strathearn,  appear 
with  their  prior  in  charters  of  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c. 
Nothing  more  is  known  of  them.  Jocelin  of  Furnes,  in 
his  Life  of  St.  Kentigern,  or  Mungo,  w^ritten  about  1180, 
relates  that  the  disciples  of  that  saint  at  Glasgow,  in  the  6th 
c,  had  all  things  in  common,  but  lived  each  in  his  ow^n 
hut,  whence  they  were  called  'solitary  clerks,'  and  more 
commonly  'Culdees.'  They  appear  as  one  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical fraternities  of  lona,  1164;  and  the  faint  vestiges  of  a 
circular  building  (about  1 5  ft.  in  diameter)  called  '  Cothan 
Cuildich,'  or  the  Culdee's  cell,  are  still  shown  in  the  island. 

Only  one  or  two  traces  of  the  order  have  been  observed 
in  England.  The  canons  of  St.  Peter's,  at  York,  w^ere 
called  Culdees  in  the  reign  of  ^thelstan  (924-931);  and  a 
charter  of  ^^thelred,  1005,  speaks  of  the  canons  of  the 
English  cathedrals  generally  as  cultcn^es  clerici.  The  term 
is  of  doubtful  import,  and  the  charter  itself  is  not  beyond 
suspicion. 

Of  the  Culdees  in  Wales,  we  have  only  one  notice. 
Giralclus  Cambrensis,  writing  about  1190,  describes  the 

31(J 


CUL-DE-SAC-CULENBORG. 

islaDd  of  Bardsey,  on  the  coast  of  Caernarvon,  as  inhabited 
by  '  most  devout  monks,  called  celibates  or  Culdees. 

Such  is  a  concise  recapitulation  of  all  that  is  certainly 
known  of  the  Culdees.  Before  their  history  was  ascer- 
tained, opinions  were  held  regarding  them  which  now  tind 
few  if  any  supporters  among  archeologists.  It  was  believed 
that  they  were  the  first  British  teachers  of  Christianity; 
that  they  came  from  the  East  before  corruption  had  yet 
overspread  the  church;  that  they  took  the  Scripture  for 
their  sole  rule  of  faith;  that  they  lived  under  a  form  of 
church-government  approaching  Presbyterian  parity;  that 
they  rejected  prelacy,  transubstantiation,  the  invocation  of 
saints,  the  veneration  of  relics,  image-worship,  and  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy;  and  that  they  kept  their  simple 
worship  and  pure  doctrines  un defiled  to  the  last,  and  were 
suppressed  only  by  force  and  fraud,  when  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church  triumphed  over  their  older  and  better  creed.  For 
all  this,  it  is  now  clearly  seen  that  there  is  no  foundation. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Culdees  differed  in 
any  material  point  of  faith,  discipline,  or  ritual  from  the 
other  clergy  of  the  British  islands  and  Western  Christen- 
dom.   Their  name  was  their  only  peculiarity. 

The  best  account  of  the  Irish  Culdees  is  in  a  dissertation 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Reeves,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Acad,  for  1860.  The  best  account  of  the  Scottish  Culdees 
is  in  Mr.  Grub's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland,  I,  226-243 
(Aberd.  1861).  The  opinions  formerly  held  regarding  the 
Scottish  Culdees  will  be  found  in  Selden's  preface  to  the 
Decern  llistorim  Anglicanm  Scriptores,  reprinted  in  his  Opera, 
II,  1129-46;  Sir  J.  Dalrymple's  Collections  concerning  the 
Scottish  History  (Edin.  1705);  and  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Jamie- 
son's  Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient  Culdees  (Edin.  1811). 
The  opinions  of  these  writers  are  controverted  in  Bp. 
Lloyd's  Historical  Account  of  Church  Government,  chap.  vii. ; 
Goodall's  Preliminary  Dissertation,  and  Bp.  Russell's  Sup- 
plement, prefixed  to  Keith's  Catalogue  of  Scottish  Bishops 
(Edin.  1824);  Pinkerton's  Inquiry  into  the  Early  History  of 
Scotland,  II,  270-273  (edit.  1814);  and  Chalmers's  Caledonia, 
I,  434-439  (Lond.  1807).  On  the  subject  of  the  C.  generally, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Lanigan's  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Ireland,  IV. ;  to  the  dissertation  by  J.  van  Hecke  in  the 
Acta  Sanctorum  Octobrity  YIII;  and  to  Skene's  Celtic 
Scotland,  II. 

CUL-DE-SAC,  n.  ku'de-sdlc'  [F.  the  bottom  of  the  bag: 
F.  cul,  bottom— from L.  cHlus,  the  fundament:  comp.  Gael. 
cul,  the  back] :  a  street  or  narrow  passage  not  open  at  both 
ends;  thence  any  close,  confined  place. 

CULENBORG,  ko  len-horch ,  or  Culemborg,  M'lem  horch, 
or  KuiLEOTURG,  koy'len-burch:  town  of  the  Netherlands,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Leek,  12  m.  n.w.  of  Tiel.  C.  has 
three  divisions,  of  which  the  inner  town  is  the  oldest  and 
most  important.  It  has  a  Reformed,  a  Lutheran,  a  Rom. 
Cath.  church,  a  synagogue,  and  a  fine  orphan-house.  It 
has  steam-boat  communication,  and  is  a  station  of  the  rail 
way  from  Utrecht  to 's  Hertogenbosch.  C.  has  several  fac- 

8U 


CULETTE-eULLEN. 
tories.  In  olden  times,  the  'Dominion  of  Culenborg ' 
formed  a  county;  and  its  independence,  both  of  the  Roman 
empire  and  the  States  of  Plolland,  secured  it  the  singular 
privilege  of  otfering  an  asylum  to  fugitives  from  Holland 
for  debt.    Pop.  (1880)  6,725. 

CULETTE:  see  Gullet. 

CULIACAN,  ko-le-d-Mn' :  town  of  the  Mexican  confeder- 
ation, on  a  river  of  its  own  name,  which,  flowing  s.w.,  en- 
ters the  Gulf  of  California  near  its  mouth.  It  occupies  a 
fertile  tract  in  the  dept.  of  Sinaloa,  about  90  m.  s.e.  of  the 
the  city  of  Sinaloa.    Pop.  estimated  7,000. 

CULICID^,  n.  plu.  Mt-lis't-de  [L.  cidex,  gen.  culicis,  a 
gnat,  a  midge;  suf.  -idee]:  family  of  dipterous  insects,  tribe 
Nemocera.  The  family  contains  the  gnats,  the  midges,  and 
the  mosquitoes. 

CULILAWAN  BARK,  M-Ul'a-wan  hark,  or  Clove 
Bark:  valuable  aromatic  bark,  product  of  the  Olnna' 
momum  Culilaican,  tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  Cinna- 
mon (q.v.)  tree;  growing  in  the  Molucca  Islands.  It  comes 
to  market  in  pieces  of  various  length,  almost  flat,  thick, 
fibrous,  covered  with  a  white  epidermis,  reddish-yellow 
inside,  and  has  an  odor  resembliug  that  of  nutmeg  and 
cloves,  and  a  pungent  taste.  It  is  useful  in  cases  of  indi- 
gestion, diarrhoea,  etc.— Another  variety  of  C.  B.  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  produce  of  Cinnamomum  xantlioneurum; 
and  a  very  similar  bark,  Sintoc  Bark,  is  obtained  from 
G.  Sintoc. 

CULINARY,  a.  ku'U-ner-i  [F.  culinaire,  culinary — from 
L.  cuUna,  a  kitchen] :  pertaining  to  the  kitchen,  or  the  art 
of  cookery;  used  in  the  kitchen. 

CULL,  V.  kul  [F.  cueilUr,  to  pluck  or  gather — from  OF. 
coillir  and  cuilUr,  to  cull — from  L.  coUigere,  to  bind  to- 
gether, to  collect — from  legere,  to  gather]:  to  pick  out;  to 
gather;  to  select  from  many.  Cul  ling,  imp.  CrL  lings, 
n.  plu.  selections  from  a  mass;  retuse.  Culled,  pp.  kiild. 
Cul  ler,  n.  one  who.  Cul  lers,  n.  plu.  -lerz,  the  worst 
of  a  flock  culled  out  for  disposal. 

CULLEN,  kid' en:  royal,  parliamentary,  and  municipal 
burgh  and  seaport,  in  the  north  of  Banfl:shire,  Scotland,  12 
m.  w.n.w.  of  Banft'.  It  is  on  the  w.  slope  of  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cullen  Burn.  A 
third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  are  engaged  in  the  cod, 
ling,  haddock,  skate,  herring,  and  salmon  fisheries.  The 
chief  exports  are  cured  fish,  oats,  potatoes.  Some  linen  is 
made.  The  Marquis  of  Montrose  burned  C.  1645.  Pop. 
(1881)  2,033. 

CULLEN,  kiilen,  Paul,  d.d..  Cardinal:  1803,  Apr.27— 
1878,  Oct.  24;  b.  Dublin.  He  was  educated  in  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  became  prof,  of  Hebrew 
there  after  ordination,  and  then  rector  of  the  Irish  College, 
and  held  the  latter  ottice  many  years.  As  a  foreign  rector 
he  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  city  during  the  exciting 
days  of  1848,  and  at  one  time  saved  the  Propaganda  and 
Irish  colleges  from  destruction  by  placing  them  under  the 

31-2 


CULLEN. 

American  flag.  He  was  appointed  Rom.  Cath.  bp.  of  Ar- 
magh and  Primate  of  all  Ireland/  1850,  transferred  to 
Dublin  1851,  and  created  cardinal  1866,  Jmie.  He  was  the 
first  Irish  bp.  raised  to  the  cardinalate  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  the  first  cardidal  educated  in  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda.  In  the  last  Vatican  Council  he  advocated  the 
dogma  of  papal  infallibility. 

CULLEN,  \YiLLiAM,  M.D.:  1710,  Apr.  15—1790,  Feb. 
5;  b.  Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland:  physician,  cele- 
brated professor  of  medicine  in  the  universities  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow.  His  father  w^as  factor  to  the  Duke 
of  Hamilton,  and  had  a  little  landed  property  in  the  parish 
of  BothweP;  he  appears  to  have  brought  up  two  of  his  sons 
to  the  learned  professions,  and  to  have  himself  received  a 
legal  education.  William  began  medical  studies  in  Glas- 
gow  by  an  apprenticeship,  and  by  attending  literary 
classes  in  the  university.  In  1729,  C.  was  appointed  sur- 
geon to  a  merchant-ship;  and  till  1734,  was  actively  en- 
gaged in  various  situations.  He  then  spent  two  winter- 
sessions  in  Edinburgh  in  the  regular  study  of  medicine, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Medical  Soc, 
composed  of  students.  In  1736,  he  commenced  practice 
at  Hamilton,  and  soon  was  largely  employed,  having  the 
patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  Soon  afterward, 
William  Hunter  (see  Hunter,  John  and  William)  passed 
three  years  under  Cullen's  roof,  the  beginning  of  a  life- 
long friendship,  though  after  Hunter  went  to  London,  it 
is  probable  that  they  never  again  met.  In  1740,  C.  took 
the  degree  Doctor  of  Medicine  in  the  univ.  of  Glasgow;  in 
1741,  he  entered  into  partnership  with  a  surgeon,  with  the 
view  of  confining  himself  to  a  physician's  practice;  in  1744, 
in  response  to  an  invitation,  he  removed  to  Glasgow,  where 
he  soon  began  a  course  of  lectures.  It  seems  certain  that 
to  C.  Glasgow  Univ.  owes  the  real  commencement  of  its 
medical  school;  for  in  one  or  two  years  succeeding  1746, 
he  made  arrangements  with  the  several  professors  to  lect- 
ure on  the  theor}^  and  practice  of  physic,  on  botany  and 
the  materia  medica,  and  finally  on  chemistry,  these  being 
the  first  medical  lectures  in  the  university.  In  botany,  C. 
seems  to  have  lectured  in  Latin;  but  in  the  other  depart- 
ments in  English,  an  innovation,  which  permitted  a  famil- 
iar style  not  before  in  use. 

He  was  supported  by  the  university  by  votes  amounting 
to  £136  for  the  chemical  laboratory,  and  £20  annually  for 
keeping  it  in  repair.  In  1751,  C.  was  placed,  through  the 
influence  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  for  the  first  time  in  his 
rightful  position  as  a  prof,  in  the  univ.  of  Glasgow.  After 
several  attempts  by  Lord  Kames,  through  four  years,  to 
attract  the  rising  and  ambitious  Glasgow  professor  to  the 
metropolis,  C.  was  elected  by  the  towm-council  of  Edin- 
burgh joint  prof,  of  chemistry.  In  1757,  he  added  to  his 
duties  the  teaching  of  Clinical  Medicine  in  the  Royal  In- 
firmary. Probably,  the  fact  of  his  having  to  give  bedside 
instruction  at  this  period  opposed  itself  to  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  his  mind  to  give  everything  a  systematic  form, 
and  weeded  his  method  of  practice  of  an  immense  quantity 

S13 


CULLENDER— CULLODEN. 

of  the  scholastic  rubbish  which  made  up  so  much  of  the 
medicar  learuing  of  that  age.  In  1760  he  undertook  the 
lectures  on  materia  medica  with  such  acceptance  that  his 
lectures  were  surreptitiously  printed  from  the  notes  of  a 
pupil,  and  had  considerable  circulation.  In  1766,  C.  was 
placed  in  the  chair  of  Institutes  of  Medicine;  and  Black, 
now  the  greatest  chemical  discoverer  of  the  age,  was 
brought  to  Edinburgh  from  Glasgow  to  fill  C.'s  place  as 
prof,  of  chemistry.  In  1773,  C.  was  at  last  transferred  to 
the  chair  of  the  practice  of  physic,  the  duties  of  which  he 
had  for  some  years  performed  in  part. 

In  1778,  C.  became  the  proprietor  of  Ormiston  Hill,  a 
pretty  suburban  estate  about  8  m.w.  cf  Edinburgh,  where 
he  passed  in  pleasing  rural  occupations  as  much  time  as  his 
professional  duties  would  allow.  Here  he  died,  having 
nearly  completed  his  79tli  year,  and  having  been  actively 
engaged  in  teaching  and  consulting  practice  till  within  a  few 
months  of  his  death.  His  most  important  works  are,  First 
Lines  of  tile  Practice  of  Physic  (Edin.  1777);  Synopsis  Nosologua 
MethodiccB,  1785;  Institutions  of  Medicine,  1777;  A  Treatise  of 
tlie  Materia  Medica,  1789.  Their  characteristics  are  great 
clearness  of  expression,  with  remarkable  soundness  of 
judgment  and  common  sense,  rather  than  striking  origi- 
nality. Amid  learned  medical  farrago,  of  his  times,  he 
sought  his  way  toward  the  truth  with  remarkable  impar- 
tiality, and  candor.  Hi?  fame  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
teachers  has  survived  the  memory  of  his  professional  suc- 
cess. His  writings  have  been  collected,  in  2  vols.  8vo,  by 
Dr.  John  Thomson  (Edin.  1827),  by  whom  also  a  Life  was 
commenced  (first  vol.  published  1882,  second  vol.  by  other 
hands,  1859). 

CULLENDER,  n.  Jdd'len  der  [L.  colans,  straining; 
cdlum,  a  strainer:  F.  couler,  to  flow:  Sp.  colar,  to  filter]:  a 
colander;  a  strainer. 

CULLER  A,  kolyd'rd :  fortified  t6^n  of  Spain,  and  port 
on  the  Mediterranean,  23  m.  s.s.e.  of  the  toAvn  of  Valen- 
cia. It  is  near  a  very  fertile  district,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  cattle-rearing,  fishing,  and  the 
production  of  oil  and  wine.    Pop.  (1877)  11,050. 

CULLET,  or  Colette,  orCuLET,  n.  kid'H  [F.  cueillette, 
a  gathering,  a  mixed  cargo:  or  from  Cull,  to  gather], 
broken  glass  brought  together  for  being  remelted  with  fresh 
material:  see  Cull. 

CULLION,  n.  kul'yun  [see  Cully]:  a  mean  wretch;  a 
cully;  a  scoundrel.  Cul'lionly,  a.  -li,  having  the  qualities 
of  a  cullion;  base. 

CULLIS,  n.  Md'is,  or  Coulis,  n.  hyUs  [F.  mwi/^,  strained 
juice  of  meat,  gravy,  jelly] :  a  kind  of  rich  brown  gravy, 
for  enriching,  thickening,  and  coloring  certain  soups  and 
sauces;  broth  of  boiled  meat  strained. 

CULLODEN,  kul-loden,  or  Drummos'sie  Moor:  deso- 
late level  tableland,  now  partly  cultivated,  in  the  n.e.  of 
Inverness-shire,  six  m.  e.n.e.  of  Inverness,  near  the  Moray 
Firth;  is  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  total  defeat,  1746^ 

314 


CULLY— CULPABLE. 

Apr.  16,  of  the  Highland  army  under  Prince  Charles 
Stuart  by  the  royal  troops  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  the  extinction  of  the  hopes  of  the  House  of  Stuart  to 
regain  the  English  crown.  Since  1881,  a  cairn,  20  ft.  in 
height,  with  an  inscription,  marks  the  spot  where  the  bat- 
tle was  liercest,  and  where  many  of  the  slain  lie  buried. 

CULLY,  n.  kul'll,  also  Cul'lion,  n.  -yiin  [OF.  couille,  a 
testicle:  OF.  coitillon;  Sp.  collon,  a  vile  fellow,  a  dastard 
— from  L.  C'uUas,  a  bag,  the  scrotum:  comp.  Gael,  cuilean, 
a  whelp]:  the  entertainer  or  companion  of  a  courtesan;  a 
soft-headed  fellow;  a  man  easily  deceived  or  imposed  upon: 
V.  to  make  a  tool  of;  to  impose  upon;  to  dupe;  to  trick. 
CuL  LYiKG,  imp.  'li-lng.  Cul'lied,  pp.  -lid.  Cul'lyism, 
n.  -Izm.  Cul'libil'ity,  n.  -hil  l  ti,  easiness  of  being 
gulled. 

CULM,  n.  Milm  [L.  culmvs,  the  stalk  of  corn:  It.  culmo]-. 
the  stalk  or  stem  of  corn  or  grasses,  usually  hollow  and 
jointed.  Culmiferous,  a.  kal-vi)f  er-us  [L. I  bear] : 
itiaving  smooth  jointed  stalks  and  their  seeds  contained  in 
chalfy  husks,  as  in  wheat,  oats,  etc. :  see  Grasses. 

CULM,  n.  kiilm  [W.  cidm,  culm:  OE.  colmie,  black, 
foul]:  an  impure  shaly  kind  of  coal  or  anthracite  shale; 
coom,  which  see:  see  also  Anthracite.  Culmif'erous, 
a.  -m'ifer  us  [L.fero,  I  bear]:  abounding  in  culm.  Culm 
MEASURES,  in  geoL,  the  anthracite  shales  of  North  Devon. 

CULMINxVTE,  V.  kiu'ini-nat  [mid.  L.  cuhmndius,  cul- 
minated— from  L.  culmen,  a  top,  a  summit:  F.  culminer]: 
to  reach  the  highest  point;  to  be  vertical;  to  come  to  the 
meridian;  to  top  or  crown.  Cul  mina  ting,  imp.:  Adj.  at- 
taining the  highest  point.  Cul  mina  ted,  pp.  Cul  mi- 
na'tion,  n.  -nasluni  [F. — L.]:  crown;  top;  the  most  bril- 
liant or  highest  point  in  the  progress  of  any  person  or 
time;  in  astronomy,  transit  or  ])assage  of  a  star  or  planet 
across  the  meridian.  The  star  is  then  at  the  highest  point 
{culmen)  of  its  course  for  the  day.  The  sun  culminates  at 
midday,  or  12  o'clock,  appai-ent  solar  time — which  seldom 
agrees  exactly  with  mean  time,  as  shown  by  a  watch  or 
clock.  The  full  moon  culminates  at  midnight.  The  time 
of  C.  of  a  tixed  star  is  always  exactly  midway  between  the 
times  of  its  rising  and  setting;  in  the  case  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  it  is  only  nearly  so. 

CULNA,  kul'na:  town  of  Bengal,  47  m.  n.  of  Calcutta, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  HoogLl}^  The  town  contains  a 
vast  number  of  temples,  is  a  station  of  the  Free  Church 
(Scotland)  Mission,  and  has  a  Nourishing  English  school. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  rice,  grain,  silk,  and  cot- 
ton being  the  chief  articles  of  commerce.  C.  is  now  fre- 
quently spelt  Kdbid.    Pop.  near  30,000. 

(JULPABLE,  a  kid'pd-bl  [F.  coupable— from  L.  culpd- 
hilis — from  L.  rmlpa,  a  fault:  It.  colpa;  OF.  coulpe,  a  fault]: 
deserving  of  blame  or  censure;  sinful;  criminal  Cul'- 
PABLY,  ad.  -bit,  in  a  faulty  manner.  Cuu'PAmL  ity,  n. 
'h)l'i-ti,  or  CuL'PABLENESS,  n.  -bl-nes,  the  quality  or  con- 
dition of  being  blameworthy;  blame.     Culpa,  -pd  [L.]; 

lo 


CULPABLE  HOMICIDE— CULROSS. 

fault;  crime;  blame;  term  iu  Roman  law,  whose  three  dis- 
tinctions of  degree  have  been  adopted  in  the  law  of  Scot- 
laud:  G.  lata,  gross  carelessness  or  omission,  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  dole;  G.  levis,  degree  of  negligence  into  which 
a  person  attentive  to  his  own  atiairs  ma^^  be  supposed  occa- 
sionally to  fall;  and  G.  levissima,  still  more  slight  degree 
of  negligence  in  some  degree  incident  to  human  nature, 
in  even  the  most  prudent  and  sharp-sighted.  Where  a 
contract  contemplates  the  mutual  bench t  of  both  parties, 
the  middle  degree  of  diligence  is  all  that  either  is  bound 
to  exercise,  and  the  neglect  of  this  is  G.  levis,  or  C.  simply. 
Where  one  party  only  is  benefited,  he  is  l)Ound  to  exercise 
the  utmost  diligence,  the  neglect  of  which  is  G.  levissima, 
while  the  other  party  has  done  enough  if  he  avoids  G.  lata, 
or  gross  and  excessive  negligence. 

CUL  PABLE  HOMICIDE  see  Homicide:  Murder. 

CULPEPER,  kalpep-er,  John:  b.  England:  surveyor. 
He  emigrated  to  the  southern  or  Clarendon  colony  and 
thence  to  the  Carolina  provinces,  where  he  followed  his 
profession,  and  became  a  political  leader.  In  1678  he 
headed  a  popular  uprising  in  the  northern  or  Albemarle 
colony  which  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  pres.  and 
deputies  of  the  proprietors  and  the  establishment  of  a  new 
govt.  He  was  then  sent  to  England  on  a  political  mission, 
was  there  indicted  for  treason  and  acquitted,  and  on  his 
return  applied  himself  to  his  profession  and  laid  out  the 
city  of  Charleston,  1680. 

CULPEPER  or  COLEPEPER,  Thomas,  Lord:  d.  1719; 
b.  England:  colonial  gov.  of  Ya.  King  Charles  11. 
granted  him  and  the  Earl  of  Arlington  the  entire  territory 
of  Ya.  for  81  years,  1673;  he  purchased  his  associate's 
rights  1675;  was  appointed  a  plantation  commissioner  1675, 
July,  and  about  the  same  time  gov.  for  life;  came  to  the 
colony  1680;  made  two  trips  to  England  without  the  royal 
permission;  was  charged  with  official  corruption  and  vio- 
lation of  instructions,  and  deprived  of  his  commission  by 
legal  procedure,  1683. 

CULPRIT,  n.  kul'prU  [L.  culpa,  a  fault;  redtus,  the 
condition  of  an  accused  person:  old  law  L.  culpdttis,  ap- 
plied to  person  accused] :  prisoner  accused  of  a  crime  but  not 
tried;  one  convicted  of  a  crime  is  called  a  criminal  or  con- 
vict; [these  discriminations  are  not  invariably  observed  in 
common  use  even  of  good  writers].  JVote. — Skeat  derives 
from  L.  culpdtus,  and  says  that  the  r  has  been  inserted 
as  a  corruption.— Syn.  :  malefactor;  felon;  convict. 

CULROSS,  Mil-ros':  parliamentary  and  municipal  burgh 
and  seaport  in  a  detached  part  of  Perthshire,  Scotland: 
on  the  n.  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  6  m.  w.  of  Dunferm- 
line, 22  n.n.w.  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiq- 
uity. As  early  as  the  6th  c,  it  was  the  seat  of  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Serf,  who  afterAvard  became  the  patron  saint  of 
the  town,  where  his  yearly  festival  was  kept  till  about  the 
close  of  the  18th  c.  ^Eugus  the  Keldee  (Culdee),  an  Irish 
martyrologist,  who  wrote  about  800,  describes  C.  as  lying 
in  Strathearn,  between  the  Ochils  and  the  Sea  of  Gindan, 

316 


CULT— CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 

i.e.,  the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  stands  on  the  face  of  a  hill  ris- 
ing from  the  shore.  The  parish  church  preserves  some 
remains  of  the  conventual  church  of  a  Cistercian  abbey, 
founded  1217,  on  a  commanding  site  in  the  higher  part  of 
the  town.  Close  beside  it  is  the  tine  old  residence  of  C. 
Abbey,  founded  by  the  Bruces  of  Carnock  and  Kinloss 
about  the  end  of  the  16th  c,  remodelled  about  the  middle 
of  the  17tli  c,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  18th  occupied  by 
the  father  of  the  late  Lord  Dundonald.  At  the  e.  end  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  a  chapel,  built  about  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  c,  in  honor  of  St.  Kentigern  or  Mungo,  said  to 
have  been  born  here  about  500,  and  to  have  been  here  edu- 
cated by  St.  Serf.  C.  has  various  charitable  institutions, 
and  does  some  damask  weaving.  In  the  16th  c.  it  was 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  and  the  export  of  coal. 
Its  once  extensive  shipping-traffic  is  now  gone.  From 
James  VI. 's  time,  till  the  beginning  of  this  c,  coal-mines 
were  worked  here  far  under  the  Firth  of  Forth.  See  Bev- 
eridge's  Culross  (1885).    Pop.  (1881)  373. 

CULT,  n.  Mlt,  also  Cultu8,  n.  kal'tiis  [F.  culte — from 
L.  ciiltus,  worship] :  a  particular  form  of  worship  or  reli- 
gious belief. 

CULTCH,  n.  kulch,  also  Cutch,  n.  Mcli:  the  spawn  of 
oysters;  the  objects  on  which  the  spawn  or  spat  is  adhering. 

CULTIROSTRAL,  a.  Mil' ti-ros' tral  [L.  culter,  a  plow- 
share; rostrum,  a  beak]:  pertaining  to  the  Cul'tiros'tres, 
-trez,  an  order  of  birds  having  bills  shaped  like  the  coulter 
of  a  plow,  or  like  a  knife,  as  the  heron  and  the  crane. 

CULTIVATE,  V.  Jdil'ti-mt  [mid.  L.  cuUivdtus,  cultivated 
— from  L.  mltus,  tilled:  It.  cidtivare;  F.  cultiTer,  to  cul- 
tivate]: to  till;  to  prepare  the  ground  for  the  reception  of 
seed;  to  foster;  to  improve,  as  the  mind;  to  labor  to  in- 
crease; to  raise,  as  corn.  Cul  tivating,  imp.  Cui/- 
TivATED,  pp.  CuL  TiVATOK,  n.  ter,  onc  who;  a  sort  of 
harrow:  see  Grubber.  Cul'tiva'table,  a.  -m'td-bl,  also 
Cul  tivable,  a.  -vd-bl,  capable  of  being  cultivated  or  tilled. 
Cul  tiva  tion,  n.  -mslidn,  tillage  of  land;  culture;  civili- 
zation; refinement;  husbandry. 

CUL  TIVATED  PLANTS:  those  plants  which,  either 
for  their  usefulness  or  their  beauty,  and  not  merely  for 
curiosity,  have  been  to  considerable  extent  cultivated  by 
man.  They  are  of  nat.  orders  widely  different,  and  scat- 
tered through  almost  all  parts  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  prevalence  of  particular  qualities  in  particular  nat. 
orders,  indeed,  assigns  groups  of  C.  P.  to  some  of  them, 
as  the  Cerealia  or  corn-plants  among  grasses;  but  with 
these  are  botanically  associated  other  species — usually  far 
more  numerous — to  which  no  great  value  has  ever  been  at- 
tached. It  may  be  that,  in  some  instances,  the  original  pre- 
ference of  certain  species  was  accidental,  and  that  their  pres- 
ent superiority  over  certain  others  is  owing  merely  to  the 
improvements  effected  by  cultivation;  but  we  are  no  more 
entitled  to  assume  that  this  has  been  ordinarily  the  case, 
than  that  man  has  in  his  selection  exhausted,  or  nearly  ex- 
hausted, the  resources  of  nature.    Some  plants  are  known 

311 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 

to  have  been  cultivated  from  the  most  remote  historic  ages; 
some  have  but  recently  become  the  objects  of  human  care, 
which  yet  are  deservedly  esteemed;  and,  in  some  instances 
— e.g.,  sea  kale — these  have  not  been  introduced  from 
regions  newly  explored,  but  are  natives  of  the  very  countries 
which  were  seats  of  ancient  civilization.  Probabl}^  in  the 
earliest  ages,  plants  useful  for  food  alone  were  cultivated, 
and  of  these  only  a  few  kinds,  as  is  still  the  case  among 
savage  tribes  (see  Food);  it  may  be  doubted  whether  plants 
yielding  fibre  for  clothing  and  cordage  (see  Fibre),  or  plants 
from  which  alcoholic  beverages  or  narcotics  could  be  pro- 
cured, were  most  likely  next  to  engage  attention  (see  Fer- 
mented Liquors:  Narcotics).  Other  important  classes 
of  C.  P.  are  those  yielding  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other 
similar  beverages,  containing  Caffeine  (q.v.),  or  som.e  analo- 
gous principle;  those  yielding  Dye-stuffs  (q.v.);  those  yield- 
ing medicines  (see  Officinal  Plants);  those  yielding  fixed 
oils  (see  Oils),  some  of  which  are  to  be  reckoned  among 
plants  valuable  for  food;  those  yielding  Fodder  (q. v.)  for 
cattle;  those  yielding  timber  (see  Timber  Trees);  those 
employed  for  Hedges  (q.v.),  etc.  There  are  also  many  mis- 
cellaneous useful  products  of  plants,  and  useful  applications. 
Among  such  products  are  resins,  turpentines,  essential  oils, 
gum,  caoutchouc,  guttapercha,  bark  for  tanning,  etc; 
among  useful  applications,  the  thatching  of  roofs,  basket- 
making,  and  the  supply  of  food  for  useful  insects,  which 
leads  to  the  cultivation  of  the  white  mulberry  as  the  food  of 
the  silkworm,  and  of  the  cochineal  cactus  or  nopal  as  the 
food  of  the  cochineal  insect.  Many  plants  highly  valued  for 
their  usefulness  are  still  scarcely  or  not  at  all  cultivated; 
this  is  the  case  particularly  with  many  that  yield  medicines, 
for  which  the  whole  demand  is  not  too  great  to  be  easily 
supplied  by  the  plants  growing  wild,  and  with  timber  trees, 
the  plantation  of  which  is  needed  only  in  countries  of  very 
advanced  civilization.  The  number  of  C.  P.  is  continually 
increasing.  The  cultivation  of  flowers  and  ornamental 
shrubs  and  trees,  unquestionably  less  ancient  than  that  of 
some  plants  most  necessary  for  urgent  w^ants,  nevertheless 
dates  from  remote  antiquity,  and  has  alway  existed  in  every 
country  entitled  in  any  measure  to  be  called  civilized.  Some 
C.  P.  have  from  a  very  early  period  been  very  widely 
diffused,  e.g.  particularly  some  of  the  corn-plants;  others 
have  been  confined  to  particular  regions  through  no  neces- 
sity of  climatic  adaptation,  but  rather  from  lack  of  inter- 
course among  nations.  Thus,  some  of  the  finest  rrnaments 
of  xlmerican  and  European  greenhouses  and  gardens,  re- 
cently introduced,  have  been  diligently  cultivated  from 
time  immemorial  in  China  and  Japan,  in  which  countries 
many  useful  plants  also  are  cultivated  still  almost  unknow-n 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  cultivation  of  useful 
aquat  ic  plants  is  practiced  in  China  to  a  degrte  unapproached 
in  any  other  country. 

The  changes  produced  in  plants  by  cultivation  present  an 
interesting  and  difficult  subject  to  the  student  of  vegetable 
physiology.  Increase  of  luxuriance  and  size  is  a  result 
which  might  have  been  expected  from  abundant  nutriment 

31S 


CULTIVATION— CULTRATE. 

and  favorable  circumstances  of  growth;  but  the  determina- 
tion of  the  strength  of  the  plant  in  its  vegetation  to  particular 
parts,  and  their  greater  proportionate  increase,  is  a  more 
remarkable  phenomenon  though  of  common  occurrence,  as 
is  also  the  considerable  modification  of  juices  and  qualities. 
To  these  effects  of  cultivation,  perpetuated  in  the  progeny 
of  the  plants,  and  increased  from  one  generation  to  another, 
are  due  many  of  the  most  useful  varieties  of  cultivated 
plants.  Cultivated  Cabbages,  turnips,  carrots,  etc.,  differ 
very  much  from  the  wild  plants  of  the  same  species;  for 
instance,  there  is  little  eatable  or  nutritious  in  the  root  of  a 
wild  turnip,  and  the  acridity  occasionally  to  be  observed 
even  under  cultivation  exists  in  it  to  a  much  greater  degree. 
Wild  celery  is  poisonour^,  or  almost  so.  How  far  the  effects 
of  cultivation  can  be  extended,  is  a  question  not  yet  decided 
in  general,  nor  with  reference  to  particular  species. 

CULTIVA  TION,  in  Agriculture:  all  operations  for  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  those  crops  which  man  selects  for  his  use. 
The  spade,  the  boe,  and  the  plow,  have  been  the  primary 
implements  of  C.  among  all  nations  as  far  back  as  their 
civilization  can  be  traced.  All  these  effect  much  the  same 
end.  By  their  means  the  soil  is  stirred  and  inverted,  which 
keeps  under  the  vegetation  that  is  supplanted,  and  loosens 
the  soil  to  admit  of  the  roots  of  the  sown  plants  to  run 
through  it.  The  harrow  or  rake,  on  the  other  hand,  is  era- 
ployed  to  smooth  the  surface  and  cover  the  seed.  To  allow 
of  the  C.  of  the  crops  when  they  are  growing,  in  many  cases 
the  seeds  are  planted  or  sown  in  rows.  Cereals  for  in- 
stance, are,  with  this  view,  often  sown  with  a  drill  in  rows 
from  six  to  nine  inches  apart;  and  the  narrow  rows  are 
either  cultivated  by  the  hand  or  horse  hoe.  Again,  turnips, 
potatoes,  and  other  green  crops  are  sown  at  wider  intervals, 
from  24  to  30  inches,  and  are  cultivated  during  their  growth 
by  horse  hoes  of  various  descriptions.  For  the  implements 
used  in  C,  see  their  titles;  for  peculiarities  in  the  cultivation 
of  different  crops,  see  their  titles. 

Generally,  the  soil,  in  the  first  place,  should  be  as  com- 
pletely inverted  as  possible,  since  it  is  important  to  smother 
or  bury  the  surface-plants,  and  permit  them  to  decay  within 
the  soil  and  yield  food  for  the  plants  to  be  sown.  In  the 
second  place,  it  should  be  rendered  as  loose  and  comminuted 
as  possible;  for  earth  in  this  state  both  allows  an  excess  of 
water  to  pass  through  it  more  easily,  and  retains  a  larger 
supply  within  it  for  the  wants  of  vegetation  when  the 
weather  is  dry.  Land  that  is  tilled  in  autumn  may  be  left 
open,  rough,  and  cloddy,  as  the  frost  of  winter  will  loosen 
and  pulverize  it.  In  a  dry  and  warm  climate,  the  desired 
state  of  the  soil  is  secured  by  abundant  plowing,  rolling, 
and  other  operations.  In  a  wet  and  moist  climate,  these 
must  be  more  sparingly  resorted  to,  as  a  moderately  rough 
mold  facilitates  the  draining  away  of  excessive  rains,  and 
prevents  the  soil  from  becoming  consolidated  by  such 
excess. 

CULTRATE,  a.  kiil'trdt,  also  Cul'trated,  a.  [L.  cul- 
trdtuSy  knife -formed,  provided  with  a  coulter — from  culteVr 

319 


CULTBIROSTRfiS— CUM^. 

a  knife]:  also  Cul'triform,  a.  -tri-fawrm  [L.  formay  a 
shape]:  shaped  like  a  pruniDg-knife. 

CULTKIROSTRES,  Md-tri-rbs' tres  [L.  knife-billed  or 
plowshare-billed]:  tribe  of  birds  of  the  order  Grallatores; 
distinguished  by  a  long,  thick,  stout,  and  generally  pointed 
and  trenchant  bill,  and  containing  cranes,  herons,  bit- 
erns,  storks,  adjutants,  etc.,  (q.v.). 

CULTURE,  n.  kul  tur,  also  -chur  [F.  culture — from  L. 
cultura,  culture,  cultivation] :  the  act  of  preparing  the  earth 
for  seed;  cultivation;  any  labor  or  means  employed  for  im- 
provement; mental  training;  refinement  by  education:  V. 
to  cultivate  or  improve.  Cul'turing,  imp.  Cul  tured, 
pp.  -turd:  Adj.  improved;  refined  by  mental  training. 
Cul'turelebs,  a.  having  no  culture. 

CULVER,  n.  Mil'ver  [AS.  culfre,  a  pigeon]:  a  pigeon;  a 
wood-pigeon.  Culyer-tatled,  dove-tailed.  Culyer- 
HousE,  a  dove-cote;  a  pigeon-house. 

CULVERIN,  n.  kiil'mr-in  [F.  couleuvrine — from  couleu- 
we,  a  snake — from  L.  colabra,  an  adder,  a  serpent]:  among 
earlier  forms  of  cannon,  a  very  long  gun;  generally  an  18- 
pounder,  weighing  50  cwt. ;  the  (Zm^C.  was  a  9-pounder, 
weighing  30  cwt.  A.  C.  of  especially  large  dimensions  is 
still  in  existence  at  Dover  Castle,  where  it  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Pocket  Pistol. 

CULVERT,  n.  kul'mrt  [OF.  coulou'ere,  a  channel,  a  gut- 
ter— from  F.  colder;  OF.  coler,  to  run,  to  flow— from  L. 
coldre,  to  filter,  to  run]:  a  passage  or  arched  way  usually  of 
masonry,  for  conveyance  of  water  under  a  road  or  canal. 

CUL'VERT:  the  name  given  to  an  arched  channel  of 
masonry  for  the  conveyance  of  water  underground. 

CUM^,  kit' me:  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Campania, 
founded  jointly  by  colonists  from  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and 
from  Cymoe  in  Asia  Minor.  According  to  Strabo,  it  was 
the  earliest  of  all  the  Greek  settlements  either  in  Italy  or 
Sicily,  but  the  precise  date  of  its  foundation  is  a  matter  of 
dispute.  It  soon  attained  wealth  and  power,  built  several 
harbors  or  port-towns  of  its  own,  kept  a  moderately  large 
fleet,  extended  its  influence  over  the  native  tribes  of  the 
neighboring  territories,  planted  a  colony  at  Neapolis  (Na- 
ples), and  for  200  years  (b.c.  700-500)  was  indisputably 
the  most  important  and  civilized  city  in  s.  Italy.  Subse- 
quently, it  was  repeatedly  but  unsuccessfully  attacked  by 
the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians.  In  B.C.  474,  its  ally,  Hieron, 
king  of  Syracuse,  defeated  the  combined  fleets  of  the 
Etruscans  and  Carthaginians,  who  had  attacked  it  by  sea. 
Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  conflicts  both  lessened 
its  resources  and  weakened  its  influence,  for  B.C.  420,  the 
Samnites  conquered  the  city,  murdered  or  enslaved  most 
of  the  citizens,  and  forcibly  married  their  wives  and  daugh- 
ters. A  Samnite  colony  was  now  established  in  C,  wiiicli 
rapidly  degenerated  into  a  second-rate  Campanian  town. 
In  B.C.  838,  it  was  admitted  to  the  Roman  franchise,  and 
from  this  period  steadily  adhered  to  the  fortunes  of  Rome. 
In  the  second  Punic  war,  Hannibal  tried  to  capture  it,  but 

329 


CUM^  AN -CUMBER. 

was  repulsed  by  Sempronius  Gracchus.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  republic,  it  became  the  municipal  cap.  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  the  Roman  nobles  had  their  villas  and  sea- 
coast  residences.  It  continued  as  a  '  quiet '  place  to  the 
close  of  the  Roman  empire,  but  re-assumed  momentary 
importance  duriug  the  wars  of  Belisarius  and  Narses.  Its 
strong  fortress,  garrisoned  by  the  Goths,  was  the  last  place 
in  Italy  that  held  out  against  the  Byzantine  army.  Few 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  exist. — C.  is  famous  as  the  res- 
idence of  the  Sibyl  (q.v.),  whose  cave — a  vast  subterranean 
grotto  hewn  out  of  the  e.  side  of  the  rock  on  which  stood 
the  citadel — is  described  by  Justin  Martyr,  who  visited  it. 
It  was  destroyed  by  Narses  in  a  vain  attempt  to  undermine 
the  fortress. 

CUM^AN,  a.  ku-me'arij  pertaining  to  Cum^,  ku'me 
(q.v.). 

CUM  AN  A,  ko-md-nd' :  department  of  Venezuela,  S. 
America;  most  easterly  section  of  the  n.  coast  of  the  repub- 
lic, touching  the  Orinoco  on  the  s.,  and  meeting  Caracas 
on  the  west.  Besides  the  capital,  C,  it  comprises  the  city 
of  Barcelona,  and  the  towns  of  Cariaco,  Carapano,  Aragua, 
and  El  Pao. 

CUMANA':  oldest  European  city  in  the  new  world, 
built  by  Diego  Castellon,  1521,  and  originally  named  New 
Toledo.  It  is  in  the  province  of  C,  in  Venezuela,  S.  Amer- 
ica, at  the  mouth  of  the  Manzanares,  on  the  Gulf  of  Cari- 
aco, a  long  and  narrow  arm  of  the  Caribbean  Sea;  lat.  10° 
80'  n.,  and  long.  64°  15'  w.  Though  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  1853,  it  was  soon  rebuilt. 
It  has  a  good  roadstead,  commanded  by  a  fort  on  an  adja 
cent  height.  It  has  but  few  edifices  of  any  note,  for  the 
houses,  in  order  to  guard  against  earthquake,  are  generally 
low  built.  It  has  considerable  export  trade  in  cattle, 
smoked  meat,  salt-fish,  cocoa,  and  other  provisions.  Pop. 
(1881)  with  suburbs,  12,057. 

CUMANIA,  Great,  and  Little:  see  Kumania. 

CUMARIN,  n.  kn'md-rin  [from  cumin,  which  see]:  an 
aromatic  body  found  in  woodruff  and  other  plants. 

CUMBER,  V.  kum'her  [Dut.  komber,  loss,  difficulty: 
Ger.  kuinmer,  trouble,  rubl3ish:  OF.  combrer,  to  hinder — 
from  mid.  L.  mimbrus,  a  heap:  F.  encombre,  hindrance,  iin- 
pediment:  comp.  Gael,  cumraich,  to  cumber,  to  impede]:  to 
heap  up  or  place  so  as  to  cause  a  hindrance;  to  load;  to 
crowd;  to  retard  or  stop;  to  trouble  or  perplex:  N.  hin- 
drance; obstruction;  perplexity;  difficulty.  Cumbering, 
imp.  Cumbered,  pp.  btrd.  Cumbersome,  a.  -smn, 
or  Cumbrous,  a.  -bras,  troublesome;  burdensome;  un- 
wieldy; not  easily  borne.  Cum'brance,  n.  -brans,  a  burden; 
hindrance.  Cum'bersomely,  ad.  -ber-sum-U.  Cum'ber- 
SOMENESS,  n.  the  quality  of  being  cumbersome.  Cum'- 
BROUSLY,  ad.  -bras-U.  Cum'brousness,  n.  the  quality  of 
being  cumbrous.  Note. — Skeat  says  Cumber  is  corrupted 
from  L.  cumfflus,  a  heap,  a  mass,  by  the  change  of  I  into 
and  the  insertion  of  a  6. 

321 


CUMBERLAI^^D. 

CUMBERLAND,  kum  her -land:  nortli-westmost  county 
of  England,  bounded  n.  by  Scotland  and  the  Solway 
Firth,  w  by  the  Irish  Sea,  s.  by  Lancashire,  e.  by  West- 
moreland, Durham,  and  Northumberland.  It  is'llth  in 
size  of  the  English  counties;  greatest  length,  74  m.;  great- 
est average  breadth,  22;  75  m.  of  coast;  area,  1,528  sq.  m. ; 
two-thirds  being  cultivated,  and  one-third  in  mountain  and 
lake.  The  surface  is  mountainous  in  the  s.w.  and  e.;  the 
middle  consists  of  hills,  valleys,  and  elevated  ridges;  and 
the  n.  and  n.w.  districts,  including  the  vale  of  Carlisle, 
are  low,  tiat,  or  gently  undulated.  The  mountains  in  the 
s.w.  are  high,  rugged,  and  sterile,  with  deep  and  narrow 
valleys,  lakes,  rivers,  waterfalls,  and  woodlands.  The  chief 
mountains  are  Sea  Fell  Pike,  3,210ft.;  Sea  Fell,  3,162;  Hel- 
vellyn,  3, 118;  Skiddaw,  3,054.  From  the  latter  are  seen  the 
German  Ocean  and  the  Irish  Sea.  The  Pennine  chain, 
the  great  backbone  of  the  north  of  England,  skirts  the  n.e. 
border  of  C,  and  rises  in  Cross  Fell,  2,929  ft.  C.  has  15 
lakes,  the  largest,  Ulleswater,  9  miles  by  1.  Six  of  the 
chief  waterfalls  are  60  to  156  ft.  high  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Eden,  running  35  m.  n.w.  into  the  Solway  Firth; 
the  Esk,  running  s.  into  the  same;  and  theDerwent,  which 
collects  the  water  of  six  lakes  and  several  tarns,  and  runs 
33  m.  n.w.  and  n.  into  the  Irish  Sea.  The  great  west  or 
Carlisle  and  Lancaster  railway  route  from  Edinburgh  to 
London,  crosses  the  n.e.  of  Cumberland. 

The  Lake  district,  or  nearly  the  s.w.  half  of  C,  consists 
of  Silurian  slates,  with  protrusions  of  granite  and  trap 
rocks,  and  with  new  red  sandstone  along  the  coast  s.  of  St. 
Bees  Head.  In  the  n.  is  a  semicircular  strip  of  carboniferous 
limestone;  then  follow  strips  of  cold  strata  and  Permian 
rocks;  then  the  new  red  sandstone  plain  of  Carlisle,  with 
carboniferous  limestone  on  the  n.e.,  including  a  clap-dike 
30  m.  long,  parallel  to  and  on  the  e.  side  of  the  Eden,  and 
crossing  to  the  w.  near  Ainstable.  C.  abounds  in  mineral 
wealth — silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  plumbago,  gypsum, 
limestone,  coal,  slates,  marbles,  marl,  and  several  of  the 
more  rare  minerals. 

In  the  mountainous  parts,  the  climate  is  cold,  wet,  and 
yariable,  especially  from  July  to  Oct. ;  on  the  coast,  it  is 
mild.  There  is  a  fall  of  50  inches  of  rain  annually  a^ 
Whitehaven,  and  of  68  at  Keswick;  while  at  some  places 
among  the  mountains  the  fall  sometimes  reaches  100  inches. 
Half  of  the  cultivated  soil  consists  of  dry  loam.  Much  of 
the  subsoil  is  wet  clay.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  turnips,  and  potatoes.  There  are  many  small  dairies. 
Many  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared  in  the  mountains.  The 
estates  are  generally  small,  and  farmed  by  the  owners,  or 
held  under  the  lords  of  the  manors  by  customary  tenure. 
Many  of  the  small  or  peasant  proprietors  have  had  their 
lands  in  their  families  for  centuries,  and  have  a  high  spirit 
of  independence  There  are  manufactures  of  woolens — 
much  being  domestic — cottons,  linens,  earthenware,  and 
glass.  C.  is  divided  into  five  wards  or  hundreds,  104  par- 
ishes, and  nine  poor-law  unions.  The  chief  towns  are 
Carlisle,  Cockermouth,  Whitehaven,  Workington,  Mary- 

322 


CLMBEKLAIND. 

port,  Wigton,  Penrith,  Keswick,  Egremont.  Under  the 
Distribution  of  Seats  Act  (l.'^SS),  C.  returns  six  members  to 
parliament — tour  for  tiie  four  divisions  of  the  county,  one 
for  Carlisle,  and  one  for  Whitehaven.  C.  formed  part  of 
Cumbria  (q.v.).  Many  Roman  relics  have  been  found, 
such  as  altars,  inscriptions,  coins,  instruments,  utensils. 
During  Saxon  times,  it  was  under  Danish  law.  Henry  III. 
united  it  to  England.  For  three  centuries  before  the  union 
of  England  and  Scotland,  C.  was  the  constant  scene  of  war 
and  devastation,  from  incursions  of  the  English  and  Scotch 
into  this  debatable  tract  between  the  two  kingdoms.  It 
was  again  devastated  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  17th  c,  and 
in  1715  and  '45.  C.  had  formerly  several  monasteries  and 
hospitals;  and  on  the  borders,  many  towers  or  peel  houses; 
and  it  has  still  some  old  Norman  and  Gothic  churches. 
—Pop.  (1871)  220,253;  (1881)  250,630. 

CUM  BERLAND:  city,  cap.  of  Alleghany  co.,  Md.,  on 
the  Potomac  river  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad, 
and  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
canal;  150  m.  s.  of  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  and  178  m.  w.  by  n. 
of  Baltimore;  second  city  in  the  state  in  commerce  and 
population.  It  is  a  terminus  of  the  C.  and  Penn.  railroad, 
extending  into  W.  Ya.,  and  of  the  Pittsburg,  Washington, 
and  Baltimore  railroad;  is  on  the  e  edge  of  the  noted  C. 
coal  regions  which  stretches  w.  to  the  Ohio  river;  and  has 
numerous  mines  of  semi-bituminous  coal  and  valuable  iron 
ores  in  its  immediate  vicinity  which  provide  the  chief  traffic 
of  the  canal.  The  business  interests  of  C.  embrace  rolling 
mills  for  bars  and  rails,  factories  for  other  kinds  of  railroad 
iron  and  the  manufacture  of  steel,  foundries,  machine 
shops,  and  manufactories  of  cement,  flour,  leather,  and 
brick.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  on  the  Holly 
plan,  and  contains  15  churches,  4  banks,  a  Rom.  Cath. 
academy  and  convent,  a  Capuchin  house,  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1870)  8,056;  (1880)  10,693. 

CUM  BERLAND,  Richard:  1732,  Feb.  19-1811;  b  in 
the  lodge  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge:  dramatic  writer 
and  essayist.  He  was  the  great-grandson  of  the  Bp.  of  Peter- 
borough, and  grandson,  by  the  mother's  side,  of  Dr.  Rich- 
ard Bentle3^  He  was  placed  at  the  public  schools  of  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  and  AVestminster,  and  at  the  age  of  14.  was 
entered  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  his  18th  year,  and  two  j^ears  later  was  elected 
fellow.  Haying  been  appointed  private  sec.  to  the  Earl  of 
Halifax,  he  gave  up  his  intention  of  entering  the  priesthood, 
and  passing  through  several  subordinate  offices,  was  ap- 
pointed sec.  to  the  board  of  trade,  holding  that  office  till 
1782,  when  the  board  was  suppressed.  Having  obtained  a 
compensation  allowance,  C.  retired  to  Tunbridge  Wells. 
Here  he  applied  himself  to  literature,  and  wrote  farces, 
tragedies,  comedies,  pamphlets,  essays,  and  novels.  Many 
of  his  comedies  were  successful  at  the  time  of  their  appear- 
ance, though  they  have  not  kept  possession  of  the  stage.  C. 
is  best  known  as  essayist,  and  translator  from  the  Greek 
poets.    His  memoirs  were  published  1806. 

823 


CUMBERLAND-CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS. 

CUM  BERLAND,  Richakd,  d.d.:  1632,  July  18—1718, 
Oct.  9;  b.  London.  Educated  at  St.  Paul's  School  and  at 
Cambridge,  he  was  appointed  to  the  rectory  of  Brampton, 
Northamptonshire,  1658;  in  1667,  to  the  living  of  All  Hal- 
lows, Stamford;  in  1691,  to  the  bishopric  of  Peterborough. 
C.  was  a  man  of  great  acquirements  and  piety.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  works,  but  he  is  now  remembered 
chieliy  on  account  of  his  Inquiry  into  the  Laws  of  Nature, 
issued  in  reply  to  Hobbes;  and  his  Essay  on  Jewish  Weights 
and  Measures.  His  reply  to  Hobbes  is  well-reasoned  and 
instructive,  but  seems  to  miss  the  proper  line  of  attack. 
Much  stronger  replies  have  since  been  developed.  As  an 
instance  of  his  insatiable  thirst  for  knowledge,  it  is  men- 
tioned that  he  learned  Coptic  after  the  age  of  83. 

CUM  BERLAND,  William  Augustus,  Duke  of:  1721- 
65;  second  son  of  George  II.  He  adopted  a  military  career, 
was  wounded  at  Dettingen,  1743,  and  defeated  at  Fonte- 
noy  by  Marshal  Saxe,  1745.  In  1746,  he  defeated  the 
Young  Pretender  at  Culloden.  In  1747,  he  was  again  de- 
feated by  Saxe  (at  Lafeldt),  and  in  1757  had  to  surrender 
and  disarm  his  army  at  Kloster-Zeven.  On  his  return  to 
England,  he  felt  compelled  to  resign  his  commissions.  See 
LifeiXm)  and  General  Or^^m  1745-47  (1876).  The  latter 
seems  to  show  that  his  severity  after  Culloden  has  been  ex- 
aggerated. 

CUM  BERLAND  GAP:  pass  through  the  Cumberland 
Mountains,  at  the  s.e.  corner  of  Ky.,  between  Ky.  and 
Tenn. ;  important  as  a  strategic  position,  during  the  war  of 
secession. 

CUM  BERLAND  ISLAND:  large  island  with  Davis 
Strait  on  the  e.,  Hudson's  Bay  on  the  w.,  Hudson's  Strait 
on  the  s.,  and  on  the  w.  a  small  strait  separating  it  from 
Cockburn  Island. 

CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS:  branch  of  the  Appala- 
chian  chain,  forming  a  portion  of  the  boundary  between 
Va.  and  Ky.,  extends  in  a  s.w.  direction  through  Tenn. 
dividing  the  state  into  E.  Tenn.  and  Middle  Tenn.,  and  ter- 
minates in  n.e.  Ala.  and  n.w.  Ga. ;  general  elevation  2,000 
ft.,  greatest  width  50  m.;  area  5,100  sq.  m.  The  greater 
part  of  the  range  is  in  Tenn.,  where  it  is  distinguished  by 
a  broad,  level  table-land  from  which  several  ridges  rise  to 
an  additional  height  of  800  ft.  The  climate  of  this  plateau 
is  equable,  and  its  soil  is  very  rich.  The  most  important 
of  the  mineral  resources  of  Tenn  and  Ky.  are  the  coal  and 
iron  deposits  in  the  G.  M.  These  are  very  numerous,  ver}^ 
large,  and  very  productive.  The  coal  is  bituminous  in 
Tenn.  and  Ky.,  and  some  cannel  resembling  the  English 
species  is  found  in  the  latter  state.  Chestnut,  w^hite  ash, 
oak,  pine,  hickory,  and  maple  grow  in  abundance  in  all 
parts  of  the  plateau. 

324 


CUMBERLAND  PiiEBBYTEiUAjS'S. 

CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS:  important  de- 
uomiuation  of  Christiaus,  the  founders  of  which  had  been 
in  regular  connection  with  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presb.  Church  in  the  United  States.  In  the  iirst  years  of 
this  century  a  religious  movement  began  in  Logan  co. 
Ky.  (under  the  preaching  of  the  Rev.  James  Mc- 
Gready),  which  spread  rapidly  through  the  state,  and  into 
the  surrounding  states.  Besides  increased  attention  to  the 
usual  seasons  and  ordinary  mode  of  worship,  camp  meet- 
ings, held  during  the  lummer,  were  attended  by  thousands 
of  persons  who  engaged  for  several  successive  days  and 
nights  in  almost  continuous  religious  exercises.  The  ex- 
citement became  very  great,  and  strange  irregularities  oc- 
curred. Yet  many  lasting  and  wide  results  of  good  were 
reached,  which  continue  to  attest  the  genuineness  and 
])ower  of  the  revival.  It  checked  infidelity  and  established 
Christian  faith  among  the  toiling  and  uncultured  settlers 
of  the  great  west.  As  the  harvest  increased  the  labor- 
ers were  found  to  be  few.  In  the  continuous  meetings 
the  great  demand  for  preaching,  exhortation,  and  prayer 
thrust  forward  young,  inexperienced,  and  uneducated  per- 
sons, many  of  whom,  displaying  natural  ability  combined 
with  spiritual  fervor,  attained  success  and  devoted  them- 
selves permanently  to  the  work  of  preaching.  As  the  num- 
ber of  congregations  increased  it  was  impossible  to  supply 
them  with  regularly  trained  and  ordained  ministers  Con- 
sequently, some  of  the  class  just  mentioned  assumed  the 
office  of  public  exhorters  and  teachers.  Some  also  of  the 
older  and  more  experienced  ministers,  impelled  by  the 
evident  necessity  of  the  case,  selected  young  men  of  talent 
and  piety,  and  encouraged  them  to  pursue  a  short  course 
of  preparation  for  the  ministry.  When  these  applied  to 
the  presbytery  of  Transylvania  to  be  licensed,  some  of  its 
members  found  fault  not  only  with  their  imperfect  train- 
ing, but  also  with  what  were  called  their  unorthodox 
theological  views.  They  were,  however,  licensed;  a  major- 
ity of  the  presbytery  thinking  it  necessary,  and  hoping 
that  they  would  increase  in  sound  knowledge.  This  door, 
having  been  opened,  could  not  be  closed.  Candidate  after 
candidate,  of  this  character,  was  licensed  and  subsequently 
ordained.  The  presbytery  of  Transylvania  was  divided; 
the  new  body,  named  the  presbytery  of  Cumberland,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  those  who  favored  the  new  plans.  Can- 
didates were  now  freely  licensed  and  ordained  on  their 
declaration  that  they  adopted  the  Confession  of  Faith  only 
so  far  as  they  considered  it  to  be  in  harmony  with  the 
Word  of  God.  Yet,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  subse- 
quent events,  their  exceptions  were  limited  to  a  single 
phase  of  doctrine. 

These  proceedings  having  been  disapproved  by  the  synod 
of  Kentucky,  and  by  the  general  assembly,  the  synod 
dissolved  the  presbytery  of  Cumberland  and  reattached 
its  approved  numbers  to  the  presbytery  of  Transyl- 
vania. The  Cumberland  Presbytery  regarded  the  pro- 
ceedings against  them  as  unconstitutional;  but,  intiuenced 
by  a  desire^for  peace,  and  by  the  hope  that  a  reconciliatioa 

325 


CUMBERLAND  PKESBYTERIAISB. 

miglit  be  effected,  refraining  from  all  strictly  presby- 
terial  acts,  formed  themselves  into  a  council  in  order  to 
retain  their  congregations  and  carry  on  their  work.  After 
continuing  this  course  for  hve  years  without  attaining  the 
hoped-for  result,  they,  in  1810,  reorganized  the  presby- 
tery of  Cumberland  as  an  independent  body.  In  their  own 
locality  they  were  naturally  called  Cumberland  Presby- 
terians; and  in  all  their  subsequent  progress  they  have  re- 
tained the  name. 

The  new  presbytery  published  a  declaration  of  their 
theological  opinions.  These  they  called  Calvinistic,  except 
that  they  modihed  the  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination so  as  to  free  it  from  the  *  idea  of  fatality  '  which 
tiiey  thought  the  Westminster  Confession  involved.  They 
;)rofessed  to  hold:  *1.  That  there  are  no  eternal  rep- 
lobates,  2.  That  Christ  died,  not  for  a  part  only,  but 
for  all  mankind;  and  for  all  in  the  same  sense.  3.  That 
infants,  dying  in  infancy,  are  saved  through  Christ  and  the 
sanctili cation  of  the  Spirit.  4.  That  the  Spirit  of  God 
operates  on  the  v/orld,  as  extensively  as  Christ  has  made 
atonement,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all  men  inexcus- 
able.' With  this  avowed  exception  covering  these  points, 
they  professed  to  agree  with  the  Westminster  Confession. 

The  general  synod,  constituted  1813,  published  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Confession  and  Shorter  Catechism  revised  so 
as  to  conform  to  the  view^s  of  the  denomination  as  given 
above  In  1828,  to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
churches,  the  synod  was  expanded  into  the  general  as- 
sembly, which  meets  annually  on  the  third  Thursday  of 
Mixy.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council,  in 
Belfast,  1884,  June,  the  Cumberland  churches  having  ap- 
plied for  admission  to  membership,  and  their  delegates 
being  present,  the  committee  on  admission  reported, 
unanimously  '  recommending  the  council  (without  pro- 
nouncing any  judgment  on  the  church's  revision  of  the 
Westminster  Confession  and  Shorter  Catechism)  to  admit 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  into  the  alliance,  and 
to  invite  the  delegates  now  present  to  take  their  seats.' 
This  report  gave  rise  to  a  long  and  earnest  debate,  and 
having,  by  a  vote  of  112  to  74  been  amended  so  that  the 
clause  '  without  pronouncing  any  judgment  on,'  etc.,  reads, 
'without  approving,'  eic,  was  adopted;  only  12  delegates 
voting  for  exclusion.  The  roll  of  the  Cumberland  dele- 
g  ites  was  then  called,  and  having  answered  to  their  names, 
tliey  were  welcomed  by  the  moderator  into  the  council. 

The  first  college  of  the  denomination,  founded  1827  at 
Princeton,  Ky.,  was  removed  1842  to  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and 
named  Cumberland  University.  At  that  time  it  comprised 
four  schools  which  have  now,  in  order  to  meet  the  demand 
for  special  and  technical  education,  been  increased  to  ten, 
viz.:  preparatory,  English,  mathematics,  science,  ancient 
languages,  modern  languages,  normal,  engineering,  law, 
and  theology.  The  law  school  is  especially  eminent. 
The  university  at  Lincoln,  111.;  Trinity  University  at  Te- 
liuacana,  Tex.,  the  college  at  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  and  Bethel 
College  at  McKenzie,  Tenn.,  have  a  similar  variety  of 

8*26 


CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS. 

schools.  There  are  also  high  schools  and  academies  under 
denominational  control.  Religious  weekly  newspapers  are 
sustained,  also  quarterly  and  monthly  magazines,  and  the 
various  grades  of  Sunda^'-sciiool  '  Helps.' 

The  boards  of  publication  and  of  education  are  estab- 
lished at  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  the  board  of  missions  is  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  and  that  of  ministerial  relief,  at  Evansville,  Ind. 
foreign  missions  are  prosecuted  in  Japan  and  Mexico; 
also  missions  among  the  Chickasaw,  Choctaw,  and  Cher- 
okee Indians.  The  work  of  home  missions  is  zealously 
carried  on,  special  prominence  being  given  to  city  evan- 
gelization. Revivals  are  earnestly  promoted,  and  camp- 
meetings  continue  to  be  held.  The  denomination,  now 
extending  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the 
Lakes  to  Texas,  comprises  (according  to  the  Minutes  of  the 
58th  Assembl}^  1888,  May)  22  synods,  119  presbyteries, 
1,600  ordained  ministers,  246  licentiate  preachers,  262  can- 
didates, 2,648  congregations,  10,333  elders,  and  3,876 
deacons,  165,000  church  members,  and  86,000  members 
of  Sunday-schools.  During  the  year  1887-8  the  amount 
reported  as  contributed  for  all  religious  purposes  was 
$537,000;  and  the  present  value  of  church  property  is 
estimated  at  2,679,000.  There  is  also  a  separate  assem- 
bly for  the  colored  portion  of  the  denomination,  compris- 
ing, so  far  as  reported,  5  synods,  22  presbyteries,  200  or- 
dained ministers,  180  licentiate  preachers,  200  candidates, 
and  15,000  church  members. 

3'26a 


CUMBERLAND  RIVER— CUMBR IAN  MOUNTAINS. 

CUM'BERLAND  RIVER:  risiDg  in  Ky.,  after  a  course 
of  600  m.,  of  which  the  lower  half  is  navigable  for  vessels 
of  400  tons,  enters  the  Ohio  at  Smithland  from  the  left,  a 
few  m.  above  the  point  where  the  Tennessee  also  joins  the 
Ohio  from  the  same  side. 

CUMBRAYS,  kmn-hrdz' ,  or  Great  and  Little  Cum- 
BRAY,  kitm-hrd' :  two  small  isles  in  the  Eirth  of  Clyde,  be- 
tween Bute  Isle  and  Ayrshire,  and  included  in  the  county 
of  Bute.  They  consist  of  old  red  sandstone,  with  trap- 
dikes  intersecting  it.  Great  Cumbray,  three  m.  e.  of 
Bute,  is  3^  m.  long  by  two  broad,  contains  Millport  and 
Newton  villages,  and  is  a  great  summer  resort  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Glasgow.     Pop.  (1781)  1,856. 

Little  Cumbray  lies  nearly  a  mile  s.  of  Great  Cum- 
bray, is  one  mile  long  by  half  a  mile  broad,  and  rises  780 
ft, ;  it  contains  many  caves,  excavated  by  the  sea  in  the  strat- 
ified rocks.    Pop.  (1881)  23. 

CUMBRE,  La,  Id-Mm'hrd  [Spanish  for  top  or  height]: 
one  of  the  principal  passes  across  the  Andes,  on  the  high- 
road between  Santiago  in  Chili  and  Mendoza  in  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.  The  altitude  of  its  crest  is  12,454  ft.,  fully 
one  half  higher  than  the  pass  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  in 
the  Alps. 

CUMBRIA,  lum'hri-a:  ancient  British  principality,  com- 
prising Cumberland  in  England  and  that  part  of  Scotland 
now  divided  into  the  shires  of  Dumbarton,  Renfrew,  Ayr, 
Lanark,  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Roxburgh,  and  Dumfries.  It 
was  governed  by  its  own  kings — who  had  their  seat  at  Dum- 
barton, Glasgow,  and  elsewhere — until  about  the  middle  of 
the  10th  c,  when  it  became  a  tributary  principality  held  of 
the  king  of  the  English,  by  the  heir  of  the  king  of  the 
Scots:  see  BRETTs  AND  Scots. 

CUMBRIAN,  a.  kitm'hri-dn  [the  anc.  Cumbria]:  in  gcol., 
the  term  for  the  lowest  slaty  and  partially  fossiliferous 
beds  of  Westmoreland  and  Cumberland. 

CUMBRIAN  MOUNTAINS,  kum'bH-an:  great  knot  of 
highlands,  nearly  50  m.  in  length  and  breadth,  in  the  n.w. 
of  England,  occupying  part  of  Cumberland,  Westmore- 
Lmd,  and  Lancashire.  This  tract,  the  English  Lake  district, 
has  much  of  the  physical  character  of  Wales,  and  being 
unsurpassed  in  the  British  Isles  for  picturesqueness  and 
beauty,  it  is  much  frequented  by  tourists.  The  central 
and  s.  parts  consist  of  Silurian,  granite,  and  trap  rocks, 
rising  in  lofty  rugged  mountains,  which  inclose  deep  val- 
leys and  large  lakes.  There  are  25  mountain-tops  upward 
of  1,500  ft.  high,  including  Sea  Fell  Pike,  3,210  ft;  Sea 
Fell,  3,162;  Helvellyn,  3,118;  and  Skiddaw,  3,054,  Four 
passes  cross  these  mountains  at  the  height  of  from  1,100  to 
1,250  ft.  The  deep  valle3^s  between  the  mountains  contain 
14  lakes,  1  to  10  miles  long  The  largest  of  the  lakes  are 
Windermere,  Ulleswater,  Conistone  Water,  Bassenthwaile 
Water,  and  Derwentwater.  A  semicircular  strip  of  car- 
boniferous limestone  skirts  the  north  of  the  Silurian  tract. 
On  the  higher  C.  M.,  snow  lies  six  or  eight  months  in  a 
year,  but  on  the  neighboring  coasts  rarely  eibove  a  few 


CUMIAJSTA— GUMMING. 

days.  Many  eminent  persons  have  resided  among  the  lakes, 
the  beauty  of  which  has  inspired  some  of  the  finest  writ- 
ings of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey,  Prof.  Wilson^ 
De  Quincey,  Arnold,  and  Harriet  Martineau. 

CUMIANA,  M-me-d'nci'  town  of  n.  Italy,  province  oi 
Turin,  7  m.  n.  of  Pinerolo,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Cisola. 
Pop.  5.700. 

CUMMIN,  or  Cumin,  n.  Mim'ln  [L.  cumlnum;  Gr,  kuml- 
non],  (Cuminum):  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  order  Umbel] 
Uferm,  containing  only  one  known  species  (G.  cymlmim), 
native  of  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  countries;  an  annual, 
with  branched  stem,  much  divided  thread-like  leaves,  gen- 
eral and  partial  involucres  resembling  the  leaves,  umbels  of 


Cuminum  Cyminumt 
a,  fruit;  6,  section  of  fruit. 


small  white  or  pink  flowers,  and  fruit  about  two  lines  long. 
The  fruit  (seeds)  has  an  odor  resembling  that  of  caraway, 
but  stronger  and  less  pleasant.  It  is  used  as  a  carminative 
in  many  parts  of  the  world;  in  Germany,  it  is  often  put  into 
bread;  in  Holland,  sometimes  into  cheese.  It  is  used  also 
in  medicine,  particularly  with  resin  for  discutient  plasters, 
but  its  use  is  now  almost  confined  to  veterinary  practice.  It 
contains  a  peculiar  volatile  oil  {Oil  of  Cummin).  C.  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  south  and  middle  of  Europe,  India,  etc. ;  its 
seed  is  exported  from  Sicily  and  Malta. — The  fruit  of  Lago- 
ecia  cmninoides,  another  umbelliferous  plant,  a  native  of  the 
Levant,  is  similar  in  its  qualities  and  uses  to  that  of  cummin. 
The  Black  C.  of  the  ancients  is  believed  to  be  a  species  of 
Nigella  (q.v.).  Both  perhaps  are  included  in  the  name  C. 
in  Scripture.  Cuminic  acid,  ku-min'ik,  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  cummin.  Cumol,  n.  kumbl,  and  Cu- 
MiNOL,  n.  ku'min-dl  [L.  oleum,  oil];  two  oils  into  which  oil 
of  cummin  may  be  separated. 

GUMMING,  y^r^m'm^,  JoHN,D.D.:  1810,  Nov.  10—1881, 
June  5;  b.  Aberdeenshire  :  Sc<^<^,ch  Presb.  preacher  and  au- 


CUMMINS— CUMULATIVE 

thor.  He  was  educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen, where 
he  took  his  degree  m.a.,  1827,  and,  in  1883,  was  ordained  in 
the  Scotch  Church,  Crown  Court,  Covent  Garden,  London, 
where  he  officiated  till  a  year  or  two  before  his  death.  His 
popularity  as  a  preacher  was  very  great,  especially  among 
'  fashionable '  circles.  In  1837,  C.  made  his  first  prominent 
appearance  in  public  in  connection  with  the  Voluntary  con- 
troversy between  Drs.  Wardlaw  and  Chalmers.  His  views 
were  strongly  in  favor  of  establishments.  Afterward  he 
figured  prominently  on  the  platform,  particularly  as  the 
*  champion '  of  the  anti-popery  class  of  Protestants.  But  the 
chief  source  of  his  notoriety  was  his  peculiarly  literal  and 
vivid  apocalyptic  interpretation,  delineating  as  near  at  hand 
the  tremendous  events  connected  with  the  coming  of  Christ 
and  the  day  of  judgment.  His  exposition  of  the  Book  of 
Revelation  was  not  convincing  to  men  who  are  even  moder- 
ately impressed  with  the  grandeur,  complexity,  and  mystery 
of  the  Divine  Providence;  but  it  was  greatly  relished,  and 
greedily  swallowed  by  that  large  portion  of  the  community 
who  love  to  see  all  things,  even  the  '  oracles  of  God,'  pre- 
sented under  melodramatic  aspects. 

C.'s  works  are  very  voluminous:  the  chief  are  Voices  oj 
the  Night,  Voices  of  the  Day ,  Voices  of  the  Bead,  Apocalyptic 
Sketches,  Expository  Readings  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, and  The  Seventh  Vial. 

CUMMINS,  kum'mz,  George  Dayid,  d.d.  :  1822,  Dec. 
11—1876.  June  26;  b.  near  Smyrna,  Del.:  founder  of  the 
Ref.  Episc.  Chui'ch  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College 
1841,  was  a  licentiate  of  the  Meth.  Episc.  Church  two  years, 
was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Prot.  Episc.  Church  1845,  Oct., 
and  presbyter  1847;  was  rector  of  churches  in  Norfolk,  Rich- 
mond, Washington,  Baltimore,  and  Chicago;  was  elected 
asst.  bp.  of  Ky.  1866;  resigned  his  office  and  withdrew  from 
the  church;  and  founded  the  Ref.  Episc.  Church  in  New 
York,  and  was  elected  its  first  presiding  bp.  1873,  Dec.  2. 

CUMNOCK,  Old,  kitm'nok,  local  pron.  kum'lok:  town  in 
the  s.e.  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  Lugar  Water,  and 
on  the  Glasgow  and  Dumfries  railway,  16  m.  e.  of  Ayr,  in 
the  middle  of  the  district  of  Kyle.  It  was  formerly  famous 
for  the  manufacture  of  wooden  snuff-boxes,  with  '  invisible 
wooden  hinges,'  2,500  to  3,500  being  made  yearly,  but  this 
business  bas  for  many  years  been  almost  wholly  in  the  hands 
of  the  Mauchline  manufacturers.  Around  Old  C  there  is 
an  abundant  supply  of  good  coal,  and  of  rich  iron  ore.  It 
has  also  manufactures  of  reaping  and  thrashing-machines, 
and  other  agricultural  implements.    Pop.  (1881)  3,345. 

New  Cumnock  is  a  village  5  m.  s.  of  Old  C.,  amid  the 
high  lands  in  the  upper  part  of  Kyle  district.  Near  it  are 
found  ironstone,  antimony,  .smiths*  and  cannel  coal,  and 
plumbago.    Pop.  (1881)  1,285. 

CUM-SHAW,  kitm'shaw  [Chin,  kom-tsie,  a  present]:  a 
present  or  bonus ;  originally  that  paid  on  vessels  entering  the 
port  of  Canton. 

CUMULATIVE,  a.  kumu  lct'tw  [L.  cumuldtus,  heaped 
up — from  cumulus,  a  heap:  It.  cumulare;  F,  cumuler,  to 

83t 


CUMULUS-CUMYK 

heap  up] :  composed  of  parts  in  a  heap  that  is  added  lo 
something  else;  in  logic,  applied  to  a  series  of  arguments 
which,  taken  in  the  whole,  carries  strong  conviction,  as 
cumulative  evidence;  in  med.,  a  drug  w^hich  remains  long 
in  the  system  without  acting  Cumulative  voting,  the 
practice  of  a  voter  possessed  of  several  votes  giving  them 
all  to  one  candidate  instead  of  distributing  them  among  two 
or  more. 

CUMULUS,  n.  ka'mu-Uis  [L.  cumulus,  a  heap:  It.  cu- 
mulo]:  convex  or  conical  heaps  of  clouds,  increasing  upward 
from  a  horizontal  base,  usually  of  a  very  dense  structure; 
the  cloud  of  day.  Cu  mulo-stra  tus,  a  cloud  formed  by 
the  cirro-stratus  blending  with  the  cumulus.  Cu  mulo- 
cir'ro-stra'tus,  the  nimbus  or  rain-cloud,  consisting  of  a 
cloud  or  system  of  clouds  from  which  rain  falls:  see 

CiRRO. 

CUMYN,  ktim'in,  or  Cumming,  kam'ing,  or  Comyn, 
kum'in:  family  which  rose  to  great  power  and  eminence  in 
England  and  Scotlantl;  named  from  the  town  of  Comines, 
near  Lille,  on  the  frontier  between  France  and  Belgium. 
While  one  branch  remained  there,  and  in  1445,  gave  birth, 
in  its  old  chateau,  to  the  historian  Philippe  de  Comines  (q.  v.), 
another  followed  the  banners  of  William  of  Normandy  to 
the  conquest  of  England.  In  1069.  the  Conqueror  sent  Rob 
ert  of  Comines,  or  Comyn,  with  700  horse  to  reduce  the 
yet  unsubJued  provinces  of  the  north.  He  seized  Durham, 
but  had  not  held  it  for  48  hours,  when  the  people  suddenly 
rose  against  him,  and  he  perished  in  the  flames  of  the 
bishop's  palace.  His  nephew,  William,  became  chancellor 
of  Scotland  about  1133.  The  chancellor's  nephew,  Richard, 
inherited  the  English  possessions  of  his  family,  and  acquired 
lands  in  Scotland.  By  his  marriage  with  Hexilda,  Countess 
of  Athol,  the  granddaughter  of  Donald  Bane,  King  of  the 
Si;ots,  he  had  a  son  William,  who,  about  1210,  became  Earl 
of  Buchan  by  marrying  the  Celtic  heiress  of  that  great  north- 
ern earldom.  By  this  marriage,  he  ^  as  father  of  Alexander, 
Earl  of  Bdclian,  who,  by  marrying  a  daughter  of  Roger  de 
Quenci,  Earl  of  Winchester,  acquired  the  high  office  of  Con- 
stable of  Scotland,  with  great  estates  in  Galloway,  Fife,  and 
the  Lothians.  By  a  previous  marriage  with  a  wife  whose 
name  has  not  been  ascertained,  William  C.  was  father  of 
Richard— whose  son  John  became  Lord  of  Badenoch — and  of 
Walter,  who  by  marriage  became  Earl  of  Monteith.  By  other 
marriages,the  family  obtained,  for  a  time  the  earldom  of  An- 
gus and  the  earldom  of  Athol,  so  that  by  the  middle  of  the  13  th 
c. ,  there  were  in  Scotland  4  earls,  1  lord,  and  32  belted  knights 
of  the  name  of  Cumyn.  Within  70  years,  this  great  house  was 
so  utterly  overthrown,  that  in  the  words  of  a  contemporary 
chronicle,  '  there  was  no  memorial  left  of  it  in  the  land,  save 
the  orisons  of  the  monks  of  Deer '  (a  monastery  founded  by 
William  C. ,  Earl  of  Buchan,  1219).  The  Cumyns  perished  in 
the  memorable  revolution  which  placed  Bruce  on  the  throne 
of  Scotland.  Their  chief,  the  Lord  of  Badenoch,  had,  1291, 
been  an  unsuccessful  competitor  for  the  crown,  as  a  descen- 
dant, through  king  Donald  Bane,  of  the  old  Celtic  dynasty, 

830 


CUNARD-CUNEAL 

His  son,  Bed  John  C.,was  one  ot  the  three  wardens  of  Scot, 
land,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  gallant  resistance  to 
the  English.  He  fell  under  Brace's  dagger,  before  the  altar 
of  the  Franciscan  friars  at  Dumfries,  1306;  and  his  kindred 
went  down,  one  after  another,  in  the  struggle  to  avenge  him. 
John  C,  Earl  of  Buchan,was  defeated  by  Bruce  in  a  pitched 
battle,  near  Inverury,  1808,  when  his  earldom  was  v/asted 
with  relentless  severity,  so  that  for  60  years  afterward,  men 
mourned  the  desolation  of  Buchan.  Such  of  the  Cumyns  as 
escaped  the  sword,  found  refuge,  with  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren in  England,  where,  though  they  were  so  poor  as  to  be 
dependents  on  the  bounty  of  the  English  court,  they  married 
into  the  best  families,  so  that,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Riddel, 
'  their  blood  at  this  day  circulates  through  all  that  is  noble 
in  the  sister  kingdom. ' 

CUNARD,  kii-ndrd',  Sir  Samuel:  founder  of  the  well- 
known  line  of  Transatlantic  steamers:  1787-1865,  Apr.  28; 
b.  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  where  his  father,  a  French  Cana- 
dian, had  settled.  Becoming  early  a  successful  merchant 
and  shipowner,  C.  cherished  the  idea  of  steam  communica- 
tion between  England  and  America;  and  having  obtained  a 
contract  from  the  English  government  for  the  mail  service, 
built  four  paddle-steamers  for  the  Atlantic  voyage.  The 
first  passage  was  that  of  the  Britannia,  1840.  From  its  small 
but  successful  beginning,  C.'s  undertaking  soon  developed 
into  one  of  the  vastest  of  private  commercial  concerns,  and 
he  was  made  a  baronet,  1859.    C.  died  at  London. 

CUNAXA,  Mi-ndks'd:  place  in  Babylonia,  e.  of  the 
Euphrates,  about  60  m.  n.  of  Babylon,  noted  for  the  battle 
(B.C.  401)  between  Cyrus  the  younger  and  his  brother  Arta- 
xerxes  Mnemon,  in  which  the  former  was  killed. 

CUNCTATOR,  n.  kungk-td' ter  [L.]:  a  delayer;  one  who 
is  cautiously  slow:  title  applied  especially  to  Quintus 
FaUus  Maximus,  who,  when  elected  dictator  of  Rome  after 
the  fatal  battle  at  Lake  Thrasymene,  B.C.  217,  by  a  succes- 
sion of  skilful  movements,  marches,  and  counter-marches, 
without  even  coming  to  an  engagement,  greatly  harassed  the 
army  of  Hannibal. 

CUNDINAMARCA,  kon-de  nd-mdr'kd:  central  state  of 
Colombia  (formerly  New  Granada);  area  79,000  sq.  m. 
The  w.  part  is  mountainous,  with  luxuriant  valleys;  in  the 
e.  are  vast  plains.  C.  is  well  wooded,  and  rich  in  minerals. 
The  cap.  of  C.  is  Bogota,  also  cap.  of  the  republic.  C.  was 
one  of  the  most  highly  civilized  regions  of  the  continent 
before  the  Spanish  conquest;  and  ancient  ruins  are  numer-^ 
ous.    Pop.  (excluding  Indians)  abt.  410,000. 

CUNEAL,  a.  ku'm-dl  [L.  cuneus,  a  wedge:  It.  cuneo]\ 
having  the  form  of  a  wedge.  Cu'neate,  a.  -m-dt,  or 
Cu'neated,  a.  wedge-shaped;  tapering  like  a  wedge. 
Cune  iform,  a.  -ne\-faicrm  [L.  forma,  shape]:  having  the 
shape  or  form  of  a  wedge. 

m 


CUNEIFORM. 

CUNE'IFORM,  or  Guneatic,  or  Wedge-shaped,  or  Ai^row- 
lieaded  [Fr.  Tete-a-clou,  Ger.  Keilformig] :  form  of  writing, 
found  in  old  Babylonian  and  Persian  in'scnptions,  of  which 
the  component  parts  resemble  either  a  wedge,  the  barb  of  an 
arrow,  or  a  nail.  It  was  used  for  monumental  records,  and 
was  either  hewn  or  carved  in  rocks  and  sculptures,  or  im- 
pressed on  tiles  and  bricks.  The  earliest  date  that  can  be 
assigned  to  it  is  about  b.c.  2000,  and  it  seems  to  have  died 
out  shortly  before  or  after  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
It  appears  to  have  been  employed  first  in  Assyria  and  Media, 
and  to  have  thence  spread  over  the  whole  of  that  vast  por- 
tion of  Asia  which  formed  the  Persian  monarchy  under  the 
Acha^menidse.  For  nearly  2,000  years  after  its  extinction  its 
very  existence  was  forgotten.  Although  the  immense  ruins 
found  all  over  that  ancient  kingdom,  and  principally  those 
of  splendid  palaces  and  tombs,  which,  at  a  distance  of  about 
12  m.  from  Shiraz,  designate  the  site  of  ancient  Persepolis, 
had  at  all  times  attracted  the  attention  of  Eastern  travellers, 
still  no  one  seems  to  have  dreamed  that  those  strange  wedges 
which  completely  covered  some  of  them  could  have  any 
meaning.  It  was  Garcia  de  Sylva  Figuc^roa,  ambassador  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain,  who,  on  avisit  to  Persepolis,  1618,  first 
became  possessed  with  the  firm  conviction  that  these  signs 
must  be  inscriptions  in  some  lost  writing  and,  perhaps,  lan- 
guage, and  had  a  line  of  them  copied.  Among  subsequent 
travellers  whose  attention  was  attracted  to  the  subject, 
Chardin,  after  his  return  to  Europe,  1674,  published  three 
complete  groups  of  cuneiforms,  copied  by  himself  at  Per- 
sepolis, together  with  a  comparatively  long  and  minute  ac- 
count of  the  mysterious  character.  He  likewise  declared  it 
to  be  'writing  and  no  hieroglyphs:  the  rest,  however,  will 
always  be  unknown.'  Michaux,  a  French  botanist,  sent, 
1782,  an  entire  altar,  found  at  Bagdad,  to  Paris,  covered 
with  inscriptions,  and  bearing  a  large  wedge— evidently  an 
object  of  worship— on  its  top.  Ever  since,  the  materials  for 
the  investigation  of  a  subject,  the  high  importance  of  .which 
by  that  time  was  fully  recognized,  have  been  rapidly  accu- 
mulating. Sir  H.  Jones,  Ker  Porter,  Robert  Stewart,  Sir 
W.  Ouseley,  Bellino,  Dr.  Schultz— np  to  Rich  and  Botta, 
Flandin,  Rouet,  Layard,  Oppert,  and,  above  all.  Rawlinson, 
each  in  his  turn  brought  back  more  or  less  valuable  materials 
from  eastern  travels;  and  these  explorers  were  among  the 
foremost  students  of  the  records  which  they  had  brought  to 
light. 

Though  certain  portions  of  these  characters  and  the  lan- 
guage that  they  represent  are  still  shrouded  in  comparative 
mystery,  it  is  highly  interesting  and  instructive  to  notice  the 
opinions  first  entertained  of  them  by  the  learned  in  Europe. 
In  the  Transactions  of  the  RoyaJ  Soc,  1693,  June,  they  first 
appeared  from  a  copy  made  by  Flowers,  and  they  are  held 
to  be  '  the  ancient  writing  of  the  Gaures  or  Gebres,  or  a  kind 
of  telesmes ' — an  expression  no  less  unintelligible  than  the 
subject  it  tries  to  explain.  Thomas  Hyde,  eminent  Oriental- 
ist, declared  them,  in  his  learned  work  on  the  religion  of 
the  ancient  Persians  (1700),  nothing  more  or  less  than  idle 
fancies  of  the  architect  who  endeavored  to  show  how  many 


CUJNEIFORM. 

diffeient  characters  a  certain  peculiar  stroke  in  different 
coinbiiiations  could  furnish,  and  reproved  the  authors  of  all 
those  '  so-called  Persepolitan  inscriptions '  very  strongly 
for  having  misled  so  many  wise  men,  and  taken  up  so 
much  of  his  own  precious  time.  Witte,  in  Rostock,  saw  in 
them  the  destructive  work  of  generations  upon  generations 
of  icorms.  Generally,  they  were  pronounced  to  he  talis- 
manic  signs,  mysterious  formulae  of  priests,  astrological 
symbols,  charms,  which,  if  properly  read  and  used,  would 
open  immense  vaults  full  of  gold  and  pearls— an  opinion 
widely  diffused  among  the  native  savans.  The  next  step 
was  to  see  in  them  a  species  of  revealed  digital  language, 
such  as  the  Almighty  had  first  used  to  Adam.  Lichtenstein 
read  in  some  of  them  certain  passages  from  the  Koran, 
written  in  Cufic,  the  ancient  Arabic  character;  in  others,  a 
record  of  Tamerlane ;  and  was  only  surprised  that  others 
should  not  have  found  this,  the  easiest  and  clearest  reading, 
long  before  him.  Kaempfer  was  not  sure  whether  they  were 
Chinese  or  Hebrew  characters.  That  they  were  Runes, 
Oghams,  Samaritan,  Greek  characters,  were  some  of  the 
soberest  explanations. 

It  was  Karsten  Niebuhr  w^ho  first  showed  the  way  out  of 
this  labyrinth  of  absurdities.  Without  attempting  to  read 
the  character  itself,  he  first  of  all  established  three  distinct 
cuneiform  alphabets  instead  of  one,  the  letters  of  which 
seemed  to  outnumber  those  of  all  other  languages  together. 
The  threefold  inscriptions  found  at  Persepolis  he  thus  took 
to  be  transcripts  of  the  same  text  in  three  alphabets,  in  a 
hitherto  unknown  language.  Tychsen  of  Rostock  (1798), 
and  Mlinter  of  Copenhagen  (1800),  affirmed  and  further 
developed  this  conjecture.  The  latter  went  so  far  as  to 
divide  the  characters  and  inscriptions  into  alphabetical,  syl- 
labic, and  monogrammatical,  and  to  assume  two  different 
languages — Zend  for  inscriptions  of  a  religious,  Pehlvi  for 
those  of  a  political  character.  The  real  and  final  discovery, 
however,  is  due  to  Grotefend  of  Hanover,  and  dates  from 
1802.  On  Sep.  7  of  that  year,  he  laid  the  first  cuneiform 
alphabet,  with  its  equivalents,  before  the  Acad,  of  Gottin- 
gen — by  a  remarkable  coincidence,  in  the  very  same  sitting 
in  which  Heyne  gave  an  account  of  the  first  reading  of 
hieroglyphs.  The  process  by  which  Grotefend  arrived  at 
that  wonderful  result  is  exceedingly  interesting.  He  fixed 
upon  a  Persepolitan  inscription  of  what  was  called  the  first 
class,  and  counted  in  it  30  promiscuously  recurring  groups 
or  combinations  of  cuneiforms.  These  groups  he  con- 
cluded to  be  letters,  and  not  words,  as  a  syllabarium'^of  30 
words  could  not  be  thought  of  in  any  language.  Then, 
again,  a  certain  oblique  w^edge,  evidently  a  sign  of  division, 
which  stood  after  three,  four,  five,  up  to  eight  or  nine  such 
groups  or  letters,  must  show  the  beginning  or  end,  not  of  a 
phrase,  but  of  a  word.  Tychsen  and  Mlinter  had  already 
pointed  out  a  certain  combination  of  seven  characters  as 
signifying  the  royal  title.  Grotefend  adopted  this  opinion. 
The  word  occurred  here  and  there  in  the  text,  and  after 
the  first  words  of  most  of  the  inscriptions,  twice;  the  sec- 
ond time  with  an  appendage,  w^hich  he  concluded  to  be 

S83 


CUNEIFORM. 

tlie  termination  of  the  genitive  plural,  and  he  'translated 
these  two  words,  without  regard  to  their  phonetic  value, 
*  King  of  Kings.'  He  then,  in  comparing  the  words  pre- 
ceding the  royal  titles  in  two  tablets,  found  them  repeated 
in  what  he  assumed  to  be  a  filial  relation;  thus:  There 
w^ere  three  distinct  groups,  words,  or  names,  which  we  will 
call  X,  D,  and  H,  and  this  is  how  they  occurred:  1,  X, 
King  of  Kings,  son  of  D,  King  of  Kings;  2,  D,  King  of 
Kings,  son  of  H;  but  the  3,  H,  was  not  followed  by  the 
w^ord  King.  H,  therefore,  must  have  been  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty.  Now  the  names  themselves  had  to  be  found. 
Grotefend,  unlike  his  predecessors,  had  no  recourse  to 
philology,  but  to  archeology  and  history.  The  inscriptions 
in  question  were  by  that  time  proved  to  belong  to  the 
Achgemenian  dynasty,  founded  by  Hystaspes  —  group  H. 
He  was  followed  by  Darius,  '  King  of  Kings,  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,' or  Darius  Hystaspis  =  group  D;  he,  again,  by 
Xerxes,  King  of  Kings,  son  of  Darius,  King  of  Kings  — 
group  X — and  the  problem  was  solved.  It  could  not  have 
been  Cyrus  and  Cambyses,  as  the  groups  did  not  begin 
with  the  same  signs  (C);  nor  Cyrus  and  Artaxerxes,  the 
first  being  too  short  for  the  group,  the  second  too  long — it 
could  only  be  Darius,  Xerxes,  Hystaspes — of  course,  in 
the  orthography  of  their,  not  of  our  time;  and  wherever 
in  these  names  the  same  letters  recurred,  they  were  ex- 
pressed by  the  same  combinations  of  signs.  A  further 
proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  reading  was  furnished  by  a 
vase  in  Venice,  bearing  a  cuneiform  and  a  hieroglyphical 
inscription,  which  w^ere  both  read  at  the  same  time  inde- 
pendently: 'Xerxes  '  Innumerable  ditficulties,  however, 
remained,  and  remain  to  this  moment.  Grotefend  had, 
after  all,  read  only — and  not  altogether  correctly — three 
names,  which  did  not  contain  more  than  12  letters — the 
rest  being  mere  conjecture — and  there  were  many  more  in 
this  alphabet.  The  two  other  alphabets,  with  an  infinite 
variety  of  letters,  had  hardly  been  properly  approached 
yet.  Moreover,  the  discovery  of  Grotefend  was  in  itself 
so  startling,  so  extraordinary  and  bold,  that  no  one  ven- 
tured to  follow  it  up  for  the  next  20  years,  when  H.  Martin 
found  the  grammatical  flexions  of  the  plural  and  genitive 
case.  Not  specifying  his  further  discoveries,  or  those  of 
Rask,  Burnouf,  Lassen,  Westergaard,  Beer,  Jacquet,  and 
others  who  followed,  it  may  be  said  that  they  mostly  se- 
cured for  themselves  fame  by  rectifying  or  fixing  one  or 
tw^o  letters.  The  last  and  greatest  of  investigators  of  this 
first  alphabet  is  Rawlinson,  who  not  only  first  copied,  but 
also  read,  the  gigantic  Behistun  inscription — containing 
more  than  1,000  lines — of  which  more  anon. 

Proceeding  now  with  the  results  of  the  investigations  of 
the  cuneiform  character  in  general,  till  the  present  time, 
notice  should  be  taken,  that  though  much  has  been  done, 
more  remains  to  be  done,  and  that  a  few  years  may  change 
the  whole  aspect  of  cuneiform  studies. 

Cuneiform  writing  was  used  for  monumental  records 
only,  a  cursive  writing — from  right  to  left — being  used  for 
records  of  minor  importance.    The  inscriptions  are  found 

334 


CUNEIFORM. 

mostly  in  three  parallel  columns  or  tablets,  and  are  then 
translations  of  each  other  in  diiferent  alphabets  and  lan- 
guages, called  respectively  Persian,  Median,  and  Assyrian; 
the  Achaemenian  kings  being  obliged  to  make  their  de- 
crees intelligible  to  the  three  principal  nations  under  their 
sway,  as  in  our  days  the  Shah  of  Persia  would  use  the 
Persian,  Turkish,  and  Arabic  languages,  in  order  that  he 
might  be  understood  in  Bagdad  and  Teheran. 

The  tirst  of  the  three,  the  Persian — tirst,  so  far  as  it 
always  holds  the  place  of  honor — consists  of  39  to  44  let- 
ters, and  is  the  most  recent  of  the  three,  the  most  ancient 
being  the  Assyrian.  It  is  distinguished  by  the  oblique 
stroke  which  divides  its  words.  Its  letters  are  composed 
of  not  more  than  live  strokes  or  wedges  placed  side  by 
side  horizontally  or  perpendicularly,  or  both,  never — with 
one  exception — crossing  each  other.  The  language  is  pro- 
nounced by  all  investigators  (save  Gobineau),  to  be  as  near 
Sanskrit  as  possible,  though  not  so  refined,  and  to  be  the 
mother-language  of  modern  Persian.  It  is  only  twice 
found  by  itself;  all  the  other  inscriptions  are  trilingual. 
The  time  of  its  use  is  confined  to  the  years  b  c.  570-370. 
The  oldest  instance  of  its  employment  is  an  inscription  of 
Cyrus  the  Great  at  Pasargadse;  the  most  recent,  that  of 
Artaxerxes  Ochus  at  Persepolis.  The  most  important  is 
that  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  in  the  great  inscription  of  Behis- 
tun,  which  contains,  besides  genealogical  records,  a  de- 
scription of  the  extent  of  his  power,  the  leading  incidents 
of  his  reign,  prayers  to  Ormuzd  and  the  angels,  and  refer- 
ence to  the  building  of  the  palaces — the  last  two  subjects 
generally  forming  the  only  contents  of  the  other  Persian 
inscriptions.  The  inscription  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus  is  im- 
portant, so  far  as  it  traces  his  origin  to  the  Achagmenidge, 
through  Arsames,  grandfather  of  Darius.  Most  of  these 
inscriptions  occur  at  Persepolis,  Behistun,  Naksh-i-Rustan, 
and  Hamadan. 

The  second  kind  is  called  the  Median,  because  it  takes 
the  second  place  in  the  trilingual  inscriptions,  under  the 
conquering  Persians,  but  over  the  conquered  Assyrians, 
and  as  the  Medes  stood  somewhat  in  that  relation  to  these 
two  nations,  that  name  was  selected.  Another  name, 
'Scythic,'  has  been  proposed,  or,  by  way  of  compromise, 
'  Medo-Scythic,'  and  the  language — supposed  to  have  been 
spoken  by  those  innumerable  Tartaro- Finnic  tribes  which 
occupied  the  centre  of  Asia — has  been  pronounced  to  be  a 
Turanian  dialect.  But  the  process  of  constructing  out  of 
such  slender  elements  as  Samojed  and  Ostiak  words,  a 
so-called  '  Scythic,'  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  attempt  of 
reconstructing  Sanskrit  from  some  detached  and  very 
doubtful  French  and  English  words.  These  inscriptions 
never  occur  by  themselves  (one  instance  again  excepted), 
and  being  translations  of  the  Persian  records,  about  90 
names  have  been  ascertained;  and  an  alphabet  of  about 
100  characters — combinations  of  a  syllabic  nature — has 
been  established.  The  principal  investigators  of  this 
character  are  Westergaard,  De  Saulcy,  Hincks,.  Norris,  and 


CUNEIFORM. 

Oppert.  Gobineau  holds  the  language  to  be  Huzvaresh, 
a  mixture  of  Iranian  and  Semitic. 

The  third  and  most  important  is  the  Assyrian  portion  of 
the  cuneiforms.  The  trilingual  records  gave  the  first  clue 
to  the  deciphering  of  this  character;  but  many  original, 
more  than  a  thousand  years  older,  documents  have  since 
been  found  in  Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  other  places  near 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  even  in  Egypt.  About  400 
different  signs  have  been  distinguished  on  slabs,  cylinders, 
barrels,  prisms,  of  a  phonetic,  syllabic,  and  ideographic 
nature.  Proper  names  are  preceded  by  monograms,  which 
give  the  same  help  to  their  readings  as  cartouches  in  hiero- 
glyphics. Of  those  400  signs,  however,  hardly  one -tenth 
are  known  for  certain.  Proper  names  were  found  varied 
to  about  five  times,  and  the  characters  themselves  are  both 
homophonous  (same  sound  expressed  by  various  signs)  and 
polyphonous  (same  sign  with  various  sounds).  Five  and 
more  dialects  have  been  distinguished  in  the  language, 
which  is  decidedly  Semitic  (Gobineau  takes  it  to  be  sim- 
ply Arabic);  and  these  dialects  are  supposed  to  have  be- 
longed either  to  different  tribes  or  subsequent  periods.  It 
is  this  alphabet  about  which  the  greatest  uncertainty  and 
confusion  prevail,  for  endless  subdivisions,  and  even  cer- 
tain assumed  grammatical  forms,  do  not  constitute  a  cer- 
tainty. There  is,  however,  a  hope  of  its  eventually  being 
fully  deciphered.  A  few  years  ago,  the  Asiatic  Soc.  sub- 
mitted a  cylinder  of  Tiglath-Pileser  to  four  prominent  in- 
vestigators of  the  subject,  and  they  independently  read  it 
nearly  alike,  with  exception  of  the  proper  names,  where 
they  widely  differed.  Proof  of  the  enormous  importance 
of  this  character  for  history,  grammar,  law,  mythology, 
archeology,  and  antiquities  generally,  is  given  by  some 
of  the  records  of  which  Rawlinson,  a  few  years  ago,  pro- 
posed the  publication  (now  in  progress):  Chaldsean  Legends 
(B.C.  2000-1500);  Bricks  from  Kilehsergat,  of  the  early 
Kings  of  Assur  (1273-1100),  in  a  character  approaching  the 
cursive;  Annals  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (b.c.  1120);  Annals 
of  Sardanapalus,  of  Shamas,  father  to  the  biblical  Pul,  of 
the  biblical  Pul  and  Semiramis,  his  wife,  of  Sargon,  Sen- 
nacherib, Assur-bani-Pal,  son  of  Esarhaddon;  Cylinder  of 
Nebuchadnezzar;  Cylinders  containing  the  notice  of  Bel- 
shazzar,  etc. ;  besides  syllabaries,  vocabularies,  mathemati- 
cal and  astronomical  tablets,  calendars,  and  registers,  and 
more  than  1,000  mythological  tablets.  Nay,  if  the  Birs- 
Nimrud  really  stands  on  the  foundations  of  the  old  tower 
of  Babel,  we  might  in  the  bricks  excavated  at  these  very 
foundations  read  the  language  spoken  at  the  time  '  when 
the  whole  earth  was  of  one  speech.' 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  character,  nothing  certain  is 
known,  or  is  likely  to  be  known  for  some  time.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  it  was  hieroglyphic,  though  neither  the 
fishes  nor  the  bees,  which  these  letters  are  supposed  to 
have  been  originally,  seem  to  have  more  in  their  favor  than 
the  worms,  which  were  said  to  be  their  unconscious  au- 
thors. The  following  is  the  opinion  of  Rawlinson  on  this 
point:  '  That  the  employment  of  the  cuneiform  character 

33« 


CUNEO— OUNNING. 

originated  in  Assyria,  while  tlie  system  of  writing  to  which 
it  was  adapted  was  borrowed  from  Egypt,  will  hardly  ad- 
mit of  question.  Whether  the  cuneiform  letters,  in  their 
primitive  shapes,  were  intt^uded  like  the  hieroglyphs  to 
represent  actual  objects,  and  were  afterward  degraded  to 
their  present  forms;  or  whether  the  point  of  departure 
was  from  the  Hieratic,  or  perhaps  the  Demotic  character, 
the  first  change  from  a  picture  to  a  sign  having  thus  taken 
place  before  Assyria  formed  her  alphabet,  I  will  not  un- 
dertake to  decide;  but  the  whole  structure  of  the  Assyrian 
graphic  system  evidently  betrays  an  Egyptian  origin.  The 
alphabet  is  partly  ideographic  and  partly  phonetic,  and 
the  phonetic  signs  are  in  some  cases  syllabic,  and  in  others 
literal.  Where  a  sign  represents  a  syllable,  I  conjecture 
that  the  syllable  in  question  may  have  been  the  specific 
name  of  the  object  which  the  sign  was  supposed  to  depict/ 
For  the  opinion  that  the  cuneiform  characters  were  in- 
vented by  the  primitive  Accadian  inhabitants  of  Chaldsea 
(who  spoke  an  agglutinative  language),  see  Assykia. 

Subjoined  is  the  name  of  Darius  (Dariyavas,  Tariyavaus), 
written  in  the  Persian,  Scythic,  and  Assyrian  alphabets: 

Persian. 

ft"  fn       ,<-1^  <Tf  .^ 

Scythio 
AssyriaiL 

^T<T  -T1<T  r-Tf  ii-K 

For  fuller  information  on  this  subject,  see  Rawlinson, 

The  Persian  Cuneiform  Inscription  at  Beliistun  decipJiered 
and  translated,  etc.  (Journal  As.  Soc.  1846,  etc.);  Grotefend, 
Erliiuterungen  der  Keilinschriften  aus  Behistun  (Gottingen 
1854);  Lassen  u.  Westergaard,  Ueher  die  Keilinschriften  der 
ersten  und  zweiten  Oattung  (Bonn  1845);  Hincks,  On  the 
First  and  Second  Kinds  of  Persepolitan  Writing  (Transact. 
Roy.  Ir.  Soc.  1846);  Norris,  Memoir  on  the  Scythic  Version 
of  the  Behistun  Inscription  (Journ  As.  Soc.  1853);  Rawlin- 
son ,  A  Commentary  on  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Baby- 
lon and  Assyria  (1850);  and  w^orks  by  Benfey,  Oppert,  Re- 
nan,  Spiegel,  Schrader,  Delitzsch,  and  others. 
CUNEO:  see  Coni. 

CTJNETTE,  n.  ku  net'  [F.]:  in  fort.,  a  narrow  ditch 
running  at  the  bottom  of  a  dry  ditch  for  the  purpose  of 
draining  it. 

CUNICULATE,  a.  ku-mk'ii4dt  [L.  cunic'iduSy  a  rab- 
bit-burrow]: in  bot.,  having  a  long  pierced  passage  or 
aperture. 

CUNNING,  a.  kun'nmg  [AS.  cunnan;  Goth,  kunnan, 
to  know:  Sw.  kunna,  to  be  able:  Icel.  kunnandi,  knowl- 

337 


CUNNINGHAM— CUNONIA. 
edge]:  artful;  sly;  crafty;  deceitful;  trickish;  in  Scrip. y 
skilful;  experienced:  N.  artiiice;  craft;  shrewdness;  deceit. 
Ccn'ningly,  ad.  -U,  artfully;  silly;  craftily;  skilfully. 
Cun'ningness,  n.— Syn.  of cunning,  a.':  wily;  design- 
ing; subtle;  knowing. 

CUNNINGHAM,  kim'mg.am,  Allan:  1785-1842,  Oct. 
21;  b.  Blackwood,  in  Dumfriesshire,  England:  poet  and 
author.  The  circumstances  of  his  parents  were  humble. 
At  the  age  of  11,  C.  was  taken  from  school,  and  appren- 
ticed to  a  stone-mason.  He  worked  faithfully  at  his  call- 
ing; but  his  spare  time,  and  his  evenings,  were  given  to 
song  and  the  collection  of  traditions.  He  appeared  in  print 
first  as  a  contributor  to  Cromek's  Remains  rf  NitJisdale 
and  Galloway  Song.  These  contributions,  purporting  to 
be  ancient  ballads,  were  entirely  the  composition  of  the 
ingenious  and  ambitious  stone-cutter.  The  publication 
gained  him  the  acquaintance  of  Hogg  and  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
With  the  latter,  '  Honest  Allan'  was  always  a  prodigious 
favorite.  On  his  removal  to  London,  he  became  one  of 
the  best  known  writers  for  the  London  Magazine.  He  sub- 
sequently obtained  a  situation  in  Chantrey's  studio  as  fore- 
man, or  contidential  manager,  and  this  office  he  held  till 
his  death.  During  his  career  he  wielded  an  indefatigable 
pen.  He  wrote  novels,  poems,  and  a  drama.  His  princi- 
pal prose  works,  apart  from  his  fictitious  narratives,  are 
Lives  of  the  Painters,  a  Life  of  Burns,  and  a  Life  of  Sir  Da- 
vid Wilkie.  He  died  in  London.  As  a  Scotch  poet,  he 
ranks,  perhaps,  after  James  Hogg.  His  songs,  though  dis- 
figured by  false  taste,  mannerism,  and  a  superabundance 
of  ornament,  have  true  lyrical  impulse  and  movement. 

CUNNINGHAM,  Peter:  1816-69;  son  of  Allan  C: 
known  in  literature  as  the  author  of  Handbook  of  London, 
Life  of  Drummond  of  Haicthornden ,  Life  of  Lnigo  Jones, 
Modern  London,  etc. ;  as  editor  of  various  English  classics; 
and  as  frequent  contributor  to  periodicals. 

CUNNINGHAM,  William,  d.d.:  1805-61:  theologian. 
He  was  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
1830.  He  was  prominent  in  the  discussions  previous  to  the 
Disruption,  1843,  and  was  one  of  those  who  left  thp  Establish- 
ment to  form  the  Free  Church.  In  1847,  he  became  principal 
of  the  New  (Free  Church)  College,  Edinburgh.  He  was 
author  of  Historic  Theology  in  the  Christian  Church  (1862), 
Reformers  and  Theology  of  the  Reformation  (1862),  and  Dis- 
courses on  Church  Principles  (1863). — See  Life  of  C. ,  by  Rainy 
and  Mackenzie  (1871). 

CUNNINGHAMIA,  kun-ing-hdni'i-a:  genus  of  trees  of 
the  nat.  ord.  ConifercE,  nearly  allied  in  botanical  characters 
to  the  true  pines  and  firs,  but  in  foliage  having  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  Araucarias.  C.  Sinenois  is  an  evergreen 
tree,  with  narrow  ovatolanceolate,  stiff,  and  sharp-pointed 
leaves,  common  in  China. 

CUNONIA,  n.  ku-n<j'nl-a  [named  after  John  Christian 
Cuno,  of  Amsterdam,  who  in  1750  described  his  own 
garden  in  verse]:  genus  of  plants  typical  of  the  order 


CUP-CUPAR-ANGUS. 

Cunordacea;.  CuNONiA^CEiE,  Cuconiads,  an  order  of  perigy- 
nous  exogens,  of  the  alliance  saxi  fragalis. 

CUP,  n,  kap  [F.  coupe — from  L.  cupa,  a  cask,  a  cup:  It. 
coppa,  a  head,  a  ciip.  Ger.  kopf,  a  cup,  a  knob:  Skr.  kupa, 
a  small  ciotern].  anything  hollow;  a  small  drinking- vessel; 
the  contents  of  a  cup;  in  Scrip.,  sufferings  or  afflictions; 
any  good  received  or  evil  endured:  V.  to  draw  blood  by 
puncturing  the  skin  and  applying  a  cupping-glass;  in  OE., 
to  supply  with  liquor  in  cups.  Cup  ping,  imp. :  N.  in 
surg.,  the  operation  of  drawing  blood  with  a  cupping-glass: 
Adj.  pertaining  to.  Cupped,  pp.  kapt.  Cups,  n  plu.  the 
excessive  drinking  of  intoxicants.  Cup'ping-glass,  a  small 
glass  vessel  shaped  like  a  cup  from  which  the  air  can  be  ex- 
hausted,  used  for  drawing  blood  or  morbid  matter.  Cup  - 
per, n.  -per,  a  surgeon  who  draws  blood  by  cupping. 
Cup-bearer,  n.  one  who  attends  on  a  prince.  Cupboard, 
n.  kitb'hdrd,  originally  a  board  or  shelf  for  cups;  a  case  of 
shelves  for  china-ware,  etc.  Cup-lichen  [so  called  from 
the  form  of  the  thai) us]:  ScypJiopliorus  pyxidatus.  In  his 
CUPS,  drunk  with  strong  drinks.  Cup  and  can,  familiar 
companions.  Cup- and -cone,  apparatus  for  charging  iron 
furnaces,  which  are  w^orked  with  clamped  tops  for  collect- 
ing the  waste  gases.  Many  a  slip  between  the  cup  and 
the  lip,  always  a  danger  of  our  surest  hopes  and  expecta- 
tions not  being  realized. 

CUP,  Divination  by;  mode  of  foretelling  events,  prac- 
ticed by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  still  prevailing  in  some 
rural  districts  of  England  and  Scotland.  One  of  the  eastern 
methods  consisted  in  throwing  in  small  pieces  of  gold  or  sil- 
ver leaf  into  a  C.  of  water,  in  which  also  were  placed  pre- 
cious stones,  wnth  certain  characters  engraved  upon  them. 
The  infernal  powers  were  then  invoked,  and  returned  an- 
swer, either  in  an  intelligible  voice,  or  by  signs  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  or  by  a  representation  in  the  C.  of  the  per- 
son inquired  about.  By  the  modern  superstition  among  the 
most  ignorant,  a  person's  fortune  is  foretold  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  sediment  in  his  tea-cup,  after  pouring  out  the  last 
of  the  liquid. 

CUPAR-ANGUS,  kopar-dng'giis:  town  on  the  borders 
of  Perthshire  and  Forfarshire,  partly  in  both;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Isla,  a  tributary  of  theTay,  12|  m.  e.  by  n  from 
Perth,  and  16  m.  w.n  w.  from  Dundee.  It  lies  between  the 
Grampian  and  Sidlaw  Hills,  in  the  centre  of  the  valley  of 
Strath  more,  and  from  its  position  in  this  valley  it  is  popu- 
larly called  '  the  capital  o'  the  How.'  It  has  extensive  linen 
manufactures,  with  considerable  traffic  in  timber.  Near  the 
town  are  the  remains  of  tw  o  Roman  camps,  on  one  of  which 
stand  the  ruins  of  a  monastery,  built  1164  by  Malcolm  IV,, 
and  destroyed  at  the  Reformation.  Recent  excavations  have 
exhumed  numerous  richly-carved  tombstones  in  the  grave- 
yard contiguous  to  the  parish  church,  evidentl}'  those  that 
had  marked  the  graves  of  the  ancient  dignitaries  of  the  mon- 
astery. The  abbe}/  revenue  1562  was  £1,234,  14^.  9^^  in 
money,  and  182  cTialders  ot  victual.  The  classic  lull  ot 
Dunsinane  is  situated  about  five  m.  s,w,  of  C,  and  the 

33  i 


CUPAR-FIFE— CUPIDITY, 
dilapidated  castle  of  the  *  bold  Pitcur/  who  fell  in  the  battle 
of  Killiecrankie,  1689,  is  within  two  m.    Pop.  (1881)  2,154. 

CUPAK  FIFE,  hjparff:  royal,  parliamentary,  and  mu- 
nicipal burgh,  county  town  of  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  near  the 
middle  of  the  peninsula  of  Fife,  on  the  Eden,  9  m.  from  its 
mouth,  32i  m.  n.  of  Edinburgh,  and  14^  s.  of  Dundee.  It 
lies  in  a  beautiful  vale,  stretching  e.  and  w.,  with  a  range  of 
hills  on  the  s.,  and  a  fertile  country, with  wooded  eminences, 
on  the  north.  It  consists  chietiy  of  two  streets  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  The  chief  manufactures  are  linens,  bricks, 
and  earthenware.  A  fortress  of  the  Macduffs,  thanes  of 
Fife,  anciently  stood  on  a  mound  called  the  Castle  Hill,  at 
the  e.  end  of  the  town.  In  former  times,  religious  shows, 
mysteries,  or  moralities,  were  acted  on  a  green  esplanade  in 
front  of  the  castle,  still  called  the  Play-field.  There  was 
acted  also  the  Three  Estates,  a  celebrated  satire  on  the  priest- 
hood, which  hastened  the  religious  revolution,  and  was  writ- 
ten by  Sir  David  Lindsay,  whose  estate  of  the  Mount  was 
near  the  town.— Pop.  (1881)  5,010. 

CUPEL,  n.  kupel  [L.  cupella,  a  little  cup;  F.  coupelUy 
the  little  pot  in  which  goldsmiths  fine  their  metals — from 
coupe,  a  cup]:  a  small  cup-like  vessel,  very  porous,  used  in 
refining  metals.  Cupellation,  n.  kit' pel-la  shun ,  the  proc- 
ess of  refining  gold  or  silver  by  the  cupel;  a  method  of  re- 
moving a  more  oxidizable  metal  from  one  less  so  (e.g.  lead 
from  silver),  the  oxidizing  of  the  inferior  metal  being  car- 
ried on  by  means  of  a  blast  of  air — the  fused  oxide  sinking 
into  the  porous  cupel:  see  Assay. 

CUPELLA'TION  is  the  process  of  the  separation  of  one 
metal  from  another  (as  lead  from  silver)  by  the  use  of  a  Cu- 
pel highly  heated  in  a  muffle  furnace:  see  Assay. 

CUPHEA,  n.  ku'fe-a  [Gr.  kuphos,  curved,  in  reference 
to  the  form  of  the  capsule] :  genus  of  perigynous  exogens, 
order  Lytliracem,  tribe  Lytlirece, 

CUPID,  n.  ku  pid  [L.  Cupldo,  Cupid — from  cupido,  de- 
sire] ;  the  boy-god  of  love  in  anc.  Roman  mythology.  The 
genealogy  of  this  meddlesome  divinity  is  rather  confused. 
Sometimes  he  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Vulcan  and  Venus, 
or  of  Mars  and  Venus;  at  other  times  the  mythologists  seem 
at  a  loss  to  name  his  father,  and  make  him  spring  from  the 
sea-foam,  like  Venus  herself.  As  among  the  Greeks,  the 
myth  of  Eros  gave  birth  to  numerous  Erotes  or  Loves,  so  at 
Rome,  that  of  C.  originated  a  legion  of  Cupids,  who  all  pos- 
sessed the  same  attributes  as  their  prototype.  Every  one 
knows  what  these  were:  the  bow,  arrows,  quiver,  and  wings. 
Often  a  bandage  covered  the  eyes.  The  appearance  was  that 
of  a  chubby  child,  or  youth  with  a  malicious  smile.  His  darts 
could  pierce  the  fish  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  the  birds  in  the 
air,  and  the  gods  in  OJympus.  The  immensity  of  space  was 
his  home,  but  like  his  mother,  he  specially  loved  the  flowery 
thickets  of  Cyprus. 

CUPIDITY,  n.  ku-pldi-ti  [L.  eupidltas,  a  longing-de 
sire:  It.  cupidita;  F.  cupidite — from  F.  cupide,  greedy— 

340 


CUPOLA— CUPPING. 

from  L.  cujndus]:  an  eager  desire  after  the  possession  of 
wealth  or  power;  avarice;  greediness. 

CUPOLA,  n.  kupb-ld  [F.  coupole — from  It.  cupola,  a 
round  vaulted  chapel  behind  the  chancel — from  cupo,  deep, 
hollow:  a  dim.  of  L.  cupa,  a  cup,  from  its  cuplike  shape]: 
an  arched  vault,  hemispherical,  or  of  any  other  curve,  on 
the  top  of  an  edifice;  a  round  top  or  dome,  sometimes  of 
glass,  shaped  like  a  half-globe:  see  Dome:  Y.  to  make  in 
the  form  of  a  dome;  to  cover  a  war-ship  with  plates  of 
iron  in  the  form  of  a  half  globe  or  dome.  Cu'pola'inc4, 
imp.  -Id'lng.  Cu  polaed,  pp.  a.  -Idd^  having  a  hemi- 
spherical roof  or  covering, 

CUPOLETTE,  n.  ku  po-Ut  [a  dim.  of  Cupola,  which 
see:  L.  cupoia,  a  little  cup — from  cupa,  a  cup]:  a  game  for 
outdoor  amusement,  in  which  the  players  have  seven 
wooden  pins  tixed  in  the  ground,  each  having  a  cup  and  a 
movable  ball  on  its  top. 

CUP' PING:  application  of  cups,  from  which  the  air  has 
been  exhausted,  to  the  skin  with  the  object  of  causing  con- 
gestion or  excessive  fulness  of  the  cutaneous  blood-vessels; 
and  if  it  should  be  thought  desirable  to  withdraw  some 
blood,  the  skin  may  be  cut  or  scarified,  and  the  exhausted 
cups  applied  over  the  incisions,  to  favor  its  flow. 

C.  has  been  apart  of  surgical  practice  from  earliest  times, 
and  instruments  for  performing  it  have  been  found  in  use 
among  the  least  civilized  nations.  Of  old, the  cups  were  either 
small  horns,  open  at  both  ends,  from  which  the  air  was  with- 
drawn by  suction  at  the  narrow  extremity,  or  glasses  of  various 
shapes,  with  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom  of  each.  This  hole 
was  plugged  with  wax,  the  air  exhausted  by  heat,  and  when 
the  operator  wished  to  remove  them,  he  withdrew  the  plug, 
and  allowed  the  air  to  enter.  The  modern  cups  are  of  glass, 
with  round  or  oval  mouths,  and  closed  bottoms.  Some  have 
small  sockets  for  holding  cotton  wick  in  their  interior. 

The  principal  improvements  have  been  in  the  methods  of 
incising  the  skin.  This  used  to  be  effected  with  a  common 
lancet  or  narrow  knife, with  a  short  blade  and  convex  edge, 
set  in  a  long  elastic  handle,  which  the  operator  struck  rapid- 
ly with  his  finger,  so  as  to  drive  the  blade  26  or  80  times 
into  the  skin. 

This  was  so  tedious  an  operation,  that  a  number  of  sim- 
ilar blades  were  used  at  once.  These  are  contained  in  a 
box  which  has  slits  pierced  in  it  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  blades;  the  latter  can  be  caused  to  emerge  at 
these  slits  by  turning  a  handle,  or  more  rapidly  by  setting 
free  a  spring,  which  causes  them  to  revolve  suddenly,  and 
in  doing  so  protrude  at  the  slits  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  will  of  the  operator.  The  operation  is  thus  performed: 
The  scarificator,  glasses,  torch,  spirits  of  wine,  and  a  light- 
ed candle  are  placed  ready  at  hand;  the  part  is  sponged 
with  hot  water,  to  cause  an  increased  tiow  of  blood  iiuo  it. 
then  dried  with  a  warm  towel;  the  torcli,  previously  satu- 
rated with  the  spirits  of  whie  and  lighted,  is  held  for  an 
instant  in  one  of  the  glasses,  which  is  now  clapped  on  to 
the  skin.    The  number  of  glasses  depends  on  tiie  (jiiaDllty 

3i: 


CUPREOU     C U P UL A . 

of  blood  it  is  thought  desirable  to^abslract;  each  one  will 
probably  withdraw  from  three  to  hve  ounces.  When  the 
skin  under  the  glass  has  become  red  and  swollen,  the  cup- 
per removes  it,  applies  the  scariUcator,  and  as  rapidly  as 
possible  again  exhausts  the  air  from  the  glass,  and  claps 
it  on  again.  The  blood  will  now  tiow  into  it;  and  when 
enough  has  been  taken,  the  glass  is  removed,  and  some 
lint  applied  to  the  wounds.  This  apparently  simple  pro- 
ceeding requires  considerable  skill,  so  that  C.  is  practiced 
as  a  separate  profession  in  large  low^ns,  and  the  medical 
boards  of  the  public  services  require  that  candidates  for 
their  appointments  should  produce  a  certificate  of  having 
received  special  instruction  in  the  art.  The  ditiiculties 
consist  in  regulating  the  depth  of  the  cuts,  for  should  they 
be  either  too  deep  or  too  shallow,  the  blood  will  not  flow. 
If  the  glasses  be  completely  exhausted  of  air,  their  rims 
hurt  the  patient,  and  the  blood  will  not  tiow,  and  it  has 
happened  that  arteries  or  large  veins  have  been  wounded 
by  ignorant  operators. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the  ordinary  C.  appa- 
ratus, but  all  on  the  same  principle. 

Dry  C.  is  simply  applying  the  cups  as  described,  but  not 
wounding  the  skin.  The  ancients  had  a  high  opinion  of 
this  method,  as  they  believed  the  '  noxious  humors '  were 
drawn  forth  of  the  body  into  the  cups;  and  it  need  scarce- 
ly be  added  that  extempore  cups  may  be  found  in  tum- 
blers, finger-glasses,  or  any  air-tight  vessel  with  a  smooth 
rim. 

CUPREOUS,  a.  ku'pri-us  [L.  cupreus,  of  copper— from 
cuprum,  copper;  It.  cupreo]:  of  or  like  copper;  coppery. 
Cupriferous,  a.  ku-pr)f'er-u8  [L.  fero,  I  bear]:  yielding 
copper— applied  to  veins,  rocks,  etc.,  containing  ores  of 
copper.  Cu  prite,  n.  -pint,  the  red  oxide  of  copper. 
CuPRic,  a.  kaprik,  applied  to  an  oxide  of  copper,  and 
Cuprous,  a.  kU'pras,  to  its  corresponding  salt. 

CUPRESSITES,  n.  plu.  kupres'Us  [L.  cupres'sus,  the 
cypress -tree] :  in  geoL,  a  general  term  for  all  coniferous 
remains  which  are  allied  to  those  of  the  existing  cypress,  or 
identical  with  them. 

CUPROID,  a.  kup-royd'  [L.  cuprum,  copper .  Gr.  eidos, 
form]:  resembling  copper:  N.  a  crystal  of  the  tetrahedral 
type,  with  twelve  equal  angles. 

CUPULA,  n.  kupd'ld,  or  Cu'pule,  n.  -pul  [L.  cupula, 
a  little  cup — from  cupa,  a  cup]:  in  hot.,  an  external  cover- 
ing to  a  fruit  formed  of  modified  bracts,  as  in  the  oak,  in 
which  the  cupule  is  the  cup  of  the  acorn,  in  the  hazel  in 
which  it  is  the  husk  of  the  filbert.  Cu'pulif'erous,  a. 
[L.  fero,  I  bear]:  bearing  cupules.  Cupulifer^,  or 
CoRYLACEiE,  nat.  ord.  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  temperate  climates.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  and  furnished  with  stipules.  The  male 
flowers,  sometimes  also  the  female  flowers,  are  disposed  in 
catkins  (and  this  order  is  regarded  by  many  botanists  as  a 
sub-order  of  Amentace^,  q.v.);  the  stamens  are  5-20, 
Mi?^rted  into  the  base  of  scales  or  of  a  membranous  per- 

343 


CUR— CURAgOA. 

iantli;  the  ovary  is  crowned  by  the  rudiments  of  a  persist- 
ent perianth,  and  surrounded  by  a  cupule  of  various 
ligure;  there  are  several  cells  and  ovules,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  ovules  are  abortive;  the  fruit  is  a  1 -celled  nut, 
more  or  less  inclosed  in  the  cupule;  the  seed  is  usually 
solitary;  the  embryo  large,  with  tleshy  cotyledons  and  mi- 
nute superior  radicle. — This  order  contains  many  of  the 
most  important  trees  of  Europe  and  America,  including  all 
the  dilferent  kinds  of  oak,  beech,  chestnut,  and  hazel,  the 
hornbeam,  etc.  Many  species  are  natives  also  of  tropical 
countries,  but  only  at  considerable  elevations. 

CUR,  n.  kev  [Dut.  korre,  a  house-dog:  prov.  Sw.  kurre, 
a  dog:  Icel.  kurra,  to  murmur:  Dan.  kurr,  to  woo,  to  whirr: 
comp.  Gael,  mora,  a  sheep,  a  worthless  dog:  Welsh  cor,  a 
dwarf,  an^^thing  small;  corgi,  a  small  dog]:  name  given 
sometimes  indiscriminately  to  small  dogs  of  any  kind  not 
highly  valued,  and  in  this  way  often  appropriated  particu- 
larly to  dogs  of  mongrel  or  degenerate  breed;  but  used 
also  by  naturalists  as  the  common  designation  of  many 
races,  of  which  the  terriers  (q.v.)  may  be  considered  as 
type;  all  of  them  of  small  size,  and  exhibiting  in  a  high 
degree  the  capacity  for  domestication,  along  with  activity 
and  sagacity.  These  races  are  distributed  over  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  differ  considerably  from  each  other,  and 
are  found  domesticated  even  among  very  rude  and  savage 
tribes.  The  Pariah  dog  of  India  is  reckoned  among  them, 
and  exists  in  that  country  both  in  a  wild  and  in  a  domes- 
ticated state;  its  body  is  more  lank  than  that  of  the  cm- 
races  of  Europe,  as  are  also  the  dogs  that  infest  the  streets 
of  towns  in  Turkey,  Persia,  etc.  The  curs  may  have  been 
the  first  domesticated  dogs.  Cur  rish,  a.  -rinh;  Cur'- 
LiKE,  a.  like  a  cur;  having  the  qualities  of  a  cur. 

CURABLE,  CURABILITY,  etc.:  see  under  Cure. 

CURAQOA,  ku-ra-sd'  or  -so' a  or  Curasao,  ko-rd-sd'o:  most 
important  of  the  Dutch  W.  India  Islands  which  lie  near 
the  n.  coast  of  Venezuela,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Pop. 
(1880)  Cura9oa,  24,146;  Bonaire,  4,906;  Aruba,  6,204;  Neth- 
erlands part  of  St.  Martin,  3,142;  St.  Eustatius,  2,097;  and 
Saba,  1,955.  Entire  pop.  42,530,  all  free.  The  people 
nearly  all  are  Rom.  Catholics.  One- third  are  emanci- 
pated negroes  The  cap.  of  C.  is  Willemstad  or  Curacoa, 
a  very  handsome  town  on  the  bay  of  St.  Anna;  pop.  13,- 
000.  The  soil  of  C.  and  its  dependent  islands  is  less  pro- 
ductive than  that  of  other  tropical  lands.  The  exports  are 
maize,  beans,  cattle,  salt  phosphate  of  lime,  red  dye-wood, 
charcoal,  bricks,  and  fruits.  Goat,  kid,  and  deer  skins 
are  exported  in  large  numbers.  Provisions  have  to  be  im- 
ported, to  some  extent,  so  poor  is  the  soil;  though  tama- 
rinds, bananas,  cacao,  oranges,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  maize 
are  grown.  The  trade  is  mainly  with  the  United  States. 
C.  (spelled  also  Ourassou)  was  discovered  by  Spain  1527, 
taken  by  the  Dutch  1634,  conquered  by  the  English  1807, 
and  restored  to  Holland  1815. 

CURA(JOA,  n.  ku-rd-so  or  ku'rd-sod  [from  the  island  of 
Curagoa,  where  first  made]:  liqueur,  made  either  from  the 

34» 


CURAgOA  ORANGES— CURASSO. 
small  oranges  called  C.  oranges,  or  from  orange-peel,  by 
digesting  in  sweetened  spirits,  with  a  little  cinnamon,  and 
often  a  little  mace  or  cloves.  The  spirits  used  are  gener- 
ally reduced  to  about  56  under  proof,  and  contain  about 
3^  pounds  of  sugar  per  gallon  C.  is  often  colored  by  di- 
gesting in  it  for  a  week  or  ten  days  a  little  powdered  Brazil 
wood,  and  mellowing  the  color  by  means  of  burned 
sugar. 

CURAgOA  ORANGES:  small  oranges  which  have 
fallen  from  the  tree  long  before  maturity.  They  have 
properties  similar  to  those  of  orange  peel,  but  are  more  bit- 
ter and  acrid. 

CURARE,  or  Curari,  ku-rd're  [from  a  native  name]: 
South  American  arrow-poison  which  completely  paralyzes 
the  motor  nerves;  also  spelt  Ura'ri  or  Woora'ra,  and 
Woura'li  or  Woora'li.  Cura'rine,  n.  -inn,  the  active 
principle  of  curare. — It  is  by  means  of  this  poison  that  the 
small  arrows  shot  from  the  blowpipe  (q.v.)  become  so 
deadly.  Its  nature  and  source  remained  long  unknown, 
the  Indians  being  very  unwilling  to  reveal  the  secret, 
which  seems,  however,  to  have  been  at  last  obtained  from 
them  by  Sir  Robert  Schomburgk,  and  it  is  now  regarded 
as  certain  that  the  principal  ingredient  is  the  juice  of  the 
Strychrws  toxifera,  a  tree  or  shrub  of  the  same  genus  with 
that  which  yields  nux  vomica:  see  Strychnos.  It  has  a 
climbing  stem,  thickly  covered  with  long  spreading  red- 
dish hairs;  rough,  ovate,  pointed  leaves,  and  large,  roimd 
fruit.  The  poison,  w^heu  introduced  into  the  blood,  acts 
on  the  nervous  system,  and  produces  paralysis,  with  con- 
vulsive movements;  and  death  ensues.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  the  most  powerful  sedative  in  nature.  Artihcial  res- 
piration is  the  most  efficacious  means  of  preventing  its 
effects.  It  has  been  proiX)sed  to  employ  it  in  the  cure  of 
lockjaw  and  hydrophobia,  and  it  has  recently  been  assert 
ed,  as  the  result  of  experiment,  that  it  can  be  very  bene- 
ficially employed  in  the  former  disease.  Like  snake-poi- 
son, it  is  comparatively  inert  when  taken  into  the  stomach: 
see  WooRALi. 

CURASSO,  n.,  or  Curassow,  ku-rds'sd,  also  Hocco 
(Crax):  genus  of  large  gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family 
Cracidce,  having  a  strong  bill  surrounded  at  the  base  with 
a  skin — sometimes  brightly  colored — in  which  the  nostrils 
are  pierced,  and  the  head  adorned  with  a  crest  of  feathers 
curled  forward,  which  can  be  raised  and  depressed  at  pleas- 
ure. The  species,  which  are  not  numerous,  are  natives  of 
the  forests  of  the  warm  parts  of  America.  They  congre- 
gate in  tlocks,  and  although  they  live  much  among  the 
branches  of  trees,  their  habits  greatly  resemble  those  of 
domestic  poultry.  They  are  very  unsuspicious  of  danger, 
until  taught  by  severe  experience;  and  are  easily  domesti- 
cated. The  best  known  species  {C.  Alector)  is  about  the 
size  of  a  turkey,  its  plumage  is  almost  entirely  black.  It 
is  abundant  in  the  forests  of  Guiana.  Its  tlesh  is  very  good 
eating.  It  is  kept  in  poultry-yards  in  S.  America,  and  was 
introduced  into  Holland  at  the  close  of  last  century,  where 

344 


CURATE. 

it  w^eemed  completely  acclimated,  but  the  stock  was  lost 


Galeated  Curassow. 


amid  the  troubles  which  ensued  on  the  French  Revolution. 

CURATE,  n.  ku'rdt  [mid.  L.  curdtus,  a  priest,  a  curate: 
L,  curator,  he  who  cares  for — from  curare,  to  take  care  of: 
It.  curator e;  F.  curateur,  a  guardian:  F.  cure,  a  parson,  a 
curate]:  one  who  has  the  cure  or  care  of  souls,  in  which 
sense  the  term  is  used  in  the  Church  of  England  Prayer- 
book,  '  all  bishops  and  curates.'  It  is,  however,  generally 
used  to  denote  the  humblest  degree  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. AC,  in  this  sense,  is  a  minister  employed  by  the 
incumbent  of  a  church  (rector  or  vicar),  either  as  assistant 
to  him  in  the  same  church,  or  else  in  a  chapel  of  ease 
within  the  parish  belonging  to  the  mother  church.  He 
must  be  licensed  and  admitted  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
or  by  an  ordinary  having  episcopal  jurisdiction,  who  also 
usually  appoints  his  salary.  Any  C.  that  has  no  fixed  es- 
tate in  his  curacy,  not  being  instituted  and  inducted,  may 
be  removed  at  pleasure  by  the  bishop  or  incumbent.  In 
general,  the  salaries  of  curates,  certainly  the  most  defense- 
less and  the  hardest- worked,  and  not  the  least  devoted  of 
ti)e  English  clergy,  are  shamefully  small;  and  reform  in 
this  matter  is  urgently  required.  Perpetual  curate,  one 
appointed  where  tithes  are  impropriate,  and  no  vicarage 
v/as  ever  endowed;  such  curates  are  not  removable,  and  the 
impropriator  is  obliged  to  maintain  them.  Cu'racy,  n. 
-rd-sl,  the  office  or  employment  of  a  curate.  Cu'rateship, 
n.  the  office  of  a  curate;  a  curacy.  Cura'tor,  n.  -rater,  one 
who  has  the  care  or  superintendence  of  anything;  a  guard- 
ian or  trustee.  Curatory,  n.  ku'rd-ter-l,  the  persons  em- 
ployed as  curators.  Curator  bonis,  kii-rd'tbr  bO'nis  [L. 
curator,  he  who  cares;  bonis,  for  the  goods]:  a  guardian  or 
trustee  over  property;  in  Scot ,  an  officer  appointed  by  the 
court  to  manage  the  property  of  a  person  who  is  unable 
temporarily  or  permanently  to  undertake  its  management: 
see  Guardian. 

845 


CURB— CURD. 

CURB,  n.  kerb  [F.  courier,  to  bend,  to  crook— from  F. 
coui-he,  a  curve — from  L.  curvus,  crooked:  Gael,  cimp,  to 
crouch:  Manx,  crib,  to  curb]:  the  tiat  iron  chain  fastened 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  branches  of  a  bit;  a  check;  restraint; 
hindrance:  Y.  to  guide  or  restrain  by  a  curb,  as  a  liorse;  to 
check  or  restrain;  to  hold  back;  to  keep  in  subjection. 
Curb'ing,  imp.  Curbed,  pp.  ke?%d.  Curb  less,  a.  Curb- 
bit,  stiff -bit  having  branches  by  which  leverage  is  obtained 
upon  the  jaws  of  a  horse.  Curb-roof:  see  Mansard 
ROOF.  CuRB-STONES  [comp.  Gael,  cearb,  a  fringe,  a  skirtj: 
a  row  of  stones  along  the  edge  of  a  pavement,  or  skirting  it; 
in  Scot.,  also  written  kei^b  or  kirb. — Syn.  of  'curb,  v.':  to 
restrain;  repress;  control;  check;  bow;  subject:  subdue; 
confine. 

CURB:  disease  in  horses;  strain  of  the  straight  ligament 
which  runs  down  the  back  of  the  hough;  most  frequent  in 
animals  with  straight  small  houghs  and  that  conformation 
known  as  sickle  hams;  w^hile  like  other  strains  it  occurs 
from  sudden  and  violent  exertion,  often  proceeding  in  the 
lighter  breeds  from  leaping  or  galloping  in  heavy  ground, 
and  in  the  heavier,  from  the  etiort  of  keeping  back  a  load 
while  going  down  a  steep  incline.  Swelling  appears  on 
the  inner  and  back  part  of  the  joifiti  generally  causing 
lameness,  which  is  most  apparent  in  trotting,  and,  in  slight 
cases,  usually  wears  off  after  the  animal  has  been  out  for 
ten  minutes.  Fomentations  must  first  be  used  to  allay  the 
irritation  and  inflammation;  w^hen  heat  and  tenderness  dis- 
appear, cold  applications  will  be  advisable;  when,  after 
ten  days,  the  enlargement  still  continues,  a  blister  may  be 
necessary;  while,  from  the  first,  all  work  must  be  forbid- 
den. 

CUR'CAS:  see  Physic  Nut. 
CURCU'LIO:  see  Weevil. 

CURCULIONID^,  n.  /te'r-ku-luon'i-de  [L.  curculio, 
gen.  curcuUoiiis,  ana  suf.  -idai\\  large  family  of  insects, 
tribe  Tetrcunera,  sub -tribe  Bhyncophora  (Snout-bearing 
Insects):  see  Weevil. 

CURCUMA,  kcr'ku-md  [Arab,  kurkum]:  genus  of  plants 
of  the  nat.  ord.  Scitaminece,  having  the  tube  of  the  corolla 
gradually  enlarged  upward,  and  the  limb  two-lipped,  each 
lip  three-parted.  The  species  are  stemless  plants,  with 
palmate  tuberous  roots,  natives  of  the  E.  Indies.  Tlie 
dried  roots  of  some  are  the  Zedoary  (q.v.)  of  the  shops;  the 
roots  of  others  yield  Turmeric  (q.v.);  some  yield  a  kind  of 
Arrow-root  (q.v.).  The  same  species  often  fields  both 
arrow-root  and  turmeric,  the  former  from  the  young  roots, 
the  latter  from  the  old.— (7.  Amada  is  called  Mais: go  Ginger. 
Its  root  w^hen  fresh  has  the  smell  of  a  mango,  and  in  its 
qualities  resembles  ginger.    It  is  a  native  of  Bengal. 

CUR  CUMIN:  see  Turmeric. 

CURD,  n.  kird  [W.  cried,  a  round  lump:  F.  crottes,  the 
lumpy  dung  of  sheep:  AS.  and  Scot,  criid,  coagulated  milk 
—the  old  spelling  crud  is  more  true  to  the  origin:  Gael. 
gruth;  Ir,  crutJi^cmd^:  comp.  Gael. ^rw^^ac/^,  coagulated] ; 


CURE— CURIOUS. 

the  cheesy  matter  or  coaguhim  that  separates  from  milk  on 
the  addition  of  rennet  or  an  acid;  any  coagulated  matter: 
V.  to  turn  to  curd.  Cuk'ding,  imp.  Curded,  pp. 
Cur'dy,  a.  -di,  like  curd;  full  of  curd.  Cdkdle,  v.  ker'dl, 
to  thicken  or  change  into  curd;  to  coagulate;  to  stagnate  or 
congeal.  Curdling,  imp.  ker'dlMg.  Curdled,  pp. 
ker'dld:  Adj.  coagulated;  congealed. 

CURE,  n.  kuT  [F.  cure,  care,  doctoring — from  L.  curay 
care,  pain;  mid.  L.  cura,  the  care  of  souls:  It.  curn]:  the 
act  of  healing;  restoration  to  health;  a  remedy  for  a  disease; 
a  care  of  souls;  the  spiritual  charge  of  a  parish;  ibe  parish 
itself:  V.  to  heal:  to  restore  to  health;  to  remedy;  to  remove 
an  evil;  to  salt,  pickle,  or  dry  for  preservation.  Cu  ring, 
imp.  Cured,  pp.  kurd.  Cure  less,  a.  that  cannot  be 
cured.  Cu'rer,  n.  -rer,  one  who  cures;  one  who  prepares 
salted  or  cured  fish  or  flesh,  as  fish-curer.  Cu'rable,  a. 
-rd-bl,  that  may  be  healed.  Cu'rableness,  n.  Cu'rabil'- 
ITY,  n.  -bU'i-tl,  possibility  of  being  cured.  Cu'rative,  a. 
-rd-tiv,  tending,  or  having  the  power,  to  heal. 

CURFEW,  n.  ker'fu  [F.  couvre-feu;  OF.  covre-feu,  cov- 
er-fire— from  OF.  covrir,  to  cover;  Y.feu,  fire]:  in  ancient 
times  in  Europe,  the  ringing  of  an  evening  bell,  as  a  sig- 
nal to  the  people  to  cover  up  fires,  put  out  lights,  and  retire 
to  rest.  To  William  the  Conqueror  is  ascribed  the  intro- 
duction of  the  C.  bell  into  England.  The  time  for  ringing 
these  bells  was  sunset  in  summer,  and  about  eight  o'clock 
in  winter;  and  certain  penalties  were  imposed  upon  those 
who  did  not  attend  to  the  signal.  The  practice  of  ringing 
the  C.  bell  appears  to  have  prevailed  throughout  Europe 
long  before  the  era  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  its  object  be- 
ing protection  against  fires  then  so  frequent  and  destruc- 
tive, owing  to  dwellings  being  chiefly  of  wood.  The  cus- 
tom of  ringing  the  C.  bell  at  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  is  still 
continued  in  many  parts  of  England,  and  has  lingered  in 
parts  of  New  England,  though  its  original  significance  has 
long  been  lost. 

CURIA,  n.  kurl-d  [L.  curia,  the  senate  or  senate-house]: 
in  anc.  Borne,  the  senate  or  senate-house;  the  assembly  of 
the  counts  and  prelates  of  the  empire;  the  pope  with  his 
council,  or  ex  cathedra,  as  head  of  the  church;  any  eccle- 
siastical court  or  authority.  Curial,  ku'rl-dl  [It.  curiale,  a 
lawyer] :  in  Italy,  a  lawyer:  Adj.  of  or  belonging  to  the  curia. 

CURIA,  ku'ri-a,  in  Ancient  Rome:  division  of  a  tribe,  ac- 
cording to  the  constitution  of  Romulus;  a  wardship  com- 
prising 100  households:  see  Rome  (Histor}^). 

CU  RIA  MU'RIA  ISLANDS:  see  Kooria  Mooria  Isl^ 
ands. 

CURIOLOGIC,  a.  kur-i-o-to^'ik  [Gr.  kuriologikos,  speak- 
ing or  describing  literally — from  kurios,  strict,  literal,  and 
logos,  a  word]:  a  rude  kind  of  hieroglyphics,  in  which 
things  are  represented  by  their  pictures. 

CURIOUS,  a.  kU'ri-us  [OF.  curios,  careful — from  L. 
cuTwsus,  full  of  care,  inquisitive — from  cura,  care,  attention : 
li.curioso;  F.cz^wwa?, curious,  inauisitive] :  strongly  desirous 

347 


CURISCHES  HAFF— CURLEW, 
to  know  or  see;  inquisitive;  prying;  wrought  with  elaborate 
care  and  art;  difficult  to  please;  singular;  rare.  Cu'riously, 
ad.  U.  Cu  RiousNESS,  n.  Cu  rigs  ity,  n.  -6s'i-ti,  a  strong 
desire  to  see  or  to  know;  that  which  excites  a  desire  of 
seeing;  a  rarity.  Cukioso,  n.  Jcu'rl-d'zo  [It.]:  one  fond  of 
collecting  rare  and  curious  articles;  a  virtuoso. 

CU  RISCHES  HAFF:  see  Kurisches  Haff. 

CURL,  n.  k'erl  [formerly  written  crull:  Dut.  krul;  old 
Dut.  krol;  Low  Ger.  krukel,  a  curl — from  the  sense  of  a 
vibratory  movement,  and  thence  of  a  spiral  or  twisted  form: 
Ger.  kollern,  to  rumble:  Dut.  krullen,  to  crumple]:  a 
ringlet  of  hair  or  anything  like  it;  a  disease  of  potatoes  in 
which  the  leaves  of  the  stalks  are  curled:  Y.  to  turn,  form, 
or  bend  into  ringlets,  as  the  hair;  to  twist;  to  coil;  to  rise 
in  twisting  or  sinuous  weaves;  to  play  at  the  game  of  curling. 
Curling,  imp.:  Adj.  rising  in  wreaths  or  undulations. 
Curled,  pp.  kerld.  Curly,  a.  ker'li,  having  curls;  full  of 
ripples.  CuR  LiNESs,  n.  Cur  lingly,  ad.  -U.  Cur'ling- 
TONGS  or  -IRONS,  an  instrument  for  curling  the  hair. 
Curly-headed,  having  hair  curled  naturally. 

CURLEW,  n.  ker'Ut  [the  name  imitative  of  the  shrill  cry 
of  the  bird:  F.  courlis  or  courlieu:  OF.  corlieu:  It.  cMurlo], 
{Numenius):  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  Grallatores;  of  the 
same  family  [ScolopacidcB)  with  the  snipe,  w^oodcock,  avo- 
cet,  stilt,  godwit,  etc.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved, 
and  compressed;  the  face  and  head  are  feathered;  the  legs 
are  slender,  and  part  of  the  tibia  is  naked  as  well  as  the 
shank;  the  tail  is  short,  and  the  folded  wings  extend  about 
as  far  as  the  tail.  The  common  C.  {N.  arquata),  the  Wkaup 
of  the  Scotch,  is  a  bird  of  wide  geographic  distribution. 


Common  Curlew  {Numenius  arquata). 

found  in  tropical,  temperate,  and  arctic  regions  of  the  old 
world  and  in  Australia;  frequenting  sea-shores  in  winter, 
and  elevated  moors  in  summer.  Its  peculiar  cry  or  whis- 
tle is  among  the  well-known  characteristics  of  many  up- 
land scenes.  It  feeds  on  worms,  mollusks,  and  insects.  Its 
long  bill  enables  it  to  seek  its  food  in  marshy  or  boggy 
ground.    It  builds  a  slight  nest  of  leaves  or  other  dry  ma- 

343 


CURLING. 

terials,  in  some  tuft  of  rushes  or  among  long  grass  or  heatli, 
in  which  four  eggs  are  laid.  The  C.  is  good  eating. — The 
Whimbrel  (iV^.  phceopus)  is  a  smaller  species  of  C,  much 
resembling  the  Common  Curlew;  also  very  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  old  world;  it  frequently  occurs  on  the 
shores  of  Britain,  but  seems  to  breed  only  in  the  most 
northerly  moors.  N.  America  has  several  species  of  C, 
some  of  w^hich  extend  their  summer  migrations  to  very 
northerly  regions.  The  Esquimaux  C.  {N.  bm^ealis)  is  some- 
times seen  migrating  in  dense  flocks. 

CURLING,  n.  ker'llng  [said  to  be  a  mere  corruption  of 
Ger.  kurzweil,  a  game  (see  Curl)]:  in  Scot.,  a  winter  out- 
door game  played  with  smooth  stones  on  the  ice.  Cur' 
LERS,  n.  plu.  players  at  the  game  of  curling. — Frozen  lakes 
and  rivers  serve  for  the  game;  but  under  the  auspices  of 
C.  clubs,  artificial  shallow  ponds  are  maintained  for  this 
popular  national  sport,  and  the  set  matches  are  contested 
with  immense  spirit.  The  sport  is  regulated  by  a  body  of 
rules  issued  by  a  central  association  called  the  Caledonian 
Curling  Club,  which  has  grand  matches  in  which  hundreds 
are  engaged  at  least  once,  if  possible,  every  winter.  A 
pleasing  peculiarity  of  C.  is,  that  it  produces  a  thorough 
mingling  of  ranks — peers,  peasants,  clergymen,  farmers, 
country  gentlemen,  and  tradesmen,  all  mingling  hilariously 
and  familiarly  for  the  occasion.  The  sport  belongs  par- 
ticularly to  the  s.w.  division  of  Scotland.  Latterly,  it  has 
migrated  to  England,  Canada,  and  the  United  States, 
where  Scotsmen  can  find  ice  of  sulficient  strength  and 
keenness.    C.  is  played  with  flattish  circular  hard  stones, 

.    f    /a        ia        y        «o        f°  w  fitr 

The  Rink. 

about  nine  inches  in  diameter,  prepared  by  stone-hewers, 
each  stone  weighing  from  30  to  45  lbs.  Each  of  the  play- 
ers has  a  pair.  The  stones  are  provided  with  handles,  to 
enable  the  player  to  hurl  them  on  the  ice  with  the  proper 
degree  of  force.  As  at  bowls,  the  stones  are  hurled  to  an 
assigned  point  or  mark.  The  game  is  as  follows:  Sides 
are  made  up,  usually  consisting  of  four  against  four,  with 
a  director  styled  ship  for  each;  after  which  a  certain  area 
of  ice,  30  to  40  yards  in  length,  and  eight  or  nine  ft. 
across,  is  chosen.  This  is  called  the  rink.  Certain  marks 
are  then  made  at  each  end  of  the  rink,  consisting  of  several 
concentric  rings,  called  hrouglis,  and  a  centre,  called  the  tee. 
A  certain  number  is  game,  usually  31.  One  on  each  side 
pla^^s  alternatel3^  The  chief  object  of  the  player  is  to  hurl 
his  stone  along  the  ice,  toward  tlie  tee,  with  proper  strength 
and  precision;  and  on  the  skill  of  the  players  in  placing 
their  ow^n  stones  in  favorable  positions,  or  in  driving  rival 
stones  out  of  favorable  positions,  depends  nearly  all  the 
interest  of  the  game.    At  a  certain  distance  from  each  of 

S49 


CURMUDGEON— CUKRACH. 


the  tees,  a  score — the  liog-score — is  drawn  across  the  ice, 
any  stone  not  driven  beyond  this  mark,  counts  nothing,  and 
is  laid  aside.  For  laws  of  C,  and  general  remarks,  see 
The  Channel- Stane,  and  two  reprints,  published  by  Mr. 
Cameron  of  Edinburgh  in  1883. 

CURMUDGEON,  n.  ker-miij'un  [probably  from  corn- 
mudgin,  a  dealer  in  corn — such  persons  in  former  times 
being  supposed  to  keep  up  the  price  of  corn  from  avarice: 
mudgin—ivom  OF.  muchier,  to  hide,  to  conceal— ,  one 
who  withheld  or  hoarded  up  corn] :  an  avaricious,  churlish 
fellow;  a  miser;  a  griping,  disagreeable  man.  Curmudg  - 
eonly, ad.  -U,  in  an  avaricious,  churlish  manner.  Note. — 
Dr  Mackay  gives  the  origin  of  this  word  from  Gael,  ceari' 
midgean,  a  wrong-headed,  perverse  fellow — from  cearfy 
wrong,  perverse,  and  muigean,  churlish. 

CURMURRING,  n.  ker-mer'ring  [an  imitative  word] :  a 
rumbling  soui.d,  as  in  the  stomach. 

CURRACH,  n.  kur'rak,  ch  guttural  in  Scotch;  also  Cor- 
acle, kor'a-kl  [Celt,  corwg,  curach;  L.  curuca,  carrocium, 
carabus  (see  Coracle)]:  in  Scot.,  and  in  Britain  generally, 
a  small  skiff;  a  small  boat  of  wicker  work,  covered  ancient- 
ly with  the  skins  of  animals;  now  a  boat  of  wicker-work, 
or  of  a  slender  frame  of  wood,  covered  with  tarred  can- 
vas. Skilfs  of  this  sort,  as  well  as  canoes  hollowed  out  of 
the  trunks  of  oaks,  were  in  use  among  the  Britons  in  the 
earliest  times  of  which  we  have  record.  Julius  Caesar, 
who  built  some  of  them  after  the  British  model,  tells  us 
that  the  keel  and  gunwales  were  of  light  wood,  and  the 
sides  of  wicker,  covered  with  hides.  Similar  descriptions 
are  given  by  Pliny,  Lucan,  Solinus,  Festus  Avienus,  Si- 
donius  Apollinaris,  and  others.  The  Urst  occurrence  of 
the  name  seems  to  be  in  Gildas,  who  wrote  in  the  6th  c; 
he  speaks  of  the  C.  as  in  use  among  the  Scots  and  the 
Picts.  A  long  voyage  in  the  North  Sea,  made  in  a  C, 
during  the  same  century,  by  one  of  the  companions  of  St. 
Columba,  is  commemorated  by  Adamnan  (died  704).  In 
878,  three  Irish  missionaries  sailed 
in  a  C.  from  Ireland  to  Cornwall; 
the  voyage  occupied  seven  days; 
and  the  size  of  the  C.  is  indicated 
by  the  remark  that  it  was  one  of 
two  skins  and  a  half.  An  old  life 
of  St.  Patrick  speaks  of  a  C.  'of 
one  skin,  with  neither  helm  nor 
oar.'  The  C.  of  a  larger  size  had  a 
mast  and  sail.  The  C.  still  contin- 
ues in  use  on  the  Severn,  and  on 
many  parts  of  the  Irish  coast,  es- 
pecially on  the  shores  of  Clare  and 
Donegal.  The  last  C.  known  to 
have  been  used  in  Scotland  is  in 
the  museum  at  Elgin.  It  was  em  - 
ployed on  the  Spey,  toward  the  end 
of  last  century.  Shaw,  whose  His- 
tory of  Moray  was  published  1775,  when  the  C.  had  be- 

350 


CURRAN— CURRAKT. 

come  rare,  thus  describes  it:  'It  is  in  shape  oval,  near 
three  ft.  broad,  and  four  long;  a  small  keel  runs  from  the 
head  to  the  stern;  a  few  ribs  are  placed  across  the  keel, 
and  a  ring  of  pliable  wood  around  the  lip  of  the  machine. 
The  whole  is  covered  with  the  rough  hide  of  an  ox  or  a 
horse;  the  seat  is  in  the  middle;  it  carries  but  one  person, 
or,  if  a  second  goes  into  it  to  be  wafted  over  a  river,  he 
stands  behind  the  rower,  leaning  on  his  shoulders.  In 
floating  timber,  a  rope  is  fixed  to  the  float,  and  the  rower 
holds  it  in  one  hand,  and  with  the  other  manages  the  pad- 
dle. He  keeps  the  float  in  deep  water,  and  brings  it  to 
shore  when  he  will.  In  returning  home,  he  carries  the 
machine  on  his  shoulders,  or  on  a  horse.'  One  who  figures 
in  the  Dunciad — Aaron  Hill  the  poet — by  showing  the 
Strathspey  Highlanders  how  to  make  their  timber  into  a 
navigable  raft,  hastened  the  disappearance  of  the  C.  from 
Scotland.  For  description  of  the  C,  as  still  used  in  Ire- 
land, see  the  Ulster  Journal  of  Arclimlogy,  I.  32.  A  boat  of 
bison  skin,  essentially  the  same  with  the  British  coracle, 
is  in  use  among  some  of  the  Indians  of  N.  America. 

CURRAK,  Mir' an,  John  Phtlpot:  1750,  July  24—1817, 
Oct.  14;  b.  Newmarket,  county  Cork,  Ireland:  legal  and 
parliamentary  orator.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin;  and  in  1773,  having  resolved  to  adopt  the  law  as  a 
profession,  went  to  London  and  entered  himself  at  the 
Middle  Temple.  Two  years  later  he  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar,  where  his  humorous,  flower}^  and  sarcastic 
speech  secured  him  immediate  success,  which  his  attract- 
ive social  qualities  did  much  to  extend.  In  1782,  he  ob- 
tained a  seat  in  the  Irish  parliament  as  member  for  Kil- 
beggan,  his  general  policy  being  in  unison  with  that  of 
Grattan  and  the  few  other  liberal  members  then  in  the 
house.  In  debate,  C.  was  usually  charged  with  the  re- 
ply to  opponents,  for  which  important  duty  his  ready  speech 
and  cutting  retort  admirably  qualified  him.  But  his  sar- 
casm led  him  into  several  duels,  in  which  fortunately  little 
harm  was  done  on  either  side.  In  1788,  he  was  in  favor 
of  the  formation  of  Irish  volunteers;  and  in  subsequent 
years,  he  was  constant  and  eloquent  in  his  appeals  to  gov- 
ernment to.  adopt  a  ditt'erent  policy  toward  Ireland,  lest 
that  which  it  was  pursuing  should  drive  the  people  to  re- 
bellion. Government  gave  no  heed,  and  the  rebellion  of 
1798  was  the  consequence.  C.  had  retired  from  parlia- 
ment before  the  Union,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  oppo- 
nent. He  was  appointed  master  of  the  rolls  in  Ireland 
1806,  resigning  1813.  He  died  in  London.  C.  is  best  re- 
membered for  his  wit  and  gayety,  of  which  many  excel- 
lent examples  are  preserved  in  thc^various  Memoirs,  Rec- 
ollections, etc.,  of  him  which  have  been  published. 

CURRANT,  n.  kur'rdnt  [from  Corinth  in  Greece, 
whence  they  were  first  brought:  comp.  Gael,  caor,  a 
berry;  caoran,  berries,  particularly  of  the  mountain-ash]: 
name  originally  belonging  to  a  small  kind  of  grape,  and 
transferred,  in  consequence  of  the  similar  size  of  the  fruit, 
to  many  species  of  the  genus  Bibes,  which  is  the  most 

351 


CURRANT. 

important  and  almost  the  only  genus  of  the  nat.  ord. 

Grossulariacece.  The  species  known  as  currants  are  desti- 
tute of  spines,  and  have  the  flowers  in  racemes:  the  spiny 
species  are  known  by  the  name  Gooseberiiy  (q.v.). 
Among  the  fruit  shrubs  commonly  cultivated  is  the  Red 
C.  {R.  ruhrum),  Orosseille  of  the  French,  native  of  woods 
and  thickets  in  the  south  of  Europe,  found  also  in  parts  of 
Asia  and  largely  in  N.  America,  perhaps  rather  a  natur- 
alized than  a  truly  native  plant  in  Britain.  It  has 
long  been  cultivated,  though  it  does  not  appear  that 
it  had  a  place  in  the  gardens  of  the  ancient  Greeks  or 
Romans.  The  berries  are  used  for  dessert,  for  pies, 
and  for  jelly;  also  for  making  an  agreeable  and  re- 
freshing beverage,  called  in  France  Eau  de  Grosseilles 
(made  of  the  juice  of  the  fruit,  water  and  sugar,  strained, 
and  iced),  and  a  well-known  fermented  liquor  called 
Currant  Wine  (q.v.). — The  White  C.  is  a  mere  variety 
of  the  Red,  result  of  cultivation,  with  fruit  less  acid,  and 
more  fit  for  dessert,  generally  also  rather  larger.  There 
are  many  sub- varieties,  and  many  intermediate  shades  of 
color.  Both  the  Red  and  the  AYhite  are  trained  either  as 
standard  bushes,  or  against  walls,  the  latter  treatment  pro- 
ducing larger  and  finer  fruit,  and  both  are  sometimes 
trained  on  a  north  wall,  to  retard  their  ripening  till  after 
the  ordinary  season.  They  grow  readily,  like  the  shrubs 
of  this  genus  in  general,  from  cuttings. — The  Black  C.  {R. 
nigrum),  Cassis  of  the  French,  grows  in  moist  woods,  and 
on  the  banks  of  streams  in  Europe  and  the  northy^f  Asia. 
The  fruit  is  much  larger  than  the  Red  C,  and  cultivation 
has  lately  produced  varieties  remarkable  for  size.  There 
is  a  variety  in  Russia  with  yellow  berries.  The  Black  C. 
is  not  so  much  cultivated  in  Germany  and  Holland  as  the 
Red,  and  is  comparatively  neglected  in  England,  but  is  to 
be  found  in  almost  every  garden  in  Scotland.  In  the  Heb- 
rides and  Shetland  Islands  the  Black  C.  grows  as  luxuri- 
antly, and  bears  fruit  as  abundantly  as  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  The  jelly  and  preserve  made  from  it  are  useful 
for  sore  throats,  as  is  also  Black  C.  Vinegar,  made  in  the 
same  manner  as  Raspberry  Vinegar.  In  Russia,  the  berries 
are  gathered  in  large  quantities  in  the  woods,  and  dried  in 
ovens,  to  be  used  in  pies.  They  are  tonic,  also  slightly 
diuretic  and  sudorific.  A  liqueur,  called  Liqueur  de  Cassis, 
is  prepared  in  France  from  the  Black  C,  the  manufacture 
of  which  has  recently  acquired  a  great  importance  in  the 
Cote  d'Or  and  neighboring  departments.  The  town  of 
Dijon  contains  more  than  30  manufactories,  and  produced 
recently,  in  one  year,  not  less  than  220.000  gallons,  the 
wholesale  price  of  which — of  the  best  quality — was  equal 
to  abt.  57  cents  per  quart.  Large  tracts  of  land  are 
planted  with  the  Black  C.  to  supply  the  liqueur  manufac- 
tories.— Many  other  species  of  C,  producing  berries  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  the  species  cultivated,  are  found  in 
temperate  and  cold  climates  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world.  One  with  beautiful  red  berries,  larger  than  the 
largest  English  Red  C,  occurs  on  the  Himalaya  at  an  ele- 
vation of  13,000  ft.— The  Red -flowered  C.  (R.  sanguine- 

352 


CURRATOW— CURRENCY. 

um)y  now  common  as  an  ornamental  bush  in  shrubberies, 
and  trained  on  walls,  producing  in  April  a  profusion  of 
deep-red  flowers  in  large  drooping  racemes,  is  a  native  of 
the  n.-w.  of  America.  Its  bluish-black,  mucilaginous, 
insipid  berries  are  not,  as  is  popularly  believed,  poisonous. 
— The  Golden  C.  (i?.  aicreum),  also  a  very  ornamental 
shrub,  from  the  same  regions,  has  a  tubular  calyx  and  long 
golden  yellow  flowers.  Its  fruit  is  either  yellow  or  black, 
and  of  tine  flavor. — The  name  Native  C,  or  Australian 
C,  is  given  in  Australia  to  the  berries  of  diflerent  shrubs, 
particularly  the  white  berries  of  Leucopogon  Richei,  of  the 
nat.  ord.  Epacridaceca  (q.v.).  The  French  naturalist  Riche, 
who  was  attached  to  D'Entrecasteaux's  expedition,  sup- 
ported himself  mostly  on  these  berries  for  three  days, 
when  he  had  been  lost  by  his  companions.  Other  fruits 
bearing  the  same  name,  though  greatly  inferior,  are  pro- 
duced by  species  of  Coprosma  (nat.  ord.  Cinclionacece). 

Cur  rant  Wine  is  made  of  the  juice  of  red  or  white 
currants,  to  which  is  added  about  one  pint  of  water  for  every 
four  pints  of  berries  employed.  About  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  sugar  is  afterward  added  to  each  pint  of  the  liquor,  a 
little  spirits  also  being  generally  added,  before  it  is  set  aside 
to  ferment.  A  larger  quantity  of  sugar  is  sometimes  used, 
and  no  water,  and  a  stronger  and  sweeter  C.  wine  is  thus 
produced.  Fermentation  requires  several  weeks,  and  the 
wine  is  not  fit  for  use  for  at  least  some  months  afterward. 
Black  C.  wine  is  made  in  the  same  way  from  black  currants, 
but  the  fruit  is  put  on  the  fire  in  as  small  a  quantity  of 
water  as  possible,  and  heated  to  the  boiling-point  before  it 
is  bruised.  C.  wine,  well  made,  may  challenge  comparison 
with  many  products  of  the  grape. 

Cur  rants,  a  small  kind  of  raisin  (Passulce  minores),  are 
the  dried  red  or  blue  berries  of  a  small- fruited  seedless 
variety  of  the  common  vine,  cultivated  in  the  East,  espe- 
cially in  Greece.  They  are  very  small,  round,  with  a  thin 
skin,  without  seeds,  and  very  sweet.  Those  brought  from 
the  island  of  Zante  are  most  esteemed.  They  are  much 
used  by  bakers  and  cooks,  entering  into  the  composition  of 
many  kinds  of  cakes,  puddings,  etc.  They  are  a  principal 
article  of  export  from  Greece,  and  the  failure  of  the  crop 
is  severely  felt  in  that  country.  Currants  are  simply  dried 
in  the  sun,  on  the  ground,  and  then  packed  into  barrels.  In 
a  few  districts  of  Greece,  a  very  sweet  oily  wine,  caUed 
currant  wine,  is  made  from  these  currants. 

CURRATOW,  n.  kiir'ra-tow:  see  BROMELiACEiE. 

CURRENCY,  n.  Jair'ren-si  [OE.  currant,  running— 
from  OF.  curant,  running — from  curve ,  to  run:  L.  ciirrens 
or  curren'tem,  flowing  or  running — from  ciirrere,  to  run: 
It.  corrente\:  a  continued  course  or  passing  of  anything, 
like  the  running  of  a  stream;  a  passing  from  person  to  per- 
son, or  from  age  to  age,  as  a  report;  a  passing  from  hand  to 
hand,  as  money  or  bills  of  credit;  the  whole  circulation  of 
money,  or  the  whole  quantity  of  money  of  every  sort,  is 
called  the  currency;  anything  in  circulation  as  a  medium  of 
trade;  general  estimation  or  reception;  the  rate  at  which  any 


CURRENCY. 

thing  is  valued.  Cuu'rent,  a.  -rent,  passing  from  person  to 
person,  or  from  iiand  to  hand;  circulating;  conmion;  general, 
generally  received;  passable;  now  passing:  IST.  a  flowing  or 
passing;  a  stream;  course;  continuation;  general  course  or 
tendency;  movement.  Currently,  ad.  -li.  Current- 
NESS,  n.  circulation;  general  reception. 

CUR'RENCY:  originally  the  capacity  of  being  current, 
or,  as  Johnson  defines  it,  *  the  power  of  passing  from  hand 
to  hand;'  applied  in  practice  to  the  thing  that  is  so  current, 
and  generally  to  whatever,  by  being  current  among  any 
nation  or  class  of  persons,  serves  as  the  money  with  which 
they  buy  commodities  or  pay  their  debts.  It  is  necessary 
to  be  content  with  a  practical  explanation,  without  ventur- 
ing on  a  scientific  definition  of  the  term,  because,  among 
the  many  disputed  points  in  Dolitical  economy,  there  is 
none  productive  of  more  exciting  controversy  than  the 
proper  regulation  of  the  C;  and  as  the  advocate  of  each 
theory  is  apt  to  define  the  term  in  the  manner  best  suited 
to  serve  his  own  ultimate  conclusions,  his  adversaries 
generally  deny  that  his  definition  is  sound.  Whether  cor- 
rectly or  not,  it  is  applied  in  practice  to  everything  that  is 
received  for  payment.  It  differs  from  the  word  money,  in 
its  general  acceptation,  so  far  as  it  expresses  only  that 
which  passes  as  money  at  some  time  or  place  referred  to. 
The  leading  question  among  political  economists  regarding 
C.  is,  how  far  it  should  be  restrained.  The  most  effectual 
method  of  restraining  it  is  by  confining  it  to  the  precious 
metals.  If  in  any  country  it  were  law  that  none  but  a  gold 
C.  should  be  used,  and  if,  at  the  same  time,  there  were  no 
effort  to  tamper  with  this  gold  C,  and  give  it  an  artificial 
value,  the  C.  of  that  country  would  keep  its  value  all  the 
world  over,  because  it  has  been  paid  for  in  commodities, 
and  will  be  sold  again  whenever  it  is  in  excess  of  the  needs 
of  those  who  use  it.  But  for  this  very  reason,  it  is  a  very 
expensive  C,  and  therefore,  ever  since  man's  ingenuity 
was  turned  to  trade,  methods  have  been  devised  for  super- 
seding gold  or  the  other  precious  metals  by  something 
cheaper.  Unless,  however,  law  or  custom  intervenes  to 
give  it  efficiency,  this  cheaper  material  will  be  worth  only 
its  own  intrinsic  value.  A  five-dollar  banknote  is  worth  so 
little  in  its  intrinsic  value  as  a  picture  upon  thin  paper,  that 
such  a  value  can  hardly  be  expressed.  It  derives  its  power 
as  C.  from  the  obligation  which  it  fixes  on  a  great  rich 
corporation  to  make  good  its  professed  amount  to  the 
holder.  We  thus  pass  from  a  purely  bullion  C.  to  the  next 
step  of  restraint,  generally  called  a  mixed  currency.  Here 
some  maintain  that  no  note  should  be  issued  unless  the 
banker  or  other  person  issuing  it  has  in  his  possession  as 
much  bullion  as  will  pay  it.  Others  say  it  is  suflicient  that 
he  is  bound  to  pay  its  amount  in  bullion  at  the  period  of 
its  demand  without  his  actually  possessing  the  bullion 
throughout  the  whole  period  of  the  C.  of  the  note.  A  third 
party  are  for  a  C.  entirely  free  of  a  metallic  basis;  they 
hold  that  naturally  paper-money,  passing  from  hand  to 
hand,  will" represent  transactions,  and  will  therefore  come 
in  the  'end  to  be  made  good  in  some  shape  or  otherj 

3o4 


CURRENCY. 

and  they  further  hold,  that  if  some  losses  should  thua 
occur,  these  will  be  more  than  compensated  by  the  rapid 
increase  of  trade  and  enterprise,  caused  by  a  free  trade  in 
C,  as  it  is  termed — that  is  to  say,  by  every  man  issuing  his 
own  notes  or  promises  to  i^ay  to  whoever  will  take  them. 
This  last  and  extreme  class  of  'currency  doctors,'  as  they 
have  been  termed,  have  lately  been  losing  influence,  and 
disappearing  from  the  contest. 

Through  a  succession  of  practical  measures  reached  with 
considerable  caution,  the  English  have  come  to  a  mixed 
Cresting  on  a  compromise  between  the  two  classes  of 
mixed  C.  above  referred  to.  In  the  theory  of  the  measures 
brought  to  completion  under  Sir  Robert  Peel,  1844, 
it  is  admitted  that,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  C.  can  be  based  on 
transactions  and  the  property  of  '  those  concerned  in  them, 
but  that  a  limit  must  be  drawn,  to  prevent  the  power  of 
creating  such  a  C.  from  running  to  excess,  by  the  issue  of 
notes  which  cannot  be  immediately  made  good  by  those 
who  issue  them.  Accordingly,  the  several  banks  in  exist- 
ence were  allow^ed  to  continue  their  note  circulation,  but 
they  were  permitted  to  increase  it  only  on  the  condition  of 
having  bullion  in  their  coffers  to  pay  the  additional  notes 
issued  by  them.  A  C.  which  is  not  bullion,  and  is  not 
worth  its  nominal  value  in  bullion,  is  called  a  '  depreciated 
currency. '  Before  the  resumption  of  cash  payments,  the 
notes  of  the  Bank  of  England  had  sunk  to  be  worth  but 
16s.  in  the  pound,  as  compared  with  gold.  A  depreciated 
C.  may  be  created  by  a  government  calling  notes  or  any 
other  form  of  money  a  legal  standard,  and  issuing  a  greater 
quantity  of  them  than  the  real  transactions  of  the  country 
and  the  property  passing  from  hand  to  hand  require;  or  it 
may  be  created  by  private  persons  acting  under  laws  by 
which  the  right  of  issuing  a  C.  is  not  duly  limited.  This 
faculty  which  a  C.  has  of  being  depreciated  without  being 
repudiated,  is  the  real  source  of  danger  in  all  proposals  for 
an  unfettered  C,  or  a  free  trade  in  the  issue  of  money.  If 
the  bank-notes  for  which  bullion  cannot  be  immediately 
obtained  were  repudiated,  there  might  be  a  natural  check 
on  over-issues;  but  it  is  their  nature,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  getting  bullion  for  them,  or  the  chance  that  it 
may  never  be  got,  that  they  pass  at  a  discount  or  reduction 
of  their  value.  Hence  such  a  C.  would  be  ever  shifting; 
there  would  be  no  permanent  standard,  and  the  person 
incurring  a  debt  before  a  depreciation  which  he  pays  after- 
ward would,  in  reality,  be  paying  his  creditor  a  dividend 
only.  A  depreciated  C,  however,  is  useful  for  small 
transactions.  In  the  silver  C.  of  Britain  a  pound  is  worth 
little  more  than  four-tifths  of  a  sovereign.  If  a  person 
owing  £100  could  pay  it  in  silver,  he  would  really  be  pay- 
ing only  a  dividend  of  from  16s.  to  18s.  in  the  pound;  but 
by  law,  silver  is  not  a  legal  tender  for  more  than  40s. 
The  copper  C.  is  so  far  below  its  real  value,  that  it  has  not 
been  thought  worth  while  to  give  it  a  permanent  weight 
— the  pence  and  halfpence  now  issued  are  little  more  than 
balf  the  weight  of  those  of  former  mintages;  but  they  are 


CURRENTS-CUREY. 

used  as  a  medium  only  for  small  sums,  and  the  royal  stamp 
is  sufficient  to  establish  a  reliance  on  them. 

In  the  United  States,  as  in  England,  the  C.  is  of  mixed 
character.  It  was  enormously  increased  in  the  issue  of 
notes  under  the  form  of  a  loan  to  the  government  on 
the  part  of  those  who  received  them  during  the  tre- 
mendous strain  of  the  war  against  secession;  at  one  time 
the  obligation  of  the  United  States  could  be  sold  for  only 
about  32  cents  on  the  dollar.  This  depreciation  soon 
passed  away  with  the  distrust  that  occasioned  it;  and  the 
U.  S.  notes  are  recognized  as  good  for  gold  to  their  value 
as  expressed  on  their  face.  See  Bank— Banking:  Bank 
OF  England:  Finance:  Money. 

CUR  RENTS:  see  Gulf  Stream:  Tides. 

CURRICLE,  n.  kiirri-kl  [L.  curriculum^  a  career,  a 
course — from  currere,  to  run:  It.  curricolo,  a  curricle]:  an 
open  carriage  with  two  wheels,  drawn  by  two  horses 
abreast.  Curriculum,  n.  kurMk'u-lumy  the  whole  course 
of  study  at  a  school  or  university. 

CURRIE,  kur'ri,  James,  m.d.:  1756,  May  31—1805, 
Aug.  31;  b.  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland:  known  for  his 
edition  of  Burns's  works,  long  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
editions.  He  was  educated  for  a  mercantile  life,  but 
afterward  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  Univ.;  and 
settling  in  Liverpool,  1781,  soon  obtained  a  good  practice. 
His  chief  medical  work  was,  Medical  Beports  on  the  Effects 
of  Water,  Cold  and  Warin,  as  a  Remedy  in  FeMle  Disease, 
His  edition  of  Burns  (introduced  by  a  criticism  on  his 
writings),  which  he  undertook  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the 
widow  and  children  of  the  poet,  was  published  1800,  and 
realized  £1,400. 

CURRIED,  CURRIER:  see  under  Curry. 

CURRISH:  see  under  Cur. 

CURRY,  V.  kur'ri  [OF.  couroier;  F.  corroyer,  to  dress 
leather — from  corroi,  prepared  skin— from  L.  cormm,  a 
hide:  It.  corredare,  to  prepare,  to  rig  out:  Sp.  conrear,  to 
dress  wool — lit.,  to  dress  or  prepare  materials]:  to  dress 
leather  after  being  tanned  (see  Leather);  to  rub  and  clean 
a  horse  with  a  comb;  to  thrash;  to  chastise.  Currying, 
imp. :  N.  the  act  of  dressing  skins  after  they  are  tanned;  the 
act  of  rubbing  down  a  horse.  Cur'ried,  pp.  rid.  Cur'- 
rier,  n.  -ri-er,  a  workman  who  dresses  leather.  Curry- 
comb, a  kind  of  scraper  used  for  rubbing,  cleaning,  and 
dressing  horses;  it  consists  of  a  number  of  iron  plates 
notched  on  one  edge  to  form  rough  teeth.  These  plates 
are  fastened  in  parallel  lines  to  an  iron  back,  to  which  a 
handle  is  attached.  To  curry  favor  [corruption  of  OE. 
curry  faml — from  F.  courvoyer  fauvel,  to  rub  the  fauvel 
or  horse]:  to  seek  or  gain  favor  by  flattery  or  officious 
civihties. 

CURRY,  n.  kur'ri  [Pers.  khurdi,  broth,  juicy  meats]:  a 
highly  spiced  condiment  much  used  throughout  India;  a 
dish  flavored  with  curry:  V.  to  prepare  with  curry. 
Curry-powder,  or  Curry  paste,  compound  of  many  in- 

356 


CURRY-CURSE  OF  SCOTLAND. 

greclients  for  making  curries.  It  consists  of  turmeric  and 
various  spices;  it  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  India  and  else- 
where as  a  seasoning  for  a  variety  of  disheSo  One  of  the 
best  receipts  for  the  compounding  of  C.  P.  is,  turmeric 
powder,  6  oz. ;  coriander  seed  powder,  8  oz. ;  black  pepper, 
4  oz. ;  fenugreek,  2  oz. ;  ginger,  2  oz. ;  cayenne  pepper,  ^ 
oz. ;  cummin  seed,  ^  oz.  Another  process  is  to  mix  turmeric 
powder,  5  oz.;  coriander  seed  powder,  3  oz. ;  black  pepper, 
1  oz. ;  ginger,  1  oz. ;  cayenne  pepper,  1  oz.;  scorched  mus- 
tard, 2  oz.;  mace,  2  drams.  A  third  variety  is  obtained 
from  turmeric  powder,  8  oz. ;  coriander  seed  powder,  4oz.; 
black  pepper,  1  oz. ;  cayenne  pepper,  1  oz. ;  scorched  mus- 
tard, J  oz. ;  mace,  1  dram;  cinnamon,  1  dram;  carda- 
moms, 2  drams. 

CURRY,  A;r^rV^,  Daniel,  d.d.,  l.d.d:  1809,  Nov.  26— 
1887,  Aug.  17;  b.  near  Peekskill,  N.  Y.:  Meth.  Episc. 
minister  and  journalist.  He  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Univ. 
1837,  became  principal  of  the  Troy  Conference  Acad,  the 
same  year,  and  prof,  in  the  Ga.  Female  College  1839; 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth.  Episc.  Church  in  Ga. 
1841,  and  was  pastor  in  Athens,  Columbus,  and  Savannah 
till  the  Slavery  question  separated  the  church;  then  joined 
the  New  York  conference  and  preached  in  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford.  He  was  pres.  of 
Indiana  Asbury  Univ.  1854-57;  editor  of  the  Christian 
Advocate  1864-76;  the  National  Repository  1876-80,  and  the 
Methodist  Remew  from  3884  till  his  death;  author  of  A  Life 
of  Wyckliff  (New  York,  1846);  The  Metropolitan  City  of 
America  (1852);  Life  Story  of  Bishop  D,  W.  Clark  (1873); 
Fragments,  Religious  and  Theological  (1880);  Platform  Papers 
(1880);  and  editor  of  the  works  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  James  Floy 
(1863);  Southey's  Life  of  Wesley  (1852);  and  Clarke's  Com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament  (1882-84).  He  received 
the  degree  d.d.  from  Wesleyan  Univ.  1852;  and  ll.d. 
from  Syracuse  Univ.  1878. 

CURSE,  V,  Jeers  [AS.  corsian  or  cursian,  to  execrate  by 
the  sign  of  the  cross:  Sw.  korsa;  Dan.  korse,  to  make  the 
sign  of  the  cross — from  Dan.  and  Sw.  kors,  a  cross;  Icel. 
kross.  a  cross]:  to  utter  a  wish  of  evil  against  one;  to  devote 
to  evil;  to  imprecate  evil  upon;  to  execrate;  to  utter  im- 
precations; to  vex  or  torment-  N.  a  malediction;  a  wishing 
of  evil;  great  vexation  or  torment.  Cur  sing,  imp.:  N.  the 
uttering  of  a  curse;  execration:  see  Incantation:  Swear- 
ing. Cursed,  pp.  kerst  or  ker'sed:  Adj.  blasted  by,  or  un- 
der the  influence  of,  a  curse;  abominable;  detestable;  exe- 
crated. CuR  SER,  n.  one  who.  Cur  sedly,  ad.  -11.  Cur'- 
SEDNESS,  n.  Cursed  thistle,  Carduus  arvensis. — Syn.  of 
*  curse,  n.':  imprecation;  execration;  anathema. 

CURSE  OF  SCOTLAND:  term  applied  to  the  m/i^  of 
diamonds  in  a  pack  of  playing  cards.  The  origin  of  the 
phrase  is  uncertain.  The  probable  explanation  is,  that  it 
refeis  to  the  detestation  entertained  in  Scotland  toward 
John  Dalrymple,  flrst  Earl  of  Stair,  on  account  of  his 
concern  in  the  massacre  of  Glencoe,  and  for  which  he  had 
to  resign  office,  1695.    The  heraldic  bearing  of  this  person 

^51 


CURSIVE— CURSORIN^ . 

was  'or,  on  a  saltire  azure,  nine  lozenges  of  the  field;*  these 
nine  lozenges  resemble  the  nine  of  diamonds;  hence  the 
popular  phrase,  the  curse  of  Scotland. 

CURSIVE,  a.  Jcer'siv  [F.  cursive — from  mid.  L.  curslm, 
a  writing,  a  letter — from  L.  cursus,  quick  motion,  a  run- 
ning: It.  coTso,  a  running;  corsivo,  cursive]:  running,  fluent. 
CuK  siVELY,  ad.  -li.  Cursory,  a.  ker'ser-i,  hasty,  slight; 
superficial;  not  with  close  attention.  Cur  sorily,  ad.  -U, 
in  a  hasty  superficial  manner.  Cur'soriness,  n.  Cursive- 
hand,  in  writing,  a  running  hand.  Cur'sitor,  n.  -sl-ter, 
the  clerk  of  course;  an  ofiicer  in  the  court  of  chancery  whose 
business  is  to  make  out  original  writs.  Cursive  letters, 
the  small  letters  or  characters  of  a  running  hand  employed 
in  writing  mss.  after  the  9th  c,  as  distinguished  from 
uncial  or  large  (capital)  letters  used  in  mss.  before  that 
date.  Cursives,  in  Bib.  criticism,  refer  to  mss.  in  cursive 
letter,  presenting  different  parts  of  the  New  Test.:  of 
Gospels  or  portions  of  Gospels  alone  there  are  known  over 
600  Cursives  dating  from  the  9th  to  the  16th  c. ;  many  have 
great  value,  though,  as  a  whole,  being  less  ancient  than  the 
Uncials  they  rank  below  them  in  authority.  Cursorary, 
a.  ker'so-rer-i,  in  OE.,  cursory;  hasty;  careless — a  word 
hardly  legitimate. 

CURSOR,  n.  ker'ser  [L.  a  runner — from  cvrsus,  pp.  of 
curro,  I  run]:  inferior  ofiicer  of  the  papal  court;  a  part  of 
a  mathematical  instrument  which  slides  on  the  main  por- 
tion, as  the  hand  of  a  barometer,  the  slide  of  a'Gimter 
rule,  etc. 

CURSORES,  n.  plu.  ker-sd'rez  [L.  curro,  I  run;  cursor, 
runner]:  an  order  of  birds  comprising  those  destitute  of  the 
powers  of  flight,  though  their  wings  add  speed  to  their 
running,  as  the  ostrich,  and  emu,  etc.;  named  from  the 
adaptation  of  their  legs  and  feet  for  running  vigorously. 
The  dinornis  and  sepjwnis,  with  other  fossil  C,  were  larger 
than  any  birds  of  existing  species. 

CURSORIA,  n.  ker-so'ri-a  [neut.  plu.  of  cursorius,  per- 
taining to  a  race- course] :  sub- order  of  orthoptera  containing 
those  families  which  have  the  legs  adapted  for  running,  as 
distinguished  from  leaping. 

CURSO  RIAL,  a.:  adapted  or  fitted  for  running.  Cur- 
sorial isopoDA,  in  the  system  of  Milne  Edwards,  a  sub- 
order or  section  of  crustaceans,  order  Isopoda,  There  are 
three  families — Idotheidce,  Asellidce,  and  Oniscidce.  The 
wood-louse  is  a  typical  example  of  the  cursorial  isopods, 

CURSORIN^,  n.  plu.  ker-ser-l'ne  [L.  cursorius,  and 
suf.  4nm\'  sub-family  of  Cliaradriadce  (Plovers).  Cur- 
sorius, ker-sori'ds  [L.]:  genus  of  Gharadriadce,  typical 
of  the  family  Cursorinm.  Cursorius  Temminckii,  or  Isa- 
hellinus,  is  tlie  Black- bellied  Courier,  or  Cream-colored 
Courser,  called  by  Selby  the  Cream-colored  Swift  foot.  It 
is  a  bird  of  creamy  brown  color,  the  top  of  the  head  and 
the  breast  ferruginous,  a  double  collar,  the  upper  white, 
the  lower  black,  the  sides  white;  length,  including  the  bill, 
8  inches,  legs,  3  inches.    Its  native  country  is  Africa, 

S»8 


CURST— CURTAIN. 

especially  Abyssinia,  whence  it  has  occasionally  strayed  as 
far  as  England. 

CURST,  a.  kerst  [OE.  crus,  wrathful:  F.  courroux, 
wrath  (see  Cross  2)]:  ill-tempered;  cross-grained;  hence 
Crusty,  a.  krlis'ti,  ill-tempered. 

CURT,  a.  kert  [L.  curtus;  F.  court,  short,  little]:  short; 
abrupt;  brief  and  ill-natured;  snappish.  Curt  ly,  ad.  -li. 
Curt'ness,  n.  shortness. 

CURT:  in  letter-icriUng  and  commercial  correspondence,  a 
common  contraction  of  Current,  used  to  designate  this 
month,  that  is,  the  month  in  which  the  letter  is  written,  as 
15th  curt.  Instant,  in'stdnt,  and  its  contr.  Inst.  [L.  in- 
stalls, present]:  denoting  a  day  of  the  present  or  current 
month,  as  10th  inst.  Proximo,  proks'l-md,  or  its  contr. 
Prox.  \h. proximo,  on  the  next]:  denoting  a  day  of  the  next 
month,  as,  on  the  4:i\iprox.  Ultimo,  ulti-mb,  or  its  contr. 
Ult.  [L.  ultimo,  in  the  last] :  denoting  a  day  in  the  last 
month,  or  the  month  preceding  the  present,  as,  on  the  6th 
ult. 

CURTAIL,  V.  ker-tdV  [F.  court,  short,  concise;  tailler, 
to  cut]:  to  shorten;  to  cut  off  the  end,  or  a  part;  to  abridge 
or  diminish.  Curtail'ing,  imp.  Cur  tailed',  pp.  -tdld' : 
Adj.  cut  shorter;  abridged.  Curtail  ment,  n.  a  shorten- 
ing of  anything.  Curtail'er,  n.  one  who.  Cur'tail- 
DOG,  a  dog  mutilated  according  to  the  forest  laws  to  prevent 
him  rtinning  down  the  royal  game.  Cur'tail-step,  the 
lowest  step  in  a  flight  of  stairs,  ending  at  its  outer  extremity 
in  a  scroll.  Curtail-friar,  a  tonsured  friar,  in  reference 
to  the  cut  or  circular-shaven  patch  on  the  crown  of  the  head. 
— Syn.  of  'curtail':  to  abbreviate;  contract;  diminish. 
Note. — Skeat  says,  Curtail  is  from  OE.  curtail  or  curtal, 
having  a  docked  tail— from  OF.  courtault,  a  curtal  or 
docked  tail:  It.  cortaldo,  a  horse  without  a  tail. 

CURTAIN,  n.  ker'tin  [F.  courtine — from  mid.  L.  corVina, 
a  wall  between  two  bastions,  a  small  inclosed  yard:  It.  cor- 
tina,  the  hangings  of  a  court:  Wal.  cortu,  a  tent]:  a  mov- 
able cloth  hung  round  a  bed,  at  a  window,  or  in  front  of  the 
stage  at  a  theatre;  any  piece  of  movable  drapery  used  for 
concealment  or  ornament;  the  part  of  a  wall  or  rampart 
which  joins  the  flanks  of  two  bastions  together:  V.  to  in- 
close by  means  of  curtains.  Cur  taining,  imp.  Cur  - 
tained, pp.  -tlnd.  Cur'tainless,  a.  To  draw  the 
CURTAIN,  to  close  a  curtain  so  as  to  shut  out  the  light  or 
conceal  an  object.  To  raise  the  curtain,  to  commence. 
To  DROP  THE  CURTAIN,  to  closc  the  sccuc;  to  throw  off  the 
mask;  to  end.  Behind  the  curtain,  in  concealment;  in 
secret.  Curtain  lectures,  the  querulous  and  discon- 
tented talk  of  a  wife  to  her  husband  while  in  bed  with 
him. 

CURTAIN,  in  Fortification:  portion  of  rampart  or  wall 
between  two  bastions  or  two  gates.  In  a  regular  siege,  to 
batter  down  the  C.  is  one  of  the  main  undertakings;  and 
many  of  the  external  works  constructed  bj^the  defenders 
are  intended  to  f  rustrate,or  at  least  embarrass,  this  operation, 

859 


CURTAL— CURTIS. 

lu  the  auuexed  cut,  which  shows  a  ground-pkm  of  some 
of  the  elements  of  a  regular  fortification,  FF  is  the  c^ir- 
iain;  HAEF,  a  bastion.  The  component  parts  of  the  bas- 
tion are  thus  designated:  AH  and  AE,  two  faces;  EF  and 
GH,  two  flanks;  A,  the  salient;  FG,  the  gorge;  and  H  and 


E,  the  sJioulders.  mn  is  the  rampart;  mo,  the  parapet  on 
the  rampart;  QPQ',  the  ditch;  NO,  the  covert-icay;  RWR', 
the  glacis;  KLL',  a  ravelin. 

CURTAL,  n.  ker'tCd  [see  Curtail  and  note]:  in  OE.,  a 
docked  tail:  Adj.  having  a  docked  tail;  brief;  abridged. 

CURTATE,  a.  ker'tdt  [L.  curUltiis,  shortened,  dimin- 
ished]: in  astron.,  applied  to  denote  a  planet's  distance  from 
the  sun,  reduced  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. 

CURTICONE,  n.  ker'ti-kdn  [L.  curtiis,  docked;  Eng. 
coney,  the  lower  frustum  of  a  cone;  a  truncated  cone 
(q.v.). 

CURTILAGE,  n.  ker'ti-ldj  [OF.  courtilage— from  courtil, 
a  courtyard— from  mid.  L.  curtem,  a  courtyard— from 
colwrtem,  a  j^ard,  a  farm  (see  Court)]:  a  house  with  its 
stables  and  farm- buildings  surrounded  by  a  piece  of  ground, 
the  whole  being  included  within  the  same  fence;  a  house 
and  homestead. 

CURTIS,  Samuel  Ryan:  1805,  Feb.  3—1866,  Dec.  26; 
b.  near  Champlain,  N.  Y. :  military  ofiicer.  He  graduated 
at  the  U.  S.  Milit.  Acad.  1831,  resigned  the  next  year;  fol- 
lowed civil  engineering  1836-41,  and  the  practice  of  law 
1841-46;  was  appointed  adj. gen.  of  Ohio  1846,  raised  the 
quota  of  vols,  for  the  Mexican  war,  took  the  field  as  col. 
2dregt.,  held  Camargo  against  heavy  odds,  opened  Gen. 
Taylor's  communications,  and  was  gov.  of  Saltillo  1847-8. 
He  practiced  engineering  1847-55,  and  law  1855-61;  was 
member  of  congress  from  la.  1857-61;  volunteered  for  the 
relief  of  Washington  1861,  became  maj.gen.  of  vols.  1862, 

360 


CURTISIA— CURTIUS. 

Mar.  21;  served  to  the  close  of  the  war,  chiefly  in  the  w.*, 
was  commander  of  the  dept.  of  the  n.w.  1805,  commis- 
sioner to  negotiate  Indian  treaties  1865,  and  to  examine  the 
Union  Pacilic  railroad  1865-6;  and  was  mustered  out  of 
the  vol.  service  1866,  Apr.  30. 

CURTISIA,  n.  Mr-fis'i-a  [named  after  William  Curtis, 
founder  of  the  Botanical  Magazine]:  genus  of  Gornacem 
(Cornels).  It  has  a  four-parted  calyx.  Curttsia  faginea,  is 
a  large  tree  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  called  the 
Assegai  Tree,  because  the  natives  form  their  assegais 
(javelins)  from  its  wood. 

CURTIUS,  kor'tse-tis,  Ernest:  a  distinguished  German 
philologist  and  antiquary:  b.  1814,  Sep.  2,  at  Liibeck. 
After  a  good  preliminary  education  at  the  High  School  of 
that  place,  he  attended  several  German  universities  (Bonn, 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin)  as  a  student  of  philology.  In  fur- 
ther pursuance  of  the  path  he  had  chosen — viz.,  the  inves- 
tigation of  Greek  antiquity — he  went  (1837),  in  company 
with  Professor  Brandis,  to  Athens,  where  he  stayed  sev- 
eral years.  When  his  teacher,  O.  Mliller  (q.v.),  came  to 
Athens,  C.  accompanied  him  in  his  travels  through  Greece. 
On  the  death  of  Muller  at  Athens,  1840,  C.  returned  to 
Germany,  visiting  many  places  in  Italy  by  the  way.  He 
graduated  in  Halle,  and  after  he  had  taught  for  some  time 
at  two  Berlin  gymnasiums,  he  received  an  extraordinary 
professorship  of  the  univ.  at  that  place.  His  Anecdota  Del- 
phica  Inscriptiones  Attim  Duodecim  and  The  Akropolis  of 
Athens  were  published  about  this  time.  In  1844,  he  be- 
came tutor  to  the  crowm-prince  of  Prussia.  Six  years  later, 
he  returned  to  his  academical  oflice;  in  1856,  he  was  called 
to  Gottingen;  and  in  1863,  he  was  made  ordinary  prof,  at 
Berlin,  and  permanent  sec.  of  the  Acad,  of  Sciences.  In 
1874,  he  was  sent  by  the  German  govt,  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
with  the  Greeks,  to  permit  its  undertaking  the  important  ex- 
cavations at  Olympia,  begun  1875.  His  principal  works 
are  Peloponnesos  (1852),  a  description  of  the  country  of 
Greece,  with  reference  to  its  traditions,  history,  and  monu- 
ments; Attic  Studies  (1864);  and  a  History  of  Greece,  trans- 
lated into  English  by  A.  W.  Ward  (1868-76).  Prof. 
Georg  C.  (q.v.)  is  a  brother  of  Ernest. 

CURTIUS,  Georg:  b.  1820,  April  16,  at  Liibeck;  brother 
of  Ernest  C:  distinguished  classical  scholar,  who  has  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  for  the  light  he  has  thrown  on  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages,  by  applying  to  them  the  com- 
parative method.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn.  After 
a  short  activity  at  Berlin,  and  a  longer  stay  at  Prague  and 
Kiel  universities,  he  accepted  (1862)  the  professorship  of 
classical  philology  at  Leipzig.  Of  his  published  works 
are  to  be  noted  De  Nominum  Grcecorum  Foi^matione  (Berl. 
1842);  Die  Sprachvergleichung  in  ihrem  Verhaltniss  zur  Glas- 
sischen  Philologie  (Dresd.  1845);  Bprachmrgleicliende  Beitrage 
zur  Gh\  und  Lat,  Gram.  (Berl.  1846);  De  Nomine  Homeri 
(Kiel  1855).  His  Griech.  Schulgrammatik  (11th  ed.,  1875) 
is  in  high  repute,  and  his  Grufdziige  del'  Griech.  Etymologie 

361 


CURTIUS— CURUKU  OIL. 

(Leipzig  1862)  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to  that  de- 
partment of  philology  (Eng.  trans  ,  1878). 

CURTIUS,  ker'she  us,  Mettus,  or  Metius:  noble  Roman 
^  youth  who  (according  to  tradition)  heroically  sacrificed  his 
life  for  the  welfare  of  his  country,  B.C.  362.  A  chasm,  it 
is  said,  had  opened  in  the  forum,  and  the  soothsayers  pre- 
dicted that  some  great  calamity  would  happen  if  there 
were  not  thrown  into  it  the  best  wealth  of  the  state.  While 
it  was  proposed  to  consult  the  oracles,  and  determine  what 
this  best  wealth  could  be,  C.  appeared  on  horseback  and  in 
full  armor,  and  exclaimed:  *  Rome  has  no  greater  riches 
than  courage  and  arms.'  He  then  rode  into  the  chasm, 
which  immediately  closed  over  him. 

CURTIUS,  RuFUS  QuiNTUS:  Roman  historian,  author  of 
De  Rebus  Gestis  Alexandri  Magni,  in  ten  books,  of  which 
the  first  two  have  been  lost,  and  the  text  of  the  remainder 
has  come  down  to  us  in  a  damaged  condition.  Great  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  have  existed  with  regard  to  the  time  in 
which  C,  wrote,  for  his  name  is  first  mentioned  by  writers 
after  the  12th  c.  Some  critics  have  supposed  that  C.  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus;  others,  that  hewTOte  in  the  2dc., 
or  under  Constantine  or  Theodosius;  w^hile  some  regard  the 
work  ascribed  to  C.  as  a  composition  of  the  13th  c.  The 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  he  lived  in  the  time  of  Ves- 
pasian. The  value  of  the  work  is  as  dubious  as  its  author- 
ship. C.  had  very  inaccurate  knowlege  of  geography, 
chronology,  military  tactics,  astronomy,  and  historic  crit- 
icism; hence  his  work  is  far  from  being  trustworthy  as  a 
whole.  The  style,  though  declamatory,  is  on  the  whole 
pure  and  elegant.  The  first  edition  of  C.'s  history  was 
published  at  Venice  about  1471.  Among  modern  editions 
are  MutzeH's  (Berlin  1841)  and  Zumpt's  (Brunswick 
1849). 

CURTLE  AX,  n.  ker'tl-dks  [F.  coutelas,  a  short  sword: 
prov.  It.  cortelo,  a  knife  (see  Cutlass)]  :  in  OE. ,  a  form  of 
sword  now  called  a  *  cutlass    also  spelled  in  OE.  Coutel- 

HACHE,  COUTEL-AXE,  COURTELAS,  CURTAL-AXE,  and 
CUTLELAS. 

CURTSEY,  n.  kerf  si,  Curt'seys,  plu.  -siz—or  Curtsy, 
n.  kerf  SI,  Curtsies,  plu.  -siz  [F.  courtiser,  to  court,  to  en- 
tertain with  compliments  of  respect  (see  Courtesy)]:  a 
woman's  or  girl's  act  of  reverence  or  respect;  a  woman's 
salutation  of  respect  by  slightly  bending  the  knees  and  in- 
clining the  body  forward.  Curt  seying  or  Curt'sying, 
imp.  -si-mg.  Curt  seyed  or  Curt  sied,  pp.  -sid. 

CURUCUI,  n.  [Braz.]:  South  American  bird,  Trogon 
Curucui. 

CUR'UKU  OIL,  or  Brahmadun'du  Oil:  pale  yellow, 
limpid  oil,  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  India  from  the 
seeds  of  the  Argemone  (q.v.)  Mexicana,  or  Prickly  Poppy,  a 
plant  accidentally  introduced,  but  which  now  flourishes 
luxuriantly  in  all  parts  of  India.  It  is  used  for  lamps,  and 
for  other  purposes,  but  is  unfit  for  food. 

862 


CURLLE-CURVE 

CURULE,  a.  ku'rul  [L.  cuniUs,  pertaining  to  a  chariot, 
a  curule  chair:  It.  and  F.  curuel—from  L.  currus,  a  char- 
iot]:  pertaining  to  the  chair  or  seat  used  in  Rome  by  public 
officers  of  the  highest  grades,  such  as  consuls,  praetors,  etc. ; 
thronelike;  senatorial;  magisterial. 

CUR  VATURE,  in  Geometry:  tendency  of  a  plane  curve 
at  a  point  to  depart  from  a  tangent 
to  the  curve  at  that  point.  In  the 
circle,  this  tendency  is  the  same 
throughout,  for  the  curve  is  per- 
fectly symmetrical  round  its 
centre;  in  other  words,  the  C.  of 
a  circle  is  constant.  In  different 
circles,  the  C.  is  inversely  as  the 
radius — i.e.,  it  diminishes  as  the 
radius  increases.  The  reciprocal 
of  the  radius  is  accordingly  as- 
sumed as  the  measure  of  C.  of  a 
circle.  A  straight  line,  vs^hich  has  no  C,  may  be  con- 
sidered part  of  a  circle  v^hose  radius  equals  infinity  as  the 
reciprocal  of  infinity,  measures  the  C,  and  is  =  0.  The 
annexed  fig.  shows  how  the  circle  of  smaller  radius  bends 
more  rapidly  away  from  the  tangent  than  that  of  larger 
radius. 

The  constancy  of  C.  in  the  circle  suggests  an  absolute 
measure  of  C.  at  any  point  in  any  other  curve;  for  what- 
ever be  the  C.  at  that  point,  we  can  always  find  a  circle  of 
the  same  curvature.  The  radius  of  the  circle  which,  has 
the  same  C.  at  any  point  in  a  curve  as  the  curve  itself  at 
that  point,  is  called  the  radius  of  C.  of  the  curve  for  that 
point;  and  the  circle  itself  is  called  the  osculating  circle. 
If  we  know  the  radius  of  C.  of  a  curve  at  different  points, 
we  can  compare  its  C.  at  those  points.  We  have  thus  the 
means  also  of  comparing  degrees  of  C.  in  different 
curves. 

The  problem  of  measuring  the  C.  of  a  curve  at  any  point 
is  the  same,  then,  with  that  of  finding  its  radius  of  curva- 
ture. In  some  simple  cases,  as  in  the  conic  sections,  this 
may  be  done  geometrically;  it  is  usually  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  employ  the  calculus.  If  the  curve  be  referred  to 
rectangular  co-ordinates,  and  a^,  ^  be  a  point  in  it,  then  it 

('+£)* 

can  be  shown  that  radius  of  C.  — .  If  the  curved 


line,  instead  of  being  plane,  twists  in  space,  it  is  called  a 
curve  of  double  curvature.  See  Contact  and  Osculation. 

CURVE,  n.  Jcerv  [L.  curvus,  bent:  F.  courhe:  It.  cutvo\\ 
anything  bent  without  angles  or  corners;  part  of  a  circle; 
an  arched  line;  a  line  whose  direction  is  constantly  chang- 
ing: Adj.  crooked;  bent:  V.  to  bend;  to  crook;  to  make 
circular.  Cur  ving,  imp.  Curved,  pp.  kervd:  Adj. 
crooked    Curva  tion,  n.  -ixVshun,  the  act  of  bending, 

863 


CURVE-CURVES. 

CuR  VATiVE,  a.  -m-tln,  in  lot, y  scarcely  folded;  having  the 
margins  merely  curved  a  little.  Cur  vature,  n.  -m-tuTy 
crookedness,  or  the  manner  of  being  bent;  a  curve;  a  bend- 
ing from  a  straight  line;  the  amount  of  change  of  direction 
in  a  curve.  Cur'yated,  a.  -m-ted,  curved;  bent  in  a 
regular  form. — Syn.  of  'curved':  bent;  awry;  inflected. 

CURVE:  in  common  language,  a  crooked  line  that  de- 
parts gradually  from  the  straight  direction;  in  mathemat- 
ics, usually  restricted  to  lines  that  f  ollow  some  law  in  their 
change  of  direction.  Thus,  the  law  of  the  circle  is,  that  all 
points  of  it  are  equally  distant  from  a  fixed  point,  called 
the  centre.  The  law  of  a  plane  curve  is  generally  ex- 
pressed by  an  equation  between  the  co-ordinates  of  any 
point  in  it  referred  to  a  fixed  point:  see  Co-ordinates. 
When  the  equation  of  a  curve  contains  only  powers  of  x 
and  y,  the  curve  is  algebraic;  when  the  equation  contains 
other  functions,  logarithms,  for  instance,  of  x  and  y,  the 
curve  is  called  transcendental.  The  cy cloud,  e.g.,  is  a 
transcendental  curve. 

There  are  also  curves,  like  the  spiral,  that  do  not 
continue  in  one  plane;  these  are  called  curves  of  double 
curvature.  To  express  the  law  of  such  a  curve  requires 
three  co-ordinates  and  two  equations. — Curves  are  said  to 
be  of  the  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  order,  according  as  their 
equations  involve  the  first,  second,  third  powers  of  x  or  y. 
The  circle,  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hyperbola  are  of  the  second 
order  of  curves.  There  is  only  one  line  of  the  first  order, 
namely,  the  straight  line,  which  is  also  reckoned  among 
the  curves. — The  higher  geometry  investigates  the  amount 
of  curvature  of  curves,  their  length,  the  surface  they  en- 
close, etc. 

The  number  of  curves  that  might  be  drawn  is  of  course 
infinite.  A  large  number  have  received  names,  and  are 
objects  of  great  interest  to  the  mathematician — in  some 
cases,  for  their  beauty  in  others,  for  their  remarkable  prop- 
erties. Among  the  most  interesting  are  the  following:  1, 
circle;  2,  ellipse;  3,  hyperbola;  4,  parabola;  5,  cissoid  of 
Diodes;  6,  conchoid  of  Nicomedes;  7,  lemniscata;  8,  cy- 
cloid; 9,  harmonic  curve;  10,  trochoid;  11,  the  witch;  13, 
cardiode;  13,  curves  of  circular  functions — e.g.,  curve  of 
sines;  14,  the  logarithmic  curve;  15,  the  spiral  of  Archi- 
medes; 16,  the  catenary;  17,  the  tractory;  18,  the  tractrix; 
19,  the  ovals  of  Cassini;  20,  the  reciprocal  spiral. 

CURVEMBRYE^,  n.  plu.  kerv-em-brl' e-e  [L.  curvuSy 
curved;  mod.  L.  embryo — from  Gr.  embruon]:  in  bot.,  the 
second  of  two  sub-orders  of  Solanacem,  in  the  classification 
of  that  order  proposed  by  Mr.  Miers.  The  first  is  the 
RectembryecB,  in  which  the  embryo  is  straight;  in  the  second, 
CuTvembryecey  as  the  name  imports,  it  is  curved. 

CURVES,  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal:  terms  applied 
to  the  elevations  or  depressions  in  undulating  strata.  The 
ridge-wave  is  called  the  anticlinal  curve,  and  the  top  of 
the  ridge  is  known  as  the  anticlinal  axis;  while  the  trough 
is  the  synclinal  curve,  and  the  bottom  of  the  trough  the 

364 


CURVET— CURZOLA. 
synclinal  axis.   In  the  annexed  section  of  the  Jura  Moun- 


tains, three  anticlinal  and  two  synclinal  axes  are  seen. 

CURVET,  n.  ker'vet  [It.  corvetta,  a  curvet,  a  leap:  F. 
courhette,  curvet — from  F.  courbe,  a  curve — from  L.  curvus, 
bent] :  the  prancings  of  a  managed  horse,  in  which  he  bends 
his  body  together  and  springs  out:  V.  to  leap  in  curvets; 
to  frisk;  to  leap  and  bound.  Cur  veting,  imp.  Cur'- 
YETED,  pp. 

CURVICAUDATE,  a.  ker'm-kaw'ddt  [L.  curms,  bent; 
Cauda,  a  tail]:  having  a  bent  tail.  Cur'vifo'liate,  a.  -fo- 
ll-dt  [L.  folmm,  a  leaf]:  having  bent  leaves.  Cur'viform, 
a.  -m-fawrm  [L.  forma,  a  shape]:  being  of  a  curved  form. 

CURVILINEAR,  a.  ker'm-lln'l-er  [L.  curvus,  bent;  lined, 
a  line]:  having  a  curve  line;  consisting  of  curve  lines. 
Cur'vilin'ear'ity  n.  -dr'l-tl,  the  state  of  being  described 
or  bounded  by  curved  lines.  Curvilinead,  n.  -l-dd, 
drafting-instrument  used  in  describing  irregular  curves. 
The  various  shapes  of  its  marginal  outline  enable  it  to  be 
fitted  into  position,  so  as  to  project  or  transcribe  the  curve 
required.  Mr.  Desalier,  of  Paris,  invented  a  machine  for 
generating  the  curves  and  marking  out  the  patterns.  It  is 
capable  of  marking  1,200  varieties  of  curves.  Curyograph, 
n.  ker'vo  grdf  [Gr.  grapho,  I  write,  I  describe]:  instrument 
for  drawing  a  curve  without  reference  to  the  centre.  It  is 
usually  an  elastic  strip,  adjustable  to  a  given  curve,  and 
serves  to  transfer  the  latter  to  another  plat  or  another  place 
on  the  plat:  see  Arcograph  and  Cyclograph.  Cur  - 
viros'tral,  a.  -rostral  [L.  rostrum.,  a  beak]:  having  a 
crooked  beak. 

CURVISERIAL,  a.  ker' m-se' ri-dl  [L.  curvus,  crooked; 
series,  a  row] :  in  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on  an  axis  or 
stem,  applied  to  those  leaves  which  are  believed  to  be  dis- 
posed on  an  infinite  curve,  as  distinguished  from  rectiserial 
ones. 

CURZOLA,  kord-zo'ld  fane.  Corcyra  Nigra,  so  called 
from  the  sombre  color  of  its  pine  forests):  island  of  the 


CUSCO-BARK-CUSHEW. 

Adriatic,  part  of  the  Austrian  crown-land  of  Dalmatia;  lat. 
42  57'  n.,  long.  17°  e.;  length  about  25  m.,  average  breadth 
4  miles.  It  is  well  covered  with  wood,  which  on  the  s. 
coast  grows  down  to  the  water-edge.  The  woods  furnish 
ship-timber,  considerable  wine  is  produced,  and  the  fish- 
eries of  the  coast  are  productive.  The  town  of  C.  (pop. 
abt.  2,000)  is  at  the  n.e.  extremity  of  the  island.  Pop.  of 
island  abt.  22,000. 

CUSCO-BARK,  n.  kiis'kd-  [from  Cusco,  in  lower  Peru, 
whence  the  bark] :  a  kind  of  Cinchona  bark,  exported  from 
Arequipa,  used  in  the  cold  stage  of  intermittent  fevers  and 
in  low  typhoid  states  of  the  system. 

CUSCUS,  kas'kas,  or  Cous'sous  [a Molucca  island  word]: 
marsupial  mammal,  Phalangista  cavifrons:  see  Phalanger. 

CUS  CUS:  see  Lemon  Grass. 
CUSCUTA'CE^:  see  Dodder. 

CUSH,  kush:  name  given  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the 
oldest  son  of  Ham,  to  the  peoples  descended  from  him, 
and  to  the  countries  inhabited  by  them.  Of  his  sons,  Seba 
dwelt  in  Africa,  bordering  on  Egypt;  Havilah,  in  Arabia 
and  adjoining  parts  of  Africa;  Sabta,  in  Arabia  Felix; 
Raahmah,  along  the  Persian  Gulf;  Nimrod  (who  is  noted 
in  Scripture  as  the  first  man  who  became  conspicu- 
ous in  the  chase  and  in  war)  built  Babylon  and  Nine- 
veh, and  founded  the  empire  of  Assyria.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  when  the  Cushites  and  the  land  of  Cush  are 
spoken  of,  a  wide  diffusion  of  people  and  a  consequent 
large  extent  of  territory  are  implied.  One  of  the  rivers  of 
Eden,  it  is  said,  'compassed  the  land  of  Cush.'  This  does 
not  prove  that  paradise  was  in  Africa,  nor  shut  us  up  to  a  nar- 
row district  in  considering  where  it  possibly  may  have  been. 

Modern  research  into  the  ancient  languages  of  the  East 
has  furnished  unexpected  confirmatory  proof  that  an  ethni- 
cal relation  existed  between  the  African  Cushites  (or  Ethio- 
pians) and  the  original  inhabitants  of  Babylonia.  Sir  H. 
Rawlinson  traced  such  a  relation  between  the  languages  of 
the  two  countries  in  very  ancient  Babylonian  documents, 
and  in  the  traditions  of  both  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  He 
has  therefore  established  the  existence,  so  long  doubted  by 
many,  of  an  Asiatic,  as  well  as  an  African,  Ethiopia  or  land 
of  Cush. 

CUSHAT,  n.  hush' at  [AS.  cusceote]:  the  ring-dove  or 
wood-pigeon :  see  Pigeon. 

CUSHEW,  n.  kusli'u  [a  native  American  word(?)]:  large 
bird,  Ourcox  pauxiy  of  the  family  Cracidi">  or  Curassows, 
and  itself  sometimes  called  the  Galeated  Curassow.  The 
bill  is  bright  red,  surmounted  by  a  protuberence  of  livid 
slate  color.  The  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck  are  of  a 
rich  black  color  and  velvety  texture;  the  greater  part  of 
the  body  brilliant  black,  with  green  reflections;  the  abdomen 
and  under  tail  coverts  white;  "legs  red,  claws  yellow.  This 
bird,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  hen  turkey,  is  a  native  of 
Mexico,  Brazil,  and  Guiana.  It  is  gregarious  and  builds  its 
nest  on  the  ground.    See  picture  under  Curasso. 

366 


GUSHING— CUSHION. 

GUSHING,  hushing,  Caleb,  ll.d.:  1800,  Jan.  17— 
1879,  Jan.  2;  b.  Salisbury.,  Mass.:  statesman.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  Univ.  1817,  studied  law  and  began  to  prac- 
tice in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  w^as  elected  member  of  the 
legislature  1825,  and  of  the  senate  1826,  spent  two  years  in 
European  travel,  was  again  elected  to  the  legislature  183^, 
and  was  chosen  member  of  congress  as  a  whig  1834.  He 
served  four  consecutive  terms,  joined  the  democratic  party 
1841,  was  nominated  for  sec.  of  the  treasury  and  rejected 
by  the  senate  1843,  was  then  appointed  U.  S.  commissioner 
to  China,  and  negotiated  the  first  treaty  between  that 
country  and  the  United  btates.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  war  he  raised  a  Mass.  regt.  at  his  own  expense, 
accompanied  it  as  col.  and  was  promoted  brig. gen.  He 
served  a  third  term  in  the  legislature  1850-52,  was  appointed 
a  justice  of  the  Mass.  supreme  court  1852,  was  U.  S.  atty. 
gen.  1853-57,  and  was  again  in  the  legislature  1857-60.  In 
1860,  Apr.,  he  presided  over  the  democratic  national  con- 
vention in  Charleston,  but  withdrew  with  other  delegates 
and  held  another  convention  in  Baltimore;  was  appointed 
one  of  three  commissioners  to  codify  the  laws  of  congress 
1866,  was  one  of  the  American  counsel  before  the  Geneva 
conference  1872,  was  nominated  for  chief-justice  of  the 
United  States,  but  the  nomination  was  withdrawn  1873, 
and  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Spain  1873,  Dec. — 1877,  Jan.  6. 

GUSHING,  Luther  Stearns:  1803,  June  22—1856, 
June  22;  b.  Lunenburg,  Mass.:  lawyer.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  law  school  1826,  and  became  associate  editor  of 
The  American  Jurist  and  Law  Magazine,  clerk  of  the  Mass; 
house  of  representatives,  lecturer  on  Roman  law  in  Har- 
vard law  school,  judge  of  the  common  pleas  court,  Boston, 
and  reporter  of  decisions  of  the  state  supreme  court.  He 
was  author  of  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice  (1844),  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  Boman  Civil  Law  (1854),  Lex  Par- 
liamentaria  Americana  (1856),  and  a  number  of  technical 
works,  including  Treatise  on  Trustee  Process  (1837)  and  Trea- 
tise on  Remedial  Law  (1837),  and  translated  Sarigny's  Recht 
des  Besitzes  (1838),  Pothier's  De  La  Vente  (1839),  Mattermai- 
er's  Effect  of  Drunkenness  on  Criminal  Besponsibility  (1841), 
and  Domat's  Les  lois  civiles  dans  leur  ordre  naturel  (1850). 

GUSHING,  Thomas,  ll.d.:  1725-1788;  b.  Boston: 
statesman.  He  was  elected  to  the  Mass.  assembly  1766, 
May,  became  speaker  on  its  organization,  and  held  the 
office  till  1774;  opposed  the  formation  of  committees  of  cor- 
respondence 1772;  was  elected  to  the  first  continental  con- 
gress 1774,and  the  second  1775;  was  a  member  of  the  council 
of  the  new  govt,  of  Mass.  1775;  opposed  the  declaration  of 
independence  and  was  defeated  for  the  third  congress  1776; 
was  elected  lieut.gov.  of  Mass.  1783;  and  member  of  the 
convention  that  ratified  the  federal  constitution  1788.  He 
was  among  those  whom  Gen.  Gates  was  instructed  to  send 
to  England  to  be  tried  for  treason,  and  was  successful  in 
obtaining  secret  information  of  British  movements. 

CUSHION,  n.  kusJi'iin  [F.  coussin — from  mid.  L.  culci- 
tlnum,  a  little  mattress— from  L.  ciclcUa,  a  cushion;  It. 

3t)7 


CUSHMAN. 

coscino;  Ger.  klissen,  a  cushion]:  a  soft  pad  or  pillow  to 
sit  on;  any  bag  filled  with  soft  materials;  any  stuffed  or 
padded  surface;  the  padded  side  or  edge  of  a  billiard-table: 
V.  to  furnish  with  a  cushion  or  cushions.  Cush  ioning, 
imp.  CusH  lONED,  pp.  -und.  Cush'ionet,  n.  -un-et,  a 
little  cushion. 

CUSHMAN,  kusliman,  Charlotte  Saunders:  actress: 
1816,  July  23—1876.  Feb,  18;  b.  Boston:  descendant  of  the 
pilgrim,  Kobert  C.  (q.v.).  She  received  a  good  musical 
education,  and  before  her  12th  year  was  aiding  in  the  sup- 
port of  the  family  by  singing  in  a  church  choir.  In  1884 
she  made  her  first  appearance  on  the  stage,  singing  in  Mrs. 
Joseph  Wood's  concerts  in  Boston.  Her  success  secured 
for  her  a  thorough  training  for  the  operatic  stage,  and  she 
gave  performances  in  Tremont  Theatre, Boston,  as  Lucy  Ber- 
tram in  Guy  Manneriiig,  and  the  Countess  Almavivain  the 
Marriage  of  Figaro.  While  fulfilling  an  engagement  in 
New  Orleans  her  voice  suddenly  failed,  and  she  was  in- 
duced reluctantly  to  abandon  singing  and  study  to  become 
a  tragic  actress.  She  made  her  first  appearance  in  her  new 
profession  1835  as  Lady  Macbeth.  She  played  through 
seasons  in  New  York  and  Albany  in  female  tragic  parts, 
was  leading  actress  in  the  Park  Theatre,New  York,  1837-40, 
manager  of  the  Walnut  Street  Theatre,  Philadelphia  1842- 
44,  made  a  tour  of  the  northern  states  with  Mr.  Macready 
1844,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year  appeared  with 
extraordinary  success  in  London  and  Dublin.  Her  foreign 
stay  was  prolonged  beyond  anticipation,  and  she  did  not 
return  to  the  United  States  till  1849,  Aug.  She  made  a 
professional  tour  of  the  country,  gave  a  farewell  perform- 
ance in  New  York  1852,  May  15,  and  after  visiting  friends 
in  England  and  on  the  continent  played  in  London  and  the 
provinces  1853,  Dec. — 1857;  then  made  a  brief  tour  in  the 
United  States,  and  took  up  her  residence  in  Rome,  Italy, 
1859,  Jan.  She  played  several  times  in  the  United  States 
in  the  early  part  of  the  civil  war  for  the  benefit  of  the 
U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission,  gave  several  series  of  dramatic 
readings,  and  closed  her  career  as  an  actress  at  the  Globe 
Theatre,  Boston,  as  Lady  Macbeth,  1875,  May  15.  Among 
her  leading  characters  were  Elvira,  Helen  McGregor, 
Queen  Katharine,  Ophelia,  Rosalind,  Julia  in  The  Huncli- 
hack,  Katharine  m\Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Meg  Merrilies,  Nan- 
cy Sykes,  Lady  Gay  Spanker;  Cardinal  Wolsey  and  Romeo. 

CUSHMAN,  Robert:  1580-1625;  b.  Kent,  Eng.:  one  of 
the  Plymouth  pilgrims.  He  w^as  associated  with  John 
Carver  in  facilitating  the  emigration  of  persecuted  noncon- 
formists from  England  to  Holland,  was  sent  on  three  mis- 
sions to  London  to  obtain  grants  of  land  in  America  for 
the  settlement  of  the  Leyden  colonists,  secured  a  patent 
1619,  purchased  the  Mayflower,  and  sailed  in  her,  as  asst. 
gov.  of  the  pilgrims,  from  Southampton  1620,  Aug.  5.  A 
second  vessel,  the  Speedwell,  proved  un seaworthy,  was  left 
with  its  passengers  at  Plymouth,  and  Mr.  C.  remained 
with  them  till  a  third  vessel,  the  Fortune,  took  them  all 
and  reached  Plymouth,  Mass. ,  1621,  Nov.  9.  In  the  follow- 

368 


CUSK— CUSSO. 


ing  month  he  preached  in  the  *  common  house '  of  the 
colony  the  first  sermon  in  America  that  was  printed,  on 
The  Sin  and  Danger  of  Self-love  (London  1622),  and  a  few 
days  afterward  sailed  for  England  as  agent  for  the  colo- 
nists. He  was  captured,  plundered,  taken  to  France  and 
detained  two  weeks,  published  a  vindication  of  the  colonial 
movement  and  an  appeal  for  Christian  effort  among  the 
American  Indians  on  reaching  London,  obtained  a  charter 
for  a  large  tract  of  land  on  Cape  Ann  1623,  and  died  w^hile 
closing  his  London  affairs  preparatory  to  returning  to  the 
colony. 

CUSK:  see  Toksk. 

CUSP,  n.  kiisp  [L.  cuspis  or  cuspidem,  a  point,  a  lance: 
It  cuspide]:  a  point  in  a  curve  at  which  its  two  branches 
have  a  common  tangent.  If  we  conceive  a  curve  to  be 
generated  by  a  moving  point,  then  a  C.  is  where  the  point 
suddenly  stops  and  returns  for  a  time  in  the  same  general 
direction  as  that  in  which  it  was  moving  when  it  reached 
the  C.  point.  Cusps  are  of  two  kinds:  1,  when  the  two 
branches,  AB,  AC,  have  their  convexities  turned  in  the 
same  direction  with  respect  to  the  common  tangent  at  the 
C.  point,  as  in  fig.  1;  2,  when  they  have  their  convexities 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


turned  in  opposite  directions  to  the  common  tangent  at 
the  C.  point,  as  in  fig.  2.    Cusp,  in  astron.,  point  or 

horn  of  the  moon.  Cusp,  in 
arch.,  projecting  point  or  or- 
nament formed  by  the  meet- 
ting  of  two  small  arches  or 
foils,  in  foil-arches  (q.v.)  or 
tracery;  cusps  often  termi- 
nate in  rich  bosses  of  flowers 
or  leaves.  Cuspidate,  a. 
kus'pi-ddt,  in  hot.,  having  a 
sharp  end  like  a  spear;  ending 
in  a  bristly  point;  in  anat., 
applied  to  the  canine  or  eye 
Cusp.  teeth. 

CUSPAEIA-BAKK,  n.  Tcus-pdr'i-a:  see  Angostura 
Bark. 

CUSPIDOR,  n.  Mis'pi-dor  [Sp.  escupidor,  one  who  spits 
—from  escuper,  to  spit] :  a  spittoon. 

CUSSO,  kits' so,  or  Kosso,  kos'so,  or  Cabotz,  kd'hotz  {Bray- 
era  anthelmintica,  ov  Hagenia Ahysmiica):  small  Abyssinian 
tree  of  the  nat.  ord.  Rosacece,  sub-order  Spiracece,  the  dried 
flowers  of  which  have  been  long  used  in  Abyssinia  as  an 
anthelmintic,  and  have  been  found  so  eflicacious  in  the 


CUSTARD-CUSTARD  APPLE. 

removal  of  tape- worm,  that  they  are  now  a  much  valued 
medicine  in  Europe.  The  flowers  are  simply  dried,  in  or- 
der to  be  ready  for  the  market;  they  have  an  aromatic,  but 


Cusso: 

A,  a  branch,  with  leaves  and  flowers;  B,  a  flower  seen  laterally;  C, 
a  female  flower;  a,  6,  c,  d,  e,  the  flve  outer  segments  of  the  calyx. 

not  very  agreeable  smell,  and  are  administered  in  the  form 
of  an  infusion. 

CUSTARD,  n.  kits' terd  [probably  a  corruption  of  the 
OE.  crustade,  a  dish  of  the  14th  c,  consisting  of  a  kind 
of  stew  served  up  in  a  raised  cimst — from  OF.  croustade,  a 
pastry,  a  tart,  a  crust]:  a  mixture  of  milk  or  cream  and  eggs 
sweetened  and  flavored,  and  afterward  baked  or  boiled. 
Custards  are  of  various  kinds,  such  as  plain,  baked,  lemon, 
orange,  almond,  coffee  custards,  etc.  For  a  plain  C,  the 
following  is  a  recipe  given  by  M.  Soj'-er:  Mix  a  pint  of 
boiling  milk  with  two  ounces  of  sugar  and  the  thin  yellow 
peel  of  half  a  lemon ;  then  take  four  eggs,  beat  well  in  a 
basin,  and  add  gradually  the  milk,  etc.  (not  too  hot);  pass 
the  mixture  through  a  colander,  and,  having  filled  the 
'  custard  cups  with  it,  place  them  over  the  fire  in  a  stew-pan, 
containing  about  one  inch  of  hot  water,  and  leave  them 
here  until  sufticiently  set  (about  12  minutes  is  the  time  re- 
quired). With  this  as  a  basis,  a  variety  of  custards  are  pro- 
duced by  addition  of  flavoring  ingredients,  as  vanilla,  al- 
monds, orange-peel,  etc. 

CUS'TARD  AP'PLE:  name  commonly  given  in  the  W. 
Indies  and  other  tropical  countries  to  the  fruits  of  certain 
species  of  Anona,  genus  of  trees  of  the  nat.  ord.  Anonacece 
(q.v.).  Some  of  the  fruits  of  this  genus  are  among  the  most 
delicious  produced  in  tropical  countries,  as  the  Cherimoyer 
(q.v  ),  and  even  the  common  C.  A.  (^4.  reticulata),  regarded 
as  a  native  of  America,  but  now  very  common  throughout 
the  E.  Indies,  the  variety  cultivated  in  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago being  much  superior  even  to  the  W.  Indian.  The 
C.  A.  is  a  large,  dark-brown,  roundish  fruit,  sometimes 
from  its  size  and  appearance  called  Bullock's  Heart  in  the 

■370 


CUSTER. 


W.  Indies;  the  tree  is  of  considerable  size.  Some  other 
American  species  of  Anona  are  sometimes  called  custard 
apples,  and  two  or  three  which  are  natives  of  W.  Africa 
To  this  genus  belong  also  the  Sweet-sop,  the  Sour-sop,  the 


Custard  Apple  {Anona  triloba). 


Pinana  or  Pinha,  all  of  them  tropical  American  fruits,  and 
the  Alligatok  Apple  of  the  W.  Indies  {A.  palustris),  a 
fruit  of  pleasant  taste,  but  regarded  as  dangerously  narcotic. 

CUSTER,  Mist'ei%  Geopge  Armstrong,  u.s.a.:  1839, 
Dec.  5—1876,  June  25;  b.  New  Rumley,  O.  He  graduated 
at  the  U.  S.  Milit.  Acad.  1861,  June;  performed  staff  ser- 
vice with  Gens.  Kearney,  Smith,  McClellan,  and  Pleasan- 
ton;  appointed  brig. gen.  of  vols,  for  unusual  gallantry 
1863,  June  29;  promoted  maj.  u.s.a.  for  checking  the 
Confederate  attempt  to  turn  the  left  flank  of  the  Union  army 
at  Gettysburg,  1863,  July  3;  brevetted  lieut.col.  for  conspic- 
ious  gallantry  on  Sheridan's  raid  toward  Richmond  1864, 
May  11;  brevetted  col.  for  services  at  Winchester  1864, 
Sep.  19;  appointed  to  command  of  the  3d  div.  of  cav.  1864, 
Sep.  30;  brevetted  maj. gen.  vols.  Oct.  19;  in  command  of 
cav.  div.  in  pursuit  of  Confederate  Gen.  Lee  1865;  pro- 
moted maj. gen.  vols,  on  Lee's  surrender;  and  chief  of  cav. 
in  dept.  of  Tex.  1865-6.  He  served  on  the  plains  till  1871, 
was  engaged  against  hostile  Indians  till  1873,  opened  the 
Black  Hills  (Dak.)  region  to  miners  1874,  and  was  killed 
with  his  entire  command  by  confederated  Sioux  on  the 
Little  Big  Horn  river.  Gen.  C.  was  a  conspicuously  chiv- 
alrous and  brilliant  officer. 

371 


CUSTIS— CUSTOMARY  FREEHOLD. 

CUSTIS,  Mis' lis,  George  Washington  Parke:  author: 
1'781,  Apr.  30—1857,  Oct.  10;  b.  Mt.  Airy,  Md.;  son  of  Col. 
John  Parke  C.,  who  was  Mrs.  Martha  Washington's  son  by 
her  first  husband.  He  was  the  adopted  son  of  Gen.  Wash- 
ington, and  was  educated  at  St.  John's  and  Princeton  col- 
leges; remained  in  the  Washington  family  till  his  grand- 
mother's death,  built  Arlington  house  on  the  heights  near 
Washington;  was  the  father  of  Mrs.  Robert  E.  Lee;  and  the 
author  of  several  plays  and  oraticns  and  Eecollections  of 
Washington  (New  York,  1860). 

CUSTOCK:  see  Castock. 

CUSTODY,  n.  kas'to-dl  [L.  custodm,  a  keeping  or  pre- 
serving—from custos,  a  guard:  It.  ciistodia:  F.  custode]:  a 
guarding;  a  keeping;  care  or  watch  over  for  security  or 
preservation;  imprisonment  (q.v.).  Custo  dian,  n.  -todl-ariy 
one  who  has  the  care  or  custody  of  some  public  building; 
also  Custo  dier,  n.  -ei\  one  who.  Custo  dial,  a.  -dl, 
relating  to  guardianship. 

CUSTOM,  n.  kits' tarn  [OF.  coustume  and  costume — from 
mid.  L.  costiima,  custom:  It.  costume,  custom,  usage — from 
L.  consuetus,  usual,  ordinary]:  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  act;  established  manner;  the  practice  of  frequeniing  a 
shop  for  the  purchase  of  goods;  usage;  toll  or  tax:  V.  in 
OE.,  to  supply  with  customers;  for  '  accustom  Customed, 
a.  kits' tumd,  in  0£'.,  common;  usual;  for  'accustomed'. 
Cus  toms,  n.  plu.  duties  or  taxes  on  goods  imported  or  ex- 
ported. Custom-house,  office  of  the  govt,  officials  at  a  sea- 
port, where  customs-duties  (q.v.)  are  paid,  vessels  entered 
and  cleared,  etc.  The  custom-houses  at  the  chief  ports  of 
the  United  States  have  a  large  staff  of  officials  of  various 
departments  and  grades — the  collector  of  the  port  being  the 
highest.  Customable,  a.  -d-hl,  habitual;  frequent.  Cus'- 
tomably,  ad.  -d  hli.  Cus  tomary,  a.  -er-l,  usual;  habitual; 
in  common  practice.  Cus  tomary,  n.,  or  Cus'tomal,  n. 
in  arclioeol. ,  a  book  descriptive  of  the  customs  of  a  manor  or 
city.  Cus'tomer,  n.  -er,  one  who  frequents  a  shop  for  the 
purchase  of  goods;  a  buyer.  Cus  tomarily,  ad.  -er-i-U. 
Cus'tomariness,  n.  frequency;  habitual  use.  —  Syn.  of 
'custom,  n.':  fashion;  manner;  method;  practice;  habit; 
prescription. 

CUSTOM,  in  English  Law:  established  usage,  either 
general  or  particular.  For  the  principal  doctrines  relating 
to  general  customs,  see  Common  Law.  Of  particular  cus- 
toms, it  may  be  remarked  that,  in  order  to  establish  them 
as  law,  they  must  be  proved  by  verdict  of  a  jury,  except 
the  C.  of  the  city  of  London,  which  is  proved  by  certili- 
cate  \yj  the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and  recorder.  A  particu- 
lar C.  must,  like  a  general  C,  be  established  as  in  force  for 
a  time  whereof  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  con- 
trary: see  Common  Law.  A  C.  must  have  been  uninter- 
rupted as  regards  its  right,  though  the  exercise  of  it  may 
have  been  disused;  it  must  have  held  without  objection, 
and  be  unopposed  to  other  customs;  it  must  be  not  un- 
reasonable nor  uncertain  in  operation. 

CUS  TOMARY  FREE  HOLD,  in  English  Law:  species 
m 


CUSTOMS  DUTIES, 
of  estate  which,  in  all  practical  respects,  is  identical  with 
Copyhold  (q.v.),  bat  in  which  the  tenure  is  expressed  to  be 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  manor,  without  adding  the 
words  '  at  the  will  of  thje  lord.' 
^  CUS  TOMS  DU  TIES:  portion  of  the  public  revenue  de- 
rived from  a  tax  on  imports.  The  origin  of  the  term  is 
connected  with  the  long  conflict  in  Britain  between  the 
crown  and  parliament  as  to  the  right  of  taxation.  To 
meet  the  claims  made  by  the  house  of  commons  of  the 
exclusive  right  to  vote  all  supplies,  it  used  to  be  maintained 
that  there  [were  certain  duties  on  exportation  and  on  im- 
portation to  which  the  crown  had  acquired  a  right  by  ciis- 
torn,  and  after  the  power  of  parliament  over  this  branch  of 
taxation  had  been  fully*  established,  it  retained  its  old 
name.  This  tax,  after  the  excise  came  in  force,  was  al- 
w^ays  applicable  distinctively  to  goods  changing  place. 
There  were  customs  not  only  upon  things  leaving  and  things 
coming  to  the  British  dominions,  but  also  upon  commodi- 
ties transferred  from  one  part  to  another.  In  Scotland, 
the  duty  on  commodities  imported  into  any  town  from  a 
foreign  country  was  called  the  great  custom;  and  the 
duty  charged  by  a  burghal  corporation  on  commodities 
coming  from  the  country  districts  within  its  walls  was 
called  the  small  or  petty  customs.  At  present,  the  term 
C.  D.  applies  solely  to  the  tax  levied  on  commodities  im- 
ported from  abroad. 

The  tax  on  imports  was  of  old  a  simple  percentage,  fa- 
miliarly known  to  the  readers  of  English  history  as  '  ton- 
nage and  poundage,'  from  the  method  in  which  it  was  ad- 
justed to  heavy  and  light  goods.  Subsequentl}^  however, 
the  notion  prevailed  that  the  C.  D.  might  not  only  be  a 
source  of  revenue,  but  an  instrument  for  furthering  the 
various  theories  about  protecting  this  trade  and  discourag- 
ing that,  which  prevailed  from  time  to  time.  When  it  was 
held  as  an  established  principle,  with  regard  to  any  trade, 
that  the  customs  should  be  adjusted  in  such  a  manner  as 
either  to  aid  or  to  impede  it,  the  regulations  regarding  that 
trade  alone  would  have  complexity  enough  for  a  whole 
code  of  customs  laws,  the  object  of  which  was  mere  reve- 
nue. The  more  complex  the  arrangements,  the  more 
open  were  they  to  the  machinations  of  the  smuggler  or 
defrauder,  and  consequently  regulation  had  to  be  added 
to  regulation,  till  the  whole  became  a  chaos.  In  some  in- 
stances, the  duties  were  such  as  to  act  as  a  prohibition  to 
importation;  in  others,  merely  as  a  heavy  increase  on  the 
price.  In  either  case,  there  would  be  relaxations  in  favor 
of  the  produce  of  British  colonies,  and  perhaps  of  some 
favored  country  with  which  Briton  had  a  treaty  of  reci- 
procity. Then,  to  encourage  British  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, it  was  considered  politic  to  allow  goods  be  imported 
for  exportation  abroad,  or  to  be  imported  for  the  purpose 
of  being  worked  up  into  a  manufacture,  and  there  would 
be  a  difference  between  the  extent  of  encouiagement 
granted  to  that  manufacture,  if  it  were  for  home  consump- 
tion or  for  exportation.  The  method  in  which  such  re- 
laxation was  accomplished  was  at  first  by  charging  the 


CUSTOMS  DUTIES. 

duty  on  the  importation,  and  afterward  repaying  it  by 
what  was  called  a  *  drawback;'  and  this  was  subsequently 
accomplished  in  an  easier  method  for  the  importer,  by 
allowing  him  to  '  bond '  the  goods  in  the  government 
warehouses  until  the  duty  was  paid,  or  the  conditions 
which  dispensed  with  it  fulfilled:  see  Warehousing  Sys- 
tem. 

The  free-trade  legislation  of  1846,  in  Britain,  cleared 
away  a  great  mass  of  customs  regulations,  and  almost  every 
year  has  contributed  to  the  abbreviation  of  the  list  of 
duties  or  Tarilf  (q.v.).  Nearly  the  whole  customs  revenue 
is  now  derived  from  tea,  coliee,  dried  fruits,  spirits,  wine, 
and  tobacco.  Thus  simplitied  and  reduced,  the  C.  D. 
supply  an  enormous  revenue.  The  British  revenue  for  the 
year  ending  1880,  Mar  31,  was  £81,265.055,  and  to  this 
amount  the  customs  contributed  £19,326,000. 

The  defects  which,  according  to  the  doctrines  now  prev- 
alent in  Great  Britain,  are  to  be  avoided  in  a  code  of  cus- 
toms, are — 1.  The  prohibition  or  discouragement  of  the 
importation  of  useful  commodities;  2.  Encouragement  to 
the  smuggler;  and  3.  Loss  of  revenue  by  raising  the  duty 
to  the  height  which  discourages  importation.  Under  the 
first  head,  see  Anti-coen-law  League:  Cokn  Laws: 
Free-trade.  The  second  is  connected  with  the  view  that 
on  stimulants  the  duty  cannot  be  too  high,  even  though  it 
should  greatly  impede  their  importation — the  duty  on  to- 
bacco is,  in  some  instances,  as  high  as  900  per  cent,  on  the 
value  of  the  article.  But  then,  if  the  smuggling  trade  be 
encouraged,  the  stimulant  is  not  only  obtained  without  any 
contribution  to  the  revenue,  but  the  people  become  demor- 
alized, and  trained  to  crime.  Under  the  third  head,  a 
memorable  example  is  furnished  by  the  sugar- duties  of 
France,  which  were  so  high  that  the  native  agriculturists 
could  make  sugar  from  beet-root  a  little  cheaper  than  the 
duty-paid  foreign  sugar.  Hence  the  article  was  dear,  for 
had  it  not  been  for  the  height  of  the  duty,  it  would  not 
have  been  worth  while  to  make  it  at  home,  and  at  the 
same  time  there  arose  little  or  no  revi  nue  frcrm  it. 

The  collection  and  general  management  of  the  British 
C.  D.  is  tmder  one  great  central  department  of  the  govern- 
ment in  London.  The  oflice  of  receiver-general  was,  in 
1871,  tmited  with  that  of  the  comptroller-general,  and 
there  is  a  fourfold  division  into  the  paymaster's,  examin- 
er's, accotintant's,  and  auditor's  branches. 

In  the  United  States  the  collection  of  C.  D.  is  under  the 
oflicia]  control  of  the  sec.  of  the  treasury  and  the  immedi- 
ate management  of  a  commissioner  of  customs  This  form 
of  taxation,  known  as  indirect  because  not  laid  on  individ- 
ual citizens,  is  conducted  wholly  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  federal  constitution,  and  by  the  national 
govt,  exclusively,  the  constitution  prohibiting  an}^  state  to 
lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports  except  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws.  The  congress  decides  from 
time  to  time  by  means  of  a  tariff  bill  the  various  articles 
on  which  duties  shall  be  laid  and  the  amount,  and  the  col- 
lection is  made  at  ports  of  entry  by  govt,  officers  as  the  im- 

874 


GUSTOS  ROTULORUM. 


ported  goods  are  received  und  before  they  are  delivered  to 
the  owner  or  his  representative.  Previous  to  the  civil  war 
the  expenses  of  the  national  govt,  were  met  almost  entirely 
by  the  proceeds  of  0.  D.;  but  the  extraordinary  outlays 
that  followed  necessitated  the  imposition  of  excises  on 
various  domestic  manufactures.  Still  the  national  revenue 
has  proceeded  more  largely  from  C.  D.  than  from  all  other 
sources  combined.  The  following  table  shows  this  pro- 
portion clearly: 


Total  Ordinary 
Receipts. 


Customs. 


Other  Receipts. 


$395,959,833 
374,431,104 
364,394,229 
322,177.673 
299.941,090 
284,020,771 
290,066,584 
281,000,642 
2.57,446,776 
272,322,136 
333,526,500 


$194,538,374 
206,270,408 
216,370,286 
188,089,522 
163,103,833 
157,167.722 
148,071,984 
-130,950.493 
130,170,680 
137,250,047 
186,522,064 


$201,421,4,59 
168,160,696 
148,023,943 
134,088,151 
136,837,257 
126,853,049 
141,994,600 
150,044,149 
127,276,096 
135.072,089 
147,004,436 


The  total  ordinary  receipts  of  the  govt.,  1790-1881 
amounted  to  17,767,417,979,  of  which  C.  D.  yielded  $4,- 
438,963,426,  leaving  $3,328,454,553  as  the  share  of  other 
sources  of  revenue.  (In  the  above  all  fractions  of  a  dollar 
are  omitted.) 

A  more  comprehensive  view  of  the  proportion  of  C.  D. 
to  other  revenues  appears  in  the  following  statement  of 
national  collections  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  1883,  June  30: 

Customs  duties    $214,706,496.93 

Taxes  on  distilled  spirits   $74,368,775.20 

fermented  liquors   16,900,615.81 

"      "  tobacco   42,104,249.79 

"      "  banks  and  bankers   3,748,994.60 

Adhesive  stamps   7,053,053.46 

Penalties,  etc   305.803.57 

Back  taxes  under  repealed  laws   71,852.43 

Total  internal  revenue    144,553,344.86 

Tax  on  circulation  and  deposits  of  na- 
tional banks     5,362,014.05 

Total  of  taxes   $364,621,855.84 

In  1888  there  were  31  customs  stations  in  the  United 
States  in  charge  of  115  collectors,  some  of  whom  were  paid 
fixed  salaries  and  the  others  in  whole  or  in  part  by  fees  or 
commissions  on  receipts.  The  highest  paid  collectors  were 
those  of  New  York,  $12,000;  Boston  and  Philadelphia, 
$8,000;  Baltimore,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, $7,000;  Portland,  Me.,  $6,000;  and  Key  West, 
$5,000. 

GUSTOS  nOTJJLOnVM,  Ms  tos  rot' u-ld-rum  [L.  cusios, 
a  keeper:  mid.  L.  rotalus,  a  roll,  a  register — from  L.  rotula, 
a  little  wheel]:  in  Great  Britain,  the  keeper  of  the  rolls  or 
registers  of  the  sessions;  the  principal  justice  of  the  peace 

375 


CUSTRIN— CUT. 

and  chief  civil  oflScer  within  the  county  appointed  by  the 
crown  to  keep  the  county  records. 

CUSTRIN':  see  Kustrin. 

CUT,  V.  kut  [W.  cictt  and  catt,  a  little  piece:  comp.  Gael. 
cutach,  short,  diminutive;  cutaich,  to  shorten,  to  lop:  Ir. 
cut,  a  short  tail] :  to  separate  by  a  cutting  instrument  into 
short  pieces;  to  divide;  to  sever;  to  hew,  as  timber;  to  pene- 
trate or  pierce;  to  affect  deeply;  to  intersect  or  cross;  to  in- 
tercept: N.  a  piece  separated  by  cutting;  a  stroke  or  blow 
with  a  sharp  instrument;  a  cleft;  a  notch;  a  gash;  a  channel 
or  ditch  made  by  digging  or  cutting;  a  carving  or  engrav- 
ing, likewise  the  print  from  it;  form;  shape;  fashion.  Cut, 
pp.  and  pt.  divided;  pierced;  deeply  affected:  Adj.  divided; 
carved;  intersected.  Cutting,  imp.:  Adj.  sarcastic; 
severe:  N.  an  incision;  a  piece  cut  off;  a  portion  of  a  plant 
bearing  a  bud,  for  propagation;  a  long  deep  excavation,  as 
in  making  a  road,  a  railway,  or  a  canal.  Cut  ter,  n.  one 
who  or  that  which  cuts;  one  of  the  boats  of  a  large  ship;  a 
light  swift  vessel  with  one  mast;  a  small,  light  sleigh;  an 
incisor  tooth.  Cut'teks,  n  plu.  in  a  machine,  knives  that 
cut;  bricks  used  chiefly  for  the  arches  of  window^s,  doors, 
etc.  Cut'tingly,  ad.  -li.  Cut-grass,  Leersia  oryzoicUs, 
the  leaves  being  so  rough  as  to  cut  the  hand.  Cut-off,  a 
shorter  passage  or  route;  in  macliinery,  term  applied  to 
that  arrangement  for  using  steam  or  elastic  fluid,  in  which 
it  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  during  a  portion  only  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston;  the  steam,  after  the  induction  ceases, 
working  expansively  in  the  cylinder  during  the  remainder 
of  the  stroke.  Cut-velvet,  piled  goods  in  which  the  loops 
are  cut.  To  cut  a  figure,  to  show  off  conspicuously. 
To  CUT  A  JOKE,  to  be  witty  and  sociable.  To  cut  down, 
to  reduce;  to  retrench;  to  fell,  as  timber.  To  cut  off,  to 
separate;  to  destroy;  to  intercept.  To  cut  up,  to  divide 
into  pieces.  To  be  cut  up,  applied  to  an  army  in  the  field 
that  has  lost  many  men  in  killed  and  wounded;  familiarly y 
to  be  annoyed  or  disturbed.  To  cut  out,  to  remove  a  part; 
to  shape.  Cut  out,  suited  for  the  occupation  by  his  natural 
abilities.  To  cut  out  a  ship,  to  enter  a  harbor  and  seize 
and  carry  off  a  ship  by  a  sudden  attack.  To  cut  short, 
to  abridge.  To  cut  a  knot,  to  effect  anything  by  short 
and  strong  measures.  To  cut  the  cards,  to  divide  a  pack 
into  two  portions.  Cut  and  dry  or  dried,  prepared  for 
use;  already  prepared.  Cut  of  his  jib,  the  contour  or  ex- 
pression of  his  face  as  indicating  his  character;  a  sailor's 
term,  the  jib  indicating  the  character  of  the  ship.  To  cut 
in,  to  divide;  to  join  in  anything  suddenly.  To  draw  cuts 
[W.  ciUws,  lot] :  to  draw  lots  by  means  of  straws  or  pieces 
of  paper,  etc  ,  cut  in  pieces  of  different  lengths  and  held 
between  the  forefinger  and  thumb.  Cut-purse,  a  thief;  a 
robber.  Cut  throat,  a  murderer;  an  assassin:  Adj.  mur- 
derous; barbarous.  Cut- water,  the  fore  part  of  a  ship's 
prow  that  cuts  the  w\ater. 

CUT,  V.  kot  [Gael,  cuite,  to  quit;  cuidhte,  to  go  away]: 
in  familiar  slang,  to  run  away;  to  avoid  meeting  or  coming 
into  contact  with.     Cut,  v.  impera.  run  away;  be  off. 

•616 


CUTANEOUS- CUTCH. 

To  CUT  ONE,  to  refuse  or  avoid  recognizing  him  when  meet- 
ing or  passing;  to  renounce  acquaintanceship.  To  cut 
CAPERS,  to  conduct  one's  self  in  a  ridiculous  or  improper 
manner.  Cut  youk  stick  [perhaps  Gael,  teich,  to  flee;  to 
be  off] :  take  up  your  staff  or  belongings  and  be  off ;  also 
Cut  and  run,  in  same  sense.  Cut  a  dash,  to  make  a 
great  show.  Cut  away,  be  off  at  once;  go  away  fast. 
Note. — We  have  in  OE.  cut,  in  Scot,  cutty,  an  animal  with 
a  short  or  cut  tail,  an  abusive  word  applied  to  a  woman: 
Dut.  kutte;  Fin.  kutta,  the  distinctive  features  of  a  woman, 
a  feeble  womanly  man:  such  familiar  phrases  as  'cut  an 
acquaintance,'  '  cut  of  his  jib,'  '  cut  capers,'  may  have 
originated  from  the  treatment  accorded  by  a  warlike  race  to 
non-warlike  or  effeminate  men;  without  doubt  the  present 
entry  is  much  confused  in  its  meanings  by  a  supposed  iden- 
tity with  Cut  1 :  see  Cotquean,  note. 

CUTANEOUS,  a.  ku-td'ne-us  [L.  cutdneus — from  cutis, 
skin:  allied  to  Skr.  sku,  to  cover:  It.  cutaneo;  F.  cutane, 
cutaneous]:  pertaining  to  the  skin;  affecting  the  skin. 

CUTCH:  commercial  name  for  Catechu,  which  see. 
CUTCH,  kucli,  or  Kachh:  protected  principality  under 
the  presidency  of  Bombay,  stretching  along  the  gulf  of  its 
own  name  and  the  Indian  Ocean  between  Guzerat  and 
Sinde;  n.  lat.  from  22°  45'  to  24°  40',  and  in  e.  long,  from 
68°  26'  to  71°  45',  containing,  in  something  of  a  triangular 
form  with  the  maritime  line  as  a  base,  15,100  sq.  m.  It  is 
divided  naturally  into  C.  Proper  and  the  Runn  of  Cutch. — 
1.  C.  Proper,  6,500  sq.  m.,  and  numbering  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants,  is  the  belt  on  the  sea-shore,  touching  Sinde, 
of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  physical  continuation,  on 
the  n.w.,  and  being  separated  by  a  detached  portion  of  the 
Runn  from  Guzerat  on  the  s.e.  While  the  s.  edge  of  this 
belt  is  merely  a  sandy  desert,  the  n.  section,  traversed 
lengthwise  by  two  parallel  I'anges  of  hills,  presents,  amid 
much  sterility,  many  fertile  tracts,  w^hich  yield  cotton,  rice, 
etc.,  and  feed  a  large  stock  of  horses,  kine,  buffaloes,  and 
camels.  The  grand  defect  of  the  country  is  the  scarcity 
'  of  water.  Hence  the  crops  occasionally  fail  from  the 
scantiness  of  irrigation;  and  in  1861,  March,  this  region 
was  said  to  be  suffering  more  severely  than  almost  any 
other  in  India  from  a  nearly  general  famine.  Timber  is 
scarce,  for  the  growth  in  the  mountains  is  chiefly  brush- 
wood. Here  and  there,  however,  decayed  trunks  of  great 
size,  particularly  on  the  s.  ridge,  indicate  the  former 
existence  of  noble  forests.  The  mineral  productions  are 
coal,  iron,  and  alum.  The  traces  of  volcanic  action  are 
numerous.  Earthquakes  have  recently  occurred;  one  of 
which,  1819,  July,  besides  shaking  every  fortification  to 
its  foundations,  and  destroying  several  hundreds  of  people, 
threw  up  an  enormous  mound  of  earth  and  sand  many 
miles  in  extent,  and  simultaneously  submerged  an  adjacent 
district  of  corresponding  size.  The  ruler  is  styled  the 
Rao;  and  the  feudatory  chieftains  under  him  number 
about  200.  Pop.  of  C.  Proper  (1881)  512,084;  abt.  78  to  a 
sq.  mile. 

3n 


CUTCH— CUTH. 

2.  Runn  of  C. — subdivided  into  two  parts,  the  smaller, 
of  1,600  sq.  m.,  on  the  e.,  and  the  larger,  of  7,000  sq.  m., 
on  the  n. — is  merely  a  twofold  desert,  being,  in  a  great 
measure,  hard  ground  during  the  dry  season,  and  then,  in 
turn,  a  sort  of  shallow  lake  or  salt  morass  formed  by  the 
heavy  rains  and  pent-up  tides  of  the  s.w.  monsoon.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  originally  a  permanent  inlet  of  the 
ocean,  and  to  have  had  its  level  raised  by  some  such  con- 
vulsion of  nature  as  that  which  marked  the  year  1819.  The 
periodical  disappearance  of  the  waters  leaves  behind  it  one 
continuous  crust  of  salt.  This  dreary  waste,  however,  is 
not  without  its  elevated  spots,  the  islets,  doubtless,  of  a 
remoter  era.  Herds  of  wild  asses  and  clouds  of  tlies  are  its 
only  inhabitants,  and  to  attempt  to  cross  it  by  day,  except 
in  the  rainy  season,  is  almost  certain  death. 

CUTCH  (or  Kachh),  Gulf  of:  arm  of  the  Arabian  Sea, 
in  many  parts  so  shallow  as  to  resemble  rather  a  marsh.  It 
is  110  m.  long,  between  Cutcli  and  Guzerat. 

CUTCHA,  a.  kach'd  [Hind,  kacha,  raw]:  makeshift: 
temporary;  doubtful;  unsatisfactory;  being  thus  opposed 
to  pucka  [Hind,  pakka,  ripe].  Note.— A.  solidly-built  house 
of  stone  or  brick  is  a  pucka  house ;  but  one  made  of  mud 
and  brick,  or  lath  and  plaster,  is  a  cutcJia  affair.  The  per- 
manent holder  of  an  appointment  is  said  to  possess  a  pucka 
post;  while  his  locujii  tenens  would  be  holding  a  cutcha  one: 
a  metalled  road  is  pucka;  an  unmade  cross  country  track  is 
a  cutcha  road. 

CUTCHERY,  n.,  also  spelled  Kachchart,  properly 
Kachahri,  n.  kat-cher'l  [Hind.]:  in  the  E,  Indies,  the  court 
of  a  magistrate  of  any  kind . 

CUTCH  GUNDAVA,  kuch  gim-davd:  province  of  n.e. 
Beloochistan,  bet.  lat.  27°  40' and  29°  50'  n.,  and  long.  67° 
20'  and  69^  20'  e. ;  borders  on  Sinde  and  Afghanistan; 
bounded  w.  by  the  Hala  Mountains  containing  the  Bolan 
Pass.  It  is  150  m.  long  n.  to  s  ,  130  m.  wide,  abt.  10,000 
sq.  m.;  cap.  Gundava.  Though  almost  surrounded  by 
deserts  of  large  area,  it  has  considerable  tracts  of  fertile 
soil  on  which  cotton,  Indian  millet,  sugar,  madder,  indigo, 
and  various  fruits  are  cultivated.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Juts,  and  the  greater  part  of  trading  is  carried  on 
by  Hindus.    Pop.  abt.  100,000. 

CUTE,  a.  kut  [a  familiar  contraction  for  acute]:  sharp; 
clever. 

CUTH,  n.  koth  [Icel.]:  in  W.  of  Scot.,  the  young  of  the 
coal -fish:  see  note  under  Cuddy. 

378 


CUTHBERT. 

CUTHBERT,  kuth'hert:  disciple  of  the  Venerable  Bede 
in  the  monastery  of  Jarrow,  of  which  he  himself  was  after- 
ward abbot.  He  was  present  at  the  death  of  his  master 
735,  and  has  left  a  beautiful  and  touching  relation  of  the 
event  in  a  letter  to  his  fellow-disci])le,  Cuthwine.  It  has 
been  often  printed;  the  best  editions  are  those  in  Twys- 
den's  Decern  Scriptores  (Lond.  1652),  and  in  Stevenson's 
edition  of  Bede's  Historia  Ecclesiastica  (Lond.  1838). 

CUTH  BERT  of  Canterbury:  native  of  the  kingdom 
of  Mercia;  became  Bishop  of  Hereford  736,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  740:  died  758.  An  instructive  letter 
was  addressed  to  him  by  St.  Boniface  (or  Winfrid)  on  the 
ecclesiastical  abuses  of  the  age.  It  has  been  printed  more 
than  once,  and  is  in  the  appendix  to  the  late  Prof.  Hussey's 
edition  of  Bede's  Historia  Ecclesiastica  (Oxon.  1846). 

CUTHBERT,  Saint,  of  Durham:  abt.  635-687,  Mar. 
20:  one  of  the  three  great  saints  of  England  in  the  middle 
ages;  the  other  tvv^o  being  St.  Edmund  of  Edmundsbury, 
and  St.  Thomas-a  Becket  of  Canterbury:  neither  his  birth- 
place nor  his  parentage  has  been  ascertained;  but  a  legend, 
which  was  long  generall}^  believed,  told  that  he  was  born  in 
Ireland,  and  drew  his  lineage  from  one  of  the  petty  kings 
of  that  country.  When  the  light  of  record  first  falls  upon 
him,  he  is  a  shepherd  boy  in  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria, 
which  then  stretched  northward  to  the  Forth.  In  651,  while 
watching  his  flock  by  night  on  the  heights  of  Lauderdale, 
he  believes  that  he  sees  the  heavens  open,  and  a  company  of 
angels  descend  upon  the  earth,  and  again  ascend  to  heaven, 
carrying  with  them  the  soul  of  St.  Aidan,  the  pious  bishop 
of  Lindisfarne,  or  Holy  Island.  The  vision  determines  him 
to  become  a.  monk,  and  in  the  same  year  he  enters  the  mon- 
astery of  Melrose,  of  which  St.  Boisil  was  then  provost  or 
prior,  and  St.  Eata,  abbot.  When  the  latter  removed  to  the 
newly-founded  monastery  of  Ripon,  St.  C.  accompanied 
him,  and  was  appointed  to  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
the  guests.  In  661,  St.  Boisil  died  of  the  plague,  which 
then  ravaged  Britain,  and  St.  C.  wa?  chosen  to  succeed  him 
as  provost  or  prior  of  Melrose.  While  in  this  office,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  assiduity  in  visiting  the  neighbor- 
ing villages,  and  especially  the  remoter  mountain  hamlets, 
sometimes  on  horseback,  oftener  on  foot,  and  laboring  by 
his  teaching  and  example  to  reclaim  the  people  from  the 
superstitious  or  pagan  rites  into  which  they  had  fallen. 
After  a  few  years  spent  in  this  way,  he  left  Melrose  for  the 
island  monastery  of  Lindisfarne,  of  which  he  became  pro- 
vost or  prior,  his  old  master,  St.  Eata,  being  abbot.  Long- 
ing for  an  austerer  life  even  than  the  monastic,  he  quitted 
Lindisfarne  676,  to  become  an  anchorite,  or  solitary  recluse, 
in  a  hut  which  he  built  with  his  own  hands  on  Farne  Island. 
Here,  684,  be  was  visited  byEcgfrid,  King  of  Northumbria, 
Trumuine,  ex-bishop  of  the  Picts,  and  other  great  men  of 
the  north,  who  came  at  tlie  request  of  the  synod  of  Twy- 
ford  to  entreat  that  he  would  accept  the  bishopric  of  Hex- 
ham. He  reluctantly  complied  with  their  wishes,  but  his 
heart  was  still  with  his  Northumbrian  islands.    He  ex- 

371 


CUTHBERT. 

changed  the  see  of  Hexham  for  that  of  Lmdisfarne,  and  still 
thirsting  after  solitude,  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  resigned 
his  bishopric,  and  returned  to  his  hut  in  Farne  Island,  where 
he  died.  The  anniversary  of  his  death  was  a  great  day  of 
observance  in  the  English  Church,  which  commemorated 
also  Sep.  4,  as  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on  which  his  body 
was  translated  to  Durham.  The  influence  which  St.  C. 
exercised  upon  his  age  seems  to  have  been  due  chiefly  to  his 
fervent  piety  and  extraordinary  asceticism.  The  gift  of  a 
persuasive  tongue  is  ascribed  to  him,  and  he  seems  to  have 
had  skill  and  prudence  in  the  management  of  affairs,  but 
nowhere  is  there  any  trace  of  his  learning. 

The  fame  of  St.  C,  which  had  been  great  during  his  life, 
became  far  greater  after  his  death.  Churches  were  dedi- 
cated to  him  throughout  all  the  wide  country  between  the 
Trent  and  Mersey  on  the  south,  and  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
on  the  north.  When  his  tomb  was  opened  at  the  end  of  11 
years,  it  was  believed  that  his  body  was  found  incorrupt, 
and  so,  for  more  than  800  years,  it  was  believed  still  to 
continue.  It  remained  at  Lindisfarne  till  875,  when  the 
monks,  bearing  it  on  their  shoulders,  fled  inland  from  the 
fury  of  the  Danes.  After  many  wanderings  through  the 
s.  of  Scotland  and  the  n.  of  England,  it  found  a  resting- 
place  at  Chester-le- Street  882.  It  was  transferred  to  Ripon 
995,  and  in  the  same  year  it  was  removed  to  Durham. 
Here,  inclosed  in  a  costly  shrine,  and  believed  to  w^ork 
daily  miracles,  it  remained  till  the  Reformation,  when  it 
was  buried  under  the  pavement  of  the  cathedral.  The 
grave  was  opened  1827,  when  a  coffin,  ascertained  to  have 
been  made  in  1541 — w^hen  the  body  was  committed  to  the 
earth — w^as  found  to  inclose  another,  which  there  w\as 
reason  to  suppose  had  been  made  in  1104;  and  this  again 
inclosed  a  third,  which  answered  the  description  of  one 
made  in  698,  w^hen  the  saint  was  raised  from  his  first  grave. 
This  innermost  case  contained,  not,  indeed,  the  incorrupt- 
ible body  of  St.  C,  but  his  skeleton,  still  entire,  wrapped 
in  five  robes  of  embroidered  silk.  Fragments  of  these,  and 
of  the  episcopal  vestments,  together  with  a  comb  and  other 
relics,  found  beside  the  bones,  are  seen  in  the  cathedral 
library.  The  asceticism  which  distinguished  St.  C.  in  life 
long  lingered  round  his  tomb.  Until  the  Reformation,  no 
w^oman  w^as  suffered  to  approach  his  shrine;  the  cross  of 
blue  marble  still  remains  in  the  cathedral  floor  which 
marked  the  limits  beyond  which  female  footsteps  w^ere  for- 
bidden to  pass,  under  pain  of  instant  and  signal  punish- 
ment from  the  offended  saint.  His  wrath,  it  w^as  believed, 
was  equally  prompt  to  avenge  every  injury  to  the  honor  or 
possessions  of  his  church.  It  was  told  that  William  the 
Conqueror,  anxious  to  see  the  incorrupt  body  of  the  saint, 
ordered  the  shrine  to  be  broken  open;  but  scarcely  had  a 
stroke  been  struck,  when  such  sickness  and  terror  fell 
upon  the  king,  that  he  rushed,  from  the  cathedral,  and, 
mounting  his  horse,  never  drew  bridle  till  he  had  crossed 
the  Tees.  A  cloth,  said  to  have  been  used  by  St.  C.  in 
celebrating  mass,  was  fashioned  into  a  standard,  which  was 
believed  to  insure  victory  to  the  army  in  whose  ranks  it 

380 


CUTHBERT'S  BEADS-CUTLER. 

was  carried.  Floddeii  was  only  one  of  many  fields  in 
which  the  defeat  of  the  Scots  was  ascribed  to  the  banner 
of  St.  Cuthbert.  It  hung  beside  his  shrine  until  the  Ref- 
ormation, when  it  is  said  to  have  been  burnt  by  Calvin's 
sister,  wife  of  the  first  Protestant  dean  of  the  cathedral. 

The  life  of  St.  C.  was  twice  written  by  the  Venerable 
Bede — briefly  in  vigorous  hexameters  in  his  Liber  de  Mira- 
cuUs  Sancti  CutJiherchU  Episcopi;  at  greater  length,  in  prose, 
in  his  Liher  de  Vita  et  Miraculis  Sancti  Gudbercti  Lindisfar- 
nensis  Episcopi.  In  this  latter  work,  he  made  use  of  an  ear- 
lier life  by  a  monk  of  Lindisfarne,  which  is  still  preserved. 
Besides  these  lives — all  of  which  have  been  printed  more 
than  once— and  what  is  told  of  St.  C.  in  Bede's  Historia 
Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum,  the  chief  ancient  authorities 
are  the  Historia  Translationis  8,  Cuthberti,  published  by  the 
Bollandists,  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  mens.  Martii,  vol.  iii. ; 
the  Libellus  de  Exordio  Bimlielmensis  Ecclesioi  by  Symeon  of 
Durham;  the  Libellus  de  Natimtate  8.  Cuthberti  de  Historiis 
Hybernensium  excerptus,  and  the  Libellus  de  Admirandis  B. 
Cuthberti  Virtutibus,  by  Reginald  of  Durham,  both  pub- 
lished by  the  Surtees  Society.  There  are  two  modern  me- 
moirs of  St.  C. — the  late  Rev.  James  Raine's  St.  Cuthbert 
(Durham,  1828),  and  the  Very  Rev.  Monsignor  C.  Eyre's 
History  of  St.  Cuthbert  (Lond.  1849). 

CUTH  BERT'S  BEADS,  St.:  see  Beads. 

CUTICLE,  n.  Miti-kl  [F.  cuticule — from  L.  cutic'ula, 
thin  skin — from  cutis,  the  skin]:  the  thin  exterior  coat  of 
the  skin;  the  scarf-skin  or  epidermis  (see  Skin):  the  pellicle 
which  forms  the  outer  layer  of  the  body  among  the 
Infusoria;  the  thin  external  covering  of  a  plant.  Cutic'- 
ulah,  a.  -tlk'u-ler,  pertaining  to  the  cuticle  or  external  coat 
of  the  skin. 

CUTIS,  n.  kii'tis  [L.  skin]:  the  inferior  vascular  layer 
of  the  skin,  often  called  the  cutis  mra,  the  corium,  the 
derma  or  dermis,  or  the  true  skin,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
cuticle  or  outer  skin. 

CUTLASS,  n.  kut'lds  [a  corruption  of  OE.  ciirtal-axe; 
F.  coutelas,  a  hanger  or  sword :  It.  coltello;  Venet.  cortelo,  n 
•  knife] :  a  sword  abt.  3  ft.  long,  broad  and  straight,  with 
japanned  hilt;  used  mostly  in  the  navy  by  seamen  in  board 
ing  an  enemy's  ship:  see  Curtle-ax. 

CUTLER,  n.  Mt'ler  [OF,  coutel,  a  small  knife— from  It. 
coltello — from  L.  ctcltellus,  a  small  knife — from  culter,  a 
knife:  F.  coutelier;  OF.  cotelier,  a  maker  of  knives]:  one 
who  makes  knives  and  other  cutting  instruments. 

CUTLER,  kut-ler,  Manasseh,  ll.d.:  1742,  May  3— 1823, 
July  28;  b.  Killingly,  Conn.:  Congl.  minister;  botanist 
and  statesman.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  1765,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  Mass.  1767,  licensed  to  preach  1770, 
and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congl.  parish  at  Ipswich,  Mass., 
1771,  Sep.  11.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  in  the  continen- 
tal army  1776,  studied  and  practiced  medicine,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  American  Acad.  1781.  He  led  the 
expedition  that  settled  Marietta,  O.,  1788,  was  commissioned 

381 


CUTLER— CUTLERY. 

judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio  terr.,  but  declined  the 
otiice.  1795,  drafted  the  ordinance  that  excluded  slavery 
from  the  n.w.  terr.  1787,  and  was  member  of  congress  as  a 
federalist,  1801,  Dec.  7-1805,  Mar.  3.  He  contributed 
numerous  papers  to  the  American  Acad.,  examined  and 
classilied  350  species  of  plants  found  in  New  England,  and 
received  his  degree  from  Yale,  1791. 

CUTLER,  Timothy,  d.d.:  1685-1765,  Aug.  17;  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass  :  minister.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
Univ.  1701,  spent  10  years  as  pastor  of  the  Congl,  church  at 
Stratford  Conn.,  was  appointed  rector  of  Yale  College 
1719,  and  was  dismissed  for  maintaining  the  divine  right 
of  episcopacy,  1722.  He  took  priest's  orders  in  England, 
and  was  rector  of  Christ  Episc.  Church,  Boston,  1723,  July, 
till  his  death.  He  received  his  degree  from  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  1723. 

CUTLERIA,  n.  Mt-leri-a  [named  by  Dr.  Greville  after 
Miss  Cutler,  of  Sid  mouth,  a  zealous  student  of  marine 
botany]:  genus  of  algoe,  ord.  Cutleridcem  (Fucoid  Alga?)  of 
which  the  type  is  Gutleria  raultifida.  Cutleriace^,  fam- 
ily of  fucoid  algse. 

CUT'LERY:  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  cutting  instru 
ments,  such  as  knives,  forks,  scissors,  razors,  etc.  The 
workman  who  makes  these  is  called  a  cutler;  the  sword- 
maker,  a  sword-cutler;  but  in  England,  the  manufacturer 
of  workmen's  tools  is  called  a  'tool-maker,'  or  a  'steel  toy- 
maker,'  not  a  cutler.  In  Birmingham,  for  example,  such 
implements  as  hammers,  chisels,  pincers,  hatchets,  etc.,  are 
technically  called  toys. 

Shells,  llints,  and  other  sharp-edged  stones  formed  the 
rudest  and  most  ancient  cutting  instruments,  and  the  earli- 
est traces  of  human  existence  in  many  lands,  are  associated 
with  stone  *  celts '  and  other  weapons  and  cutting  imple- 
ments. These  were  followed  by  bronze  weapons  and  im- 
plements, which  were  in  use  among  the  Romans  for  some 
purposes  till  near  the  Christian  era,  bronze  surgical  instru- 
ments having  been  found  at  Pompeii.  This  bronze,  like 
steel,  could  be  made  soft  for  working  into  shape,  and  then 
hardened,  but  by  the  opposite  means  used  for  hardening 
and  softening  of  steel,  bronze  being  softened  by  sudden 
cooling  from  a  red  heat,  and  hardened  by  slow  cooling. 
Some  cities  in  Sprain  and  the  north  of  Italy  acquired  high 
reputation  for  the  manufacture  of  cutting  instruments, 
]iarticularly  sw^ords,  during  the  middle  ages,  when  the 
cliivalry  of  the  period  sought  the  best  equipments.  Lat- 
terly, all  European  countries  have  been  outstripped  by 
England  as  regards  tastefulness,  excellence,  and  cheapness 
in  cutlery.  In  this  kind  of  manufacture,  the  lead  is  taken 
by  Sheffield,  which  had  gained  a  name  for  its  whittles  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Richard  1.  Why,  with  their  ingenu- 
ity, taste,  and  skill  in  the  arts,  neither  the  French  nor  Bel- 
gians succeed  in  their  C,  would  be  difficult  to  explain. 
Certain  it  is  that  their  C.  is  comparatively  inferior  as  re- 
gards temper  and  finish,  while  their  apparent  incapability 
of  making  the  delicate  hinges  and  springs  of  clasp-knives, 

382 


CUTLERY. 

has  often  been  remarked.  However,  continental  C.  is  rap- 
idly improving,  particularly  in  table-knives,  of  which  an 
excellent  French  article  is  now  made.  In  the  manufacture 
of  American  axes,  Canada  has  made  marvellous  advances, 
its  produce  as  respects  this  article  excelling  that  of  Eng- 
land. 

Good  taUe-knims  are  made  of  steel  and  iron  welded  to- 
gether; the  tang,  which  goes  into  the  handle,  and  the 
shoulder,  are  of  iron,  and  the  blade  of  steel.  The  tang  and 
shoulder  are  forged  from  bar  iron,  and  the  blade  from 
shear  or  cast  steel.  Knife-blades,  razor-blades,  and  other 
small  articles,  are  usually  forged  into  their  required  shape 
while  still  attached  to  the  bar,  which  serves  for  the  workmen 
to  hold  them  by,  and  is  called  the  '  porter.'  When  the  bar 
becomes  too  short,  it  is  grasped  in  a  pair  of  tongs  held 
close  by  a  ring  which  clamps  them  by  sliding  up  their  coni- 
cal handles.  Two  men  are  employed  in  forging  such 
work,  which  is  said  to  be  *  two-handed.'  The  principal 
workman,  or  '  fireman,'  uses  a  small  hammer  of  2  to  4  lbs. 
weight,  while  the  'hammerman'  wields  the  sledgeham- 
mer, weighing  from  10  to  15  lbs.  The  'fireman,'  who  at- 
tends the  heatiug  as  well  as  the  anvil-work,  directs  the 
hammerman,  whose  blows  merely  follow  those  of  the  small 
directing  hammer  of  the  fireman.  In  drawing  doicn  or  re- 
ducing a  bar  both  in  length  and  width,  the  flat  face  of  the 
hammer  is  used;  but  when  the  length  or  breadth  alone  is  to 
be  extended,  only  the  '  pane  '  or  narrow  edge  of  the  ham- 
mer. The  concavity  of  razor  blades  is  made  by  hammer- 
ing the  blade  on  a  small  round-faced  anvil;  the  notch  or 
'  nail-hole  '  of  a  penknife  is  struck  by  means  of  a  chisel  of 
the  required  form.  Superior  work,  such  as  razor-blades, 
are  smithed  after  forging — that  is,  beaten  upon  an  anvil,  to 
condense  the  metal  as  much  as  possible — and  slightly 
ground  or  scorched  on  a  rough  stone,  to  finish  the  shaping, 
and  remove  the  '  scale '  or  black  oxidized  surface,  which 
would  interfere  with  the  color  of  the  temperiug.  Common 
knives  are  made  entirely  of  iron,  and  the  difference  of 
price  arises  not  merely  from  the  difference  of  cost  of  the 
material,  but  from  the  greater  facility  of  working.  In 
many  articles  composed  of  steel  welded  to  iron,  the  saving 
of  steel  is  not  the  only  advantage,  for  steel  being  more 
brittle  than  wrought  iron,  it  is  very  desirable,  in  all  arti- 
cles subject  to  a  transverse  breaking  strain  or  to  concus 
sion,  that  every  part  except  the  cutting  or  working  edge 
should  be  of  iron.  Thus,  a  hatchet  made  entirely  of  steel 
would  be  far  less  durable  than  one  of  iron  with  a  welded 
steel  cutting-edge.  A  -table-knife  with  a  steel  tang  would 
be  weaker  than  one  with  an  iron  tang.  Hammers  should 
only  be  faced  with  steel,  etc. 

The  great  usefulness  of  steel  for  all  kinds  of  implements 
used  for  cutting  or  exposed  to  wearing  friction  depends 
upon  its  property  of  acquiring  a  high  degree  of  hardness 
when  heated  and  suddenly  cooled,  and  of  then  being 
capable  of  softening  again  in  various  degrees  by  reheating 
moderately:  see  Tempering  Metals. 

Table-forks  are  forged  rudely  into  the  shape  of  the  tang 

383 


CUTLET— CUTTACK. 

and  shank,  first  as  though  but  a  single  thick  prong  were 
required;  the  part  for  the  prongs  is  then  beaten  out,  and  a 
stamping-die  is  brought  down  upon  it,  which  forms  the 
prongs,  with  a  thin  film  of  steel  between  them;  this  is  cut 
out  by  a  cutting-die.  Then  they  are  softened  and  filed  up, 
again  hardened,  and  tempered,  and  ground,  to  smooth  and 
finish.  The  dry-grinding  of  forks,  needles,  etc.,  is  a  very 
deleterious  occupation,  on  account  of  the  particles  of  steel 
which  enter  the  nostrils  of  the  workmen,  and  produce 
painful  irritation,  followed  by  a  peculiar  pulmonary  disease 
called  'grinders'  asthma,'  which  is  said  to  shorten  life  so 
seriously  that  few  dry-grinders  exposed  to  the  steel 
dust  reach  40  years  of  age.  Many  remedies  have  been 
proposed  for  this.  A  magnetic  mouthpiece  was  invent- 
ed; but  the  workmen  would  not  wear  it,  on  account  of  its 
novelty,  its  grotesque  appearance,  the  trouble  of  cleaning 
it,  and  the  belief  that  if  their  trade  were  made  more  health- 
ful, greater  numbers  would  enter  it,  and  wages  would  be 
reduced.  A  revolving  fan,  which  sets  in  motion  a  current 
of  air,  that  is  carried  by  a  pipe  to  the  outside  of  the  building, 
has  been  used  with  greater  success,  and  is  now  in  general 
use  when  it  can  be  applied,  though  its  introduction  was 
much  opposed  by  the  workmen.  In  the  needle- trade, 
especially,  it  has  been  most  beneficial,  entirely  removing 
danger  from  the  operator.  The  use  of  wet  stones  would,  of 
course,  fully  obviate  the  evil,  but  they  are  not  applicable 
to  many  kinds  of  work,  especially  that  which  is  ground 
before  hardening,  as  the  stone  wears  away  very  rapidly 
under  these  circumstances. 

Penknives  and  other  pocket-knives  are  the  work  of  many 
hands.  Besides  the  blades,  there  are  the  separate  pieces  of 
the  spring,  the  handle,  rivets,  etc.,  the  making  of  each  of 
which  is  a  distinct  trade.  All  these  pieces  are  hually  fitted 
and  put  together  by  the  finisher;  a  good  two-bladed  knife 
passes  through  his  hands  from  70  to  100  times.  The  difi:er- 
ence  in  the  amount  of  labor  bestowed  on  the  best  and  the 
commonest  C.  is  very  remarkable,  and  the  difference  of 
price  is  of  course  proportionate. 

CUTLET,  n.  hut'Ut  [F.  cotelette—hom  cote,  a  rib,  a 
slope:  a  dim.  of  Eng.  c^/^  (see  Cut  1)]:  a  small  chop  or 
slice  of  meat  for  cooking— generally  applied  to  veal. 

CUTOSE,  n.  kii'tdz  [L.  cutis,  skin]:  cutin,  a  kind  of 
cellulose  forming  the  fine  transparent  membrane  which 
covers  the  exposed  parts  of  vegetables. 

CUTTACK  kut-tak':  district  in  the  province  of  Orissa, 
presidency  of  Bengal;  on  the  n.w.  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal;  3,517  sq.  m.  pop.  (1881)  1,738,165. 

The  name  Cuttack,  however,  has  been  generally  used  to 
include  the  three  districts  of  C,  Pooree,  and  Balasore; 
joint  area  8,056  sq.  m;  pop.  ( 1881  )  3,571,932.  This  larger 
district  extends  in  n.  lat.  from  19^  40'  to  21°  45',  and  in  e. 
long,  from  85°  8'  to  87°  31'.  The  Mahanuddee  is  the  main 
river,  its  delta  being  wholly  comprised  within  the  district. 
Among  the  natural  features  of  the  country,  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  Ghilka  Lake,  whicU  is,  for  many  miles, 

884 


CUTTACK— CUTTER. 


separated  from  the  sea  by  a  strip  of  sand  Dot  more  than  300 
yards  wide.  Next  to  Cuttack,  the  chief  towns,  reckoning 
from  the  s.,  are  Poorree,Jwith  its  temples  of  Juggernaut,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  most  southerly  arm  of  the  Mabanuddee; 
Kanarak,  or  the  Black  Pagoda,  about  20  m.  farther  n. 
and  Balasore.  The  trade  of  the  district  is  inconsiderable. 
Iron  ore  is  said  to  be  found. 

CUTTACK'  ('Royal  Residence'):  capital  of  a  district 
of  its  own  name  in  the  province  of  Orissa,  presidency  of 
Bengal;  immediately  below  the  bifurcation  of  the  Maba- 
nuddee, thus  occupying  the  apex  of  the  delta  of  that  rivei'. 
The  advantage,  however,  of  this  position,  in  a  political 
and  commercial  point  of  view,  seems  neutralized  by  the 
cost  of  providing  against  the  encroachments  of  the  border- 
ing streams.  The  city  has  no  pretensions  to  architectural 
beauty.  It  has  very  little  trade;  and  its  manufactures  are 
principally  shoes  and  brass  cooking-vessels.  C.  is  220  m. 
s.w.  of  Calcutta;  lat.  20"  28'  n.,  and  long.  85°  55'  e.  Pop. 
(1881)  42,656. 

CUTTEAMUN'DU:  juice  of  Euphorbia  Cuttimundu,  a 
species  of  spurge  (q.v.),  native  of  India,  particularly  of  the 
Northern  Circars.  It  is  used  for  cementing  iron  with  other 
substances,  as  for  uniting  the  blade  and  handle  of  a  knife. 
The  fresh  juice  is  used  as  a  vesicant.  In  a  dried  state,  it  i« 
capable  of  being  molded  into  any  form,  and  a  great  variety 
of  articles  may  be  made  of  it,  as' of  gutta-percha. 

CUTTEE,  n.  Mt'te:  ifi  weaving,  the  box  to  hold  the 
quills  in  a  weaver's  loom. 

CUT'TER:  name  of  two  kinds  of  small  vessels.  The 
cutters  used  by  yachtsmen,  smugglers,  and  revenue  cruisers, 


and  which  are  built  with  especial  reference  to  speed,  have 
a  single  mast,  and  a  straight  running  bowsprit  that  can  be 
run  in  eii  board  occasionally.    They  are  much  like  sloops 
m 


Cutter. 


CUTTINGS-CUTTLE-FISH. 

in  rig,  but  have  larger  sails.  Such  small  vessels  occasion> 
ally  venture  on  long  voyages.  In  1857,  the  CJiarter  Oak,  a 
C.  of  28  lous,  crossed  the  Atlantic  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool; and,  in  1^58,  the  Christopher  Columbus,  a  C.  of  45  tons, 
with  a  crew  of  only  two  boys,  besides  the  owner,  made  the 
same  voyage  in  45  days.  Schooners  and  sloops  have  always 
been  the  favorites  of  American  yachtsmen  for  racing  pur- 
poses. Prior  to  1885,  all  the  international  contests  for  the 
America  cup  were  sailed  with  them.  In  that  year  the 
Eoyal  Yacht  Squadron  of  England  sent  over  the  Genesta, 
a  C,  which  was  beaten  by  the  sloop  Puritan  of  the  Eastern 
Yacht  Club  by  16  min.  19  sec.  and  1  min.  38  sec.  In  lb86, 
the  C.  Galatea  of  the  Royal  Northern  Yacht  Club  was 
beaten  by  the  sloop  Mayflower  of  the  Eastern  Yacht  Club 
by  12  min.  2  sec.  and  29  min.  9  sec. ;  and  in  1887,  the  C. 
thistle  of  the  Royal  Clyde  Yacht  Club  was  beaten  by  the 
sloop  Volunteer  representing  the  Eastern  and  New  York 
Yacht  Clubs  by  19  min.  23|  sec.  and  11  min.  47f  sec.  In 
the  annual  regattas  1887,  no  C.  was  entered  for  that  of  the 
Atlantic  Yacht  Club,  one  won  a  prize  in  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club,  none  in  the  Seawanhaka  Corinthian  Club,  one 
in  the  Eastern  Yacht  Club,  Boston,  and  two  in  the  Corin- 
thian Yacht  Club. — The  cutters  belonging  to  ships  of  war 
are  clincher  built  boats,  about  24  to  28  ft.  in  length,  em- 
ployed for  various  purposes;  they  weigh  from  10  cwt.  to 
24  cwt.  each.  Two  such  cutters  are  supplied  to  every  ship 
of  war  except  of  the  smallest  kinds. 

CUT  TINGS:  branches  or  portions  of  branches  of  trees 
or  shrubs,  employed  to  produce  new  plants,  by  the  inser- 
tion of  the  lower  end  into  the  earth.  By  care,  and  in  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  almost  any  tree  or  shrub 
may  be  propagated  by  C,  but  some  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty, and  soft-wooded  trees  or  shrubs  most  easily.  Nothing 
is  more  easy  than  to  propagate  willows,  fuchsias,  currants, 
gooseberries,  etc.,  in  this  way;  but  many  other  plants,  com- 
monly propagated  by  C. ,  require  greater  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  gardener,  warmth,  a  uniform  damp  atmosphere, 
and  shade.  Some  kinds  of  apple  are  occasionally  propa- 
gated by  C,  especially  in  warm  climates. 

CUTTLE-FISH,  n.  kat'tl-fish  [AS.  cudele,  a  cuttle-fish: 
OE.  cuttle,  a  knife — from  OF.  coutel,  a  knife— from  the 
knife-  or  feather-shaped  bone  or  shell  contained  in  its 
body:  Ger.  kuttel-fisch;  old  Dut.  kuttel-msch — from  kuttel, 
a  gut,  bowels],  {Sepia  and  Sepiadm):  genus  and  family  of 
cephalopodous  mollusks  of  the  order  Dihranchiata:  see 
('EPHALOPODA.  The  body  is  oblong  and  depressed,  sac- 
like, with  two  narrow  lateral  fins  of  similar  substance  with 
the  mantle.  There  is  an  internal  shell  lodged  in  a  sack  on 
the  back  part  of  the  mantle,  somewhat  oval  and  blade- 
shaped,  being  comparatively  thick  near  the  anterior  end, 
where  it  is  terminated  by  a  sharp  point  affixed,  as  it  were, 
to  its  general  outline;  the  w^hole  shell  is  light  and  porous; 
it  is  formed  of  thin  plates  with  intervening  spaces  di- 
vided by  innumerable  partitions;  and  consists  chiefly  of 
carbonate  of  lime  with  a  little  gelatinous  and  other  ani- 


CUT-WORM. 

mal  matter,  which,  is  most  abundant  in  the  pliragmocone^ 
or  internal  harder  part  of  the  shell, 
where  also  the  laminae  and  partitions 
are  closer  than  in  the  outer  part.  The 
eyes  are  very  large,  and  the  head  is 
furnished  with  eight  arms,  each  of 
which  has  four  rows  of  suckers,  and 
two  long  tentacles  expanded  and  fur- 
nished with  suckers  on  one  side  at  the 
extremity.  The  animal  is  the  most 
highly  organized  of  invertebrates. 
The  Common  C.  {Sepia  officinalis)  has 
a  skin  smooth,  whitish,  and  dotted 
with  red.  It  attains  the  length  of  a 
foot  or  more.  It  is  one  of  the  pests 
of  fishermen;  often,  together  with  cal- 
amaries,  partially  devouring  the  fish 
which  have  been  caught  in  their  nets. 
In  Scotland,  the  fishermen  call  it  the  O 
fish.  It  is  not  itself  easily  caught, 
being  ver}^  active  in  making  its  escape 
by  swimming,  and  also  promptly  throwing  out  its  ink  to 
darken  the  water  around  it.  It  is  sometimes  cast  upon  the 
shore,  but  far  more  frequently  its  bone,  which  is  used  for 
making  pounce,  tooth-powder,  etc.,  for  forming  molds 
for  small  silver  castings,  for  polishing,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses in  the  arts;  and  was  formerly  used  in  medicine  as  a  cor- 
rective of  acidity  in  the  stomach.  The  ink  of  the  C.  furnishes 
the  valuable  pigment.  Sepia  (q.v.),  which  is  said  by  some 
chemists  to  contain  a  peculiar  animal  principle  called  Mel- 
anine  [Gr.  melas,  black],  and  is  wonderfully  indestructible. 
Dr.  Buckland  indeed  found  the  pigment  remaining  in  fos- 
sil mollusks  akin  to  the  C.  to  be  fit  for  use,  and  to  make 


Cuttle-fish. 


Cuttle-fish  bone. 

excellent  sepia,  notwithstanding  all  the  unreckoned  ages 
that  had  elapsed  since  its  secretion  by  the  living  organ- 
isms.— The  eggs  of  the  C.  are  frequently  cast  ashore,  clus- 
tered together  like  "grapes,  and  are  known  to  the  frequent- 
ers of  the  coast  as  Sea-grapes. — The  flesh  of  the  C.  was 
esteemed  by  the  ancients.  A  receipt  for  making  a  C.  sau- 
sage will  be  found  in  Athenseus. — Numerous  species  of 
C.  inhabit  diflierent  seas. — Cuttle,  n.  in  OE.,  one  who 
blackens  the  character  of  others;  a  foul-mouthed  person. 

CUT-WORM:  fleshy,  dingy- colored  larva  of  Agrotis 
and  kindred  genera:  common  and  very  destructive  in  corn, 
cotton,  and  tobacco  fields,  and  attacking  nearly  all  trans- 
planted vegetables  which  it  cuts  off  below  or  even  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Sometimes  it  entirel}^  destroys  the 
grass  in  mowing  lots  and  pastures;  works  mostly  at  night. 
Remedies:  Fall  plowing,  which  exposes  the  worms  to  frost; 
winding  paper  around  the  stems  of  transplanted  vegetables; 
poisoning,  by  scattering  green  sods  sprinkled  with  a  solu- 


CUTTY— CUVIEK. 

tion  of  Paris  green  among  the  plants  to  be  protected  (dan- 
gerous); digging  up  and  killing  the  pest  wherever  indica- 
tions of  its  work  appear. 

CUTTY,  a.  kut'ti  [W.  ciott,  a  little  piece  (see  Cut  1)]:  a 
word  used  as  the  first  part  of  a  compound,  meaning  short 
or  small.  Cutty-pipe,  a  tobacco-pipe  with  a  short  stem. 
Cutty-stool,  in  Scot.,  a  small,  low,  three-legged  seat:  on 
such  a  stool,  anciently  in  the  Scottish  church,  offenders 
against  chastity  were  compelled  to  sit  while  a  public  repri- 
mand was  uttered  by  the  minister. 

CUVIER,  kii  m-d'  or  'kil've-er,  Georges  Chretien  Leo- 
pold Dagobert,  Baron:  1769,  Aug.  23—1882,  May  13;  b. 
Montbeliard,  dept.  of  Doubs,  a  town  which  then  belonged 
to  Wilrtemberg.  His  father  was  an  officer  in  a  Swiss 
regiment.  Having  made  rapid  progress  in  learning  at  the 
Montbeliard  gymnasium,  C.  enterexl,  1784,  the  Karlsakad- 
emie  at  Stuttgart.  In  1 788,  he  took  a  situation  as  private 
tutor  in  the  family  of  Comte  d'Hericy,  near  Fecamp,  Nor- 
mandy, where  for  six  years  he  pursued  studies  in  natural 
history.  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  and  other  eminent  Parisian 
savans,  casually  becoming  acquainted  with  him,  were 
startled  by  the  novelty  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  views 
on  zoology,  and  St.  Hilaire  induced  him  to  come  to  Paris, 
where,  1795,  he  was  appointed  prof,  in  the  Ecole  Centrale 
of  the  Pantheon.  Soon  C.  was  made  assistant  to  Mertrud, 
teacher  in  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  I^lantes, 
and  began  that  collection  in  natural  history  which  ulti- 
mately became  the  largest  in  Europe.  In  1796,  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Katioual  Institute;  in  1806,  he  suc- 
ceeded Daubenton  in  the  College  de  France;  and,  in  1802, 
was  made  perpetual  sec.  of  the  Institute.  He  gradually 
rose  in  the  estimation  of  the  emperor,  and,  in  1808,  was 
commissioned  to  superintend  the  institution  of  academies 
in  the  new  territories  attached  to  France.  Shortly  before 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  C.  was  admitted  into  the  council  of 
state.  The  restoration  did  not  deprive  him  of  his  honors, 
but  added  to  them;  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  Univ. 
of  Paris,  and,  henceforward,  received  from  time  to  time 
new  rewards  for  his  services  to  science.  After  a  visit  to 
England  (1818),  where  he  was  received  with  great  honors, 
he  was,  1819,  admitted  into  the  cabinet  by  Louis  XVIII., 
and,  1826,  was  made  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Hon- 
or; but  his  decided  opposition  to  the  royal  measures  for 
restricting  the  freedom  of  the  press  lost  him  the  favor  of 
Charles  X,  Under  Louis  Philippe,  he  was  made  a  peer  of 
France  1831,  and  in  the  following  year  was  nominated 
minister  of  the  interior,  when  he  was  suddenly  attacked 
with  paralysis,  of  which  he  died. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  summary  of  the  merits  of  C,  so 
various  were  his  attainments,  so  great  was  his  success  in  so 
many  departments.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  now 
universally  recognized  method  of  classification  in  zoology 
(q.v.),  and  raised  comparative  anatomy  (until  his  time 
merely  a  heap  of  unconnected  details)  to  the  dignity  of  a 
science.  After  a  long  series  of  patient  observations  on 
aumerous  animals,  especially  the  hitherto  little-known  or- 

36b 


CUVIERA— CUYABA. 

der  of  mollusca,  he  published  (1801-05)  his  Legons  d'Ana- 
tomie  Gompareey  completed  by  the  Memoire  pour  sermr  d 
rHistoire  de  VAnatomie  des  Mollusques  (1816).  AVith  admi- 
rable sagacity,  he  applied  the  principles  of  his  comparative 
osteology  to  the  remains  of  fossil  vertebrate  animals,  and 
opened  a  field  of  investigation  in  which  numerous  explor- 
ers have  since  successfully  labored.  His  Beclierches  sur  les 
Ossemeiits  Fossiles  des  Quadrujpedes  (1821-24)  is  a  mine  of 
information  in  natural  history,  and  afiords  the  strongest 
arguments  in  favor  of  the  theory  of  a  progressive  series  of 
animals,  advancing  from  the  most  simple  to  the  most  com- 
plex forms  of  organization.  C.'s  rare  faculty  of  express- 
ing scientific  truths  in  popular  and  elegant  style  was  seen 
in  his  celebrated  Discours  sur  les  Remlutions  de  la  Surface 
du  Oldhe  et  sur  les  Ghangements  qu'elles  ont  produits  d/ins  le 
Begne  Animal  (latest  edition,  Paris  1851).  This  discourse 
was  published  as  an  introduction  to  the  Recherclies  sur  les 
Ossements  Fossiles.  In  concert  with  Valenciennes,  C,  1828, 
began  a  Natural  History  of  Fishes,  founded  on  the  largest 
ichthyological  collection  ever  made  by  an  individual:  it 
was  continued  by  Valenciennes.  The  eloges  delivered  by 
C.  (pub.  in  the  Recueil  d' Eloges  Historiques,  1819)  were  val- 
uable contributions  to  the  history  of  science. 

In  public  life,  C.  was  as  remarkable  for  activity  as  in 
the  quiet  work  of  the  study.  He  never  blindly  surrendered 
himself  to  any  party,  but  at  all  times  gave  proof  of  an  hon- 
est, sagacious,  and  resolute  character.  In  his  plans  for  the 
extension  and  improvement  of  national  education,  he  was 
zealous  and  indefatigable,  as  also  in  his  eft'orts  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  Protestant  Church  in  France,  of  which  he  was 
a  member. — Mrs.  R.  Ij^id'^  Memoirs  of  Baron  C.  (Lond.  1833); 
Pasquier's  Eloge  de  C.  (Paris  1833). 

CUVIEEA,  n.  ko-m-er'a  [from  Georges  Cumer  (q.v.)]: 
genus  of  Pteropoda,  with  a  cylindrical  transparent  shell,  the 
animals  with  simple  narrow  fins.  Four  recent  species  are 
known,  from  the  Atlantic,  India,  and  Australia,  and  four 
fossil,  the  latter  from  the  Miocene. 

CUXHAVEN,  kitks-M'mn  or  kuks'hd  fen:  town  of  Ger- 
many, on  the  left  or  s.  bank  of  the  Elbe,  just  where  it  is 
lost  in  the  German  Ocean.  It  is  about  60  m.  distant  from 
Hamburg,  to  which  free  city  it  belongs.  C.  is  a  small 
place,  but  of  importance  as  the  port  whence  the  Hamburg 
steamers  ply  when  in  winter  the  Elbe  is  frozen  over.  The 
harbor  affords  good  shelter,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by  ves- 
sels waiting  for  favorable  winds.  Pilots  for  the  EllSe  are 
taken  in  here.    Pop.  (1880)  2,200. 

CUYABA,  k()-yd-la  :  cap.  of  Matto  Grosso,  which  is  the 
second  largest  and  most  westerly  province  of  Brazil;  nearly 
at  the  centre  of  S.  America,  lat.  15'  36' s.,  and  long.  56''  w. 
It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  a  river  of  the  same  name.  Its 
mines,  which  have  yielded  gold  and  diamonds  since  1719,  are 
now  nearly  abandoned,  the  cost  of  working  rendering  them 
imremunerative.  C.  sends  to  Rio,  the  principal  seaport  of 
the  country,  large  quantities  of  hides  and  ipecacuanha 
by  caravans  of  200  or  300  mules  each.  The  chief  edifices 
of  the  city  are  its  three  churches,  a  hospital,  a  school  of 


CUYP— CUZCO. 

philosophy,  and  the  public  buildings  of  the  province.  Pop. 
estimated  10,000. 

CUYP,  koyp,  Aelbert:  painter:  1605-91;  b.  Dordrecht; 
son  of  Jacob  C.  He  excelled  in  the  painting  of  cattle  graz- 
ing or  reposing,  moonlights,  wintry  landscapes,  still  waters 
with  ships,  horse-markets,  hunts,  camps,  and  cavalry-fights. 
During  his  lifetime  and  long  after,  his  pictures,  though  in 
many  respects  equal  to  those  of  Claude,  were  held  in  little 
estimation.  Opinion  has  changed  regarding  them.  One  of 
his  still  waters,  sold  1777  for  416  guilders  (abt.  |170}, 
brought  12,720  guilders  (more  than  |5,000)  in  1844.  Eng- 
land is  particularly  rich  in  his  w^orks.  He  died  at  Dord- 
recht. 

CUYP,  Benjamin:  painter,  at  Dordrecht;  nephew  of 
Aelbert  C.  He  painted  biblical  pieces  in  Rembrandt's 
style,  and  familiar  scenes  of  country-life.  His  best  works 
are  in  the  manner  of  Teniers.  His  sea-shores  have  less  re- 
pute. The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but, 
from  the  multitude  of  his  pictures,  it  is  conjectured  that 
he  lived  to  a  great  age. 

CUYP,  or  KUYP,  Jacob  Gerritse,  commonly  called 
the  Old  C:  1575-1650;  b.  Dordrecht:  painter.  His  repre- 
sentation of  cows  and  sheep,  battles  and  encampments,  are 
clever,  but  bis  fame  rests  principally  upon  his  excellent 
portraits.  His  coloring  is  w^arm  and  transparent:  his  man- 
ner, free  and  spirited. 

CUZCO:  department  of  Peru;  subdivided  into  11  prov- 
inces; lying  wholly  in  the  sierra  or  Andine  region  of  the 
country,  having  the  coast  on  the  w.,  and  the  montana,  or 
Transandine  territory,  on  the  east.  It  stretches  in  s.  lat. 
from  13°  to  15°,  and  in  w.  long,  from  70°  to  73°;  about 
45,000  sq.  miles.  In  addition  to  the  city  of  C,  it  has  the 
towns  of  Abancay  and  Urubamba.  Pop.  (1883)  said  to  be 
abt.  250,000,  a  decrease  from  1871. 

CUZCO,  kos'kd:  city  in  Peru,  originally  capital  of  the 
Incas  (in  the  language  of  the  lucas,  says  Garcilasso,  C.  sig- 
nifies *  navel '),  and  the  centre  of  an  empire,  which,  besides 
th*  Iferritory  of  the  existing  republic,  comprised  Bolivia, 
most  of  Ecuador,  and  portions  of  Chili  and  the  Argentine 
Confederation.  C.  stands  on  the  Guatanai,  one  of  the  le- 
motest  headwaters  of  the  Amazon;  lat.  13°  31'  s.,  and  long. 
72°  2'  w.,  at  the  e.  end  of  that  section  of  the  Andes  known 
as  the  Knot  of  Cuzco,  11,000  ft.  above  sea-level.  Notwith- 
standing its  aboriginal  name,  C,  with  the  exception  of 
some  neighboring  ruins,  part  of  which  perhaps  date  be- 
yond the  era  of  the  Incas,  is  really  of  Spanish  origin,  being 
built  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and  presenting  many  hand- 
some edifices.  It  is  about  200  m.  to  the  n.n.e.  of  Arequipa, 
having  its  maritime  outlet  in  Islay,  the  port  of  that  city. 
The  manufactures  of  the  place  are  cottons,  woolens,  em- 
broidery, and  jewelry.  It  is  foiu'th  in  size  of  Peruvian 
cities;  pop.  abt.  20,000.  The  province  of  Cuzco,  otherwise 
styled  the  Cereado,  embraces  nothing  beyond  the  city  it- 
self but  the  suburb  of  San  Jeronimo. 


CWT.— CYxiNOGEN. 


CWT.,  n.  pronounced  liuiidred  weight:  a  contr.  for 
liundred- weight — c  first  letter  of  L.  centum,  a  hundred-^ 
w  t,  first  and  last  letters  of  weight. 

CYAMELIDE,  n.  si-am'e-lul  [Eng.  cyanic;  and  am- 
melide]:  a  white  porcelain  like  niass  formed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  cyanic  acid. 

CYAMUS,  n.  sl'a-mus  [L.  cyamos:  Gr.  huamoSy  a  bean, 
the  Egyptian  bean,  Nelumbium  speciosum]:  in  zooL,  typical 
species  of  Cyamidce.  Cyamid^,  sl-mn'l-de,  family  of 
crustaceans,  ord.  Lamodipoda,  The  species  are  called 
whale-lice:  see  Whale-louse. 

CY  xlMUS  BAL^NA  RUM:  see  Whale  Louse. 

CYANAMIDE,  n.  sl-dn'd  mld  [compounded  of  cyanic 
and  amide] :  a  substance  obtained  by  the  action  of  ammonia 
on  cyanogen  chloride. 

CYAN  ATE,  n.  sl'd-ndt  [Gr.  Mcdnos,  dark-blue]:  a  salt 
composed  of  cyanic  acid  and  a  base.  Cyan'ic,  a.  -dniky 
relating  to  blue — applied  to  a  series  of  colors  having  blue  as 
the  type.  Cy'anide,  n.  -d-7iid,  a  compound  of  cyanogen 
with  a  radical.  Cyanide  of  kakodyle,  a  compound  of 
cyanogen  and  kakodyle,  forming  a  most  deadly  poison, 
rising  in  the  form  of  vapor  from  the  exposure  of  a  few 
grains,  in  a  room,  or  in  the  open  air — proposed  for  use  in 
warfare  in  the  form  of  asphyxiating  shells. 

CYANTC  AC  ID:  a  compound  of  cyanogen  (q.v.)  and 
oxygen  with  water;  symbol  C2lSrO,HO,  or  CyO,HO. 

CYANITE,  n.  sl'd-nit,  called  also  Kyanite,  or  Dis- 
THENE,  or  Sappare  [Gr.  kudnos,  dark-blue]:  mineral  of 
the  garnet  family,  composed  of  alumina  and  silica;  often 
occurring  crystallized,  and  generally  in  broad  prisms; 
sometimes  colorless,  red,  yellow,  etc.,  but  frequently  of  a 
fine  sky-blue,  slightly  tinged  with  violet;  it  is  transparent, 
and  sometimes  beautifully  opalescent.  It  occurs  chiefly  in 
mica-slate,  talc-slate,  and  granite;  is  found  in  ditferent  parts 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
gem.  Cy'anose,  n.  -7ids,  or  Cyan'osite,  n.  -dn'o-zU,  sul- 
phate of  copper  or  blue- vitriol,  used  as  a  pigment  and  dye- 
stuff. 

CYAISTOGEN,  n.  sl-dn'6-jen  [Gr.  Midnos,  dark-blue; 
gennad,  I  produce],  (C2N  or  Cy):  a  compound  organic  salt 
radical,  interesting  mainly  as  the  principal  component  of 
hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid.  It  is  most  easily  prepared  by 
heating  the  cyanide  of  mercury  (HgCy)  or  the  cyanide  of 
silver  (AgCy)  in  a  tube,  when  the  C.  is  evolved  as  a  gas  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  but  can  be  condensed  by  cold  and 
pressure  into  a  thin,  colorless  liquid,  which  freezes  at 
—  30''  F.  Gaseous  C,  a  poisonous  compound  of  carbon 
and  nitrogen;  has  an  odor  like  that  of  crushed  peach- 
leaves;  has  a  specific  gravity  of  180G  (air  =  1000),  is  in- 
flammable, and  burns  in  air  or  in  oxygen  with  a  character 
istic  purple  or  rose  tint;  is  soluble  in  water  to  the  extent  of 
4  to  5  volumes  of  the  gas  in  1  of  water.  It  is  an  essential 
ingredient  in  Prussian  blue;  and  combines  with  metals, 
guch  as  potassiumj  to  form  a  class  of  important  cyanides,  as 


CYANOHYDRIC  ACID— CYANURIC  ACID. 

the  cyanide  of  potassium:  see  Potassium:  Hydrocyanic 
Acid:  etc. 

CYANOHY'DRIC  AC  ID:  see  Hydrocyanic  Acid. 

CYANOMETER,  n.  sV d-nom  e-ter  [Gr.  kudnos,  dark- 
blue;  metron,  a  measure]:  instrument  for  ascertaining  the 
intensity  of  the  blueness  of  the  sky  or  ocean;  a  disk  divided 
into  sections  whose  blue  tint  increases  on  a  graduated  scale 
— the  section  whose  tint  is  exactly  the  same  with  that  of  the 
sky  seen  through  it,  showing  the  degree  of  the  sky's  blueness. 

CYANOPHYLL,  n.  si-dn'd-f  U  [Gr.  kiuuios,  dark-blue; 
phullon,  a  leaf]:  a  supposed  blue  coloring  matter  formed 
in  the  decomposition  of  '  chlorophyl.' 

CYANOSIS,  n.  sid-nosls  [Gr.  kudnos,  dark-blue]:  in 
med. ,  diseased  condition  arising  from  a  congenital  defect  in 
the  heart  w^hich  causes  a  deficiency  of  pure  arterial  blood; 
characterized  by  blueness  of  the  skin,  or  lividity  of  com- 
plexion, with  fulness  of  the  capillaries  and  minute  veins, 
especially  of  the  face  and  lips:  see  Heart,  Disease  and 
Malformation  of. 

CYANOTYPE,  n.  si-dn'6-tlp  [Gr.  kiuhios,  dark-blue;  tu- 
pos,  an  impression] :  process  of  taking  photographs  in  Prus- 
sian-blue; also  the  photographs  so  produced. — Cyanotype 
processes,  in  photography,  are  those  in  Avhich  the  compound 
radical  cyanogen  is  employed;  they  were  discovered  by  Sir 
John  Herschel,  and  depend  for  their  successful  practice  on 
the  reduction  of  a  persalt  of  iron  to  the  state  of  protosalt, 
by  the  action  of  light,  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter. 

Good  paper  is  immersed  in  a  solution  of  ammoniocitrate 
of  iron  of  the  strength  of  40  gi'ains  to  1  ounce  of  water;  it  is 
then  dried,  and  exposed— at  any  convenient  time  during  a 
fortnight— under  a  negative,  when  a  picture  of  a  pale  brown 
tint  becomes  faintly  visible  upon  a  yellow^  ground;  it  is  then 
brushed  over  with  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
(yellow  prussiate  of  potash),  which  develops  the  picture  of 
a  deep  blue  tint;  and  this  may  be  further  deepened  by  im- 
mersion in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  which  has  the 
effect,  at  the  same  time,  of  removing  the  unaltered  ammonio- 
citrate, and  permanently  fixing  the  picture.  Similar  results 
may  be  obtained  by  employing  ferridcyanide  of  potassium 
(red  prussiate  of  potash),  or  a  mixture  of  the  ferridcyanide 
and  amnion io-citrate,  in  which  latter  case  the  paper  is  sen- 
sitive as  soon  as  treated  with  the  mixed  solutions,  and  must 
therefore  be  dried  in  the  dark.  To  fix  the  picture,  it  is  nec- 
essary only  to  wash  with  water.  A  subsequent  treatment 
with  a  weak  solution  of  proto-nitrate  of  mercury  has  the 
effect  of  apparently  removing  the  w^hole  of  the  picture.  If 
the  mercury  salt,  however,  be  perfectly  washed  away,  and 
the  picture  dried,  and  ironed  with  a  very  hot  iron,  it  is 
speedily  reproduced  in  all  its  vigor. 

CYANURIC  ACID,  n.  sid-nu-rik  [Gr.  kudnos,  dark- 
blue;  ouron,  urine]:  organic  acid,  a  solid  crystalline  modifi- 
cation of  cyanic  acid ;  formula  CeNaOsjBHO,  or  CysOsjSHO; 
obtained  by  heating  urea  to  expel  ammonia,  or  by  the  dq^ 
Struct! ve  distillatiou  of  uric  acid. 

m 


CYAR— CYCADACE^. 

CYAR,  n.  sl'dr  [Gr.  kuar,  a  hole,  especially  of  a  needle] 
the  orifice  of  the  interDal  ear. 

CYATHAXONIA,  n.  sl-a-tMks-d' ni-a  [L.  cyathus;  Gr. 
kuathos,  a  cup,  and  axon^  an  axle]:  genus  of  rugose  corals, 
typical  of  the  family  Gyathanonid(je.  It  has  a  styliform 
columella.  Its  range  is  from  the  Sihirian  to  the  Carbon- 
iferous period.  Cyathaxonid^,  sl-a-thdks-d' nl-de,  family 
of  rugose  corals. 

CYATHEA,  sl-dth'e-a,  or  sl-athe-a:  genus  of  ferns  (q.  v.), 
of  the  sub-order  Polypodiacece,  containing  many  species,  na- 
tives of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions,both  of  the  Old  and 
of  the  new  world.  They  are  tree-ferns,  and  some  have  lofty 
stems  and  gigantic  fronds;  they  are  generally  characterized 
by  great  gracefulness  and  beauty.  G.  arborea,  sometimes 
designated  the  Common  Tree-fern,  is  a  native  of  the  W.  In- 
dies, Brazil,  etc.  The  fronds  are  bipinuatC;  the  pinnules  deep- 
ly pinnatifid.  The  roots  of  0.  medullaris,  a  species  found  in 
New  Zealand,  contain  much  starch,  and  are  baked  and  used 
as  food. 

CYATHIFORM,  a.  sl-dth'l-fawrm  [L.  cyathus,  a  cup  or 
small  ladle;  forma,  shape] :  in  hot.,  cup-shaped.  Cya- 
THOPHiLLiD^,  sl-a-tho-f  ll'li-de  \Gr. phuUon,  aleaf]:  in geol., 
cup-corals,  the  largest  and  most  important  family  of  the  ru- 
gose corals.  Cyathophilli'n^,  -ll'ne,  sub-family  of  Cya- 
THOPHYLLiD^.  Cyathophyllum,  u.  gcuus  of  fossil  stouy 
cup-corals — the  simple  turbinated  forms  being  familiarly 
known  by  the  name  of  *  petrified  rams'  horns;'  a  rugose  cor- 
al of  the  palaeozoic  period.  They  have  a  simple  or  branched 
polyparium,  internally  lamellated,  the  lamella  having  a 
quadripartite  arrangement.  The  older  portions  are  cut  off 
by  transverse  '  tables '  or  septa,  and  the  base  of  the  stem  is 
often  supported  by  root  like  processes.  This  genus  was 
abundant  specially  in  the  Devonian  measures,  36  species 
having  been  described  from  them.  It  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  Silurian  seas,  and  perished  at  the  close  of  the  car- 
boniferous epoch. 

CYATHOCRINUS,  n.  sl-a-iho-krl'niis  [L.  cyathus,  cup; 
Gr.  krinon,  a  lily]:  type  of  the  family  Cyathocrinidoi.  Its 
range  is  from  the  Silurian  to  the  Permian,  especially  the 
Carboniferous  and  the  Permian.  Cyathocrinid^e,  fam 
ily  of  Grinoidea. 

CYB  ELE:  see  Yesta. 

CYBIUM,  sib'l-um:  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Scorn- 
heridce  (q.v.),  having  a  long  first  dorsal,  detached  finlets,  an 
elongated  body,  a  keeled  tail,  no  pectoral  cuirass,  and  no 
armature  on  the  lateral  line,  compressed  trenchant  teeth  in 
the  jaws,  and  very  numerous  villiform  teeth  in  other  parts 
of  the  mouth.  A  number  of  species  are  natives  of  the  seas  of 
the  E.  Indies,  some  esteemed  for  the  table;  and  one  species,  G. 
Gommersoni,  is  used  in  a  dried  as  well  as  in  a  fresh  state; 
and  in  a  dried  state  is,  to  some  extent,  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  India. 

CYCADACE^,  sl-ka-dd'se-e,  or  Cycadeje,  sl-kd'de-e  : 
nat.  ord.  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  small  trees  and 

393 


CYCADACEOUS-CYCLADID^. 

shrubs,  somewhat  resembling  palms  in  their  general  appear^ 
auce,  but  much  more  nearly  allied  to  Goniferce  (pines,  firs, 
etc.)  in  their  botanical  characters;  C.  being  one  of  the  few 
orders  placed  bvLindley  with  Goniferoe  in  his  class  of  Gym- 
iiogens  (q.v.).  The  stems  are  generally  simple,  and  either 
cylindrical  or  short  and  spheroidal;  sometimes  they  are 
branched  by  successive  forkings;  they  are  much  marked 
with  scars  of  leaf -stalks;  they  consist  internally  of  a  mass 
of  pith  traversed  by  w^oody  bundles,  and  rings  of  woody 
matter.  The  leaves  are  large  and  pinnated,  and  unfold  by 
unrolling,  like  the  fronds  of  ferns.  This  curious  and  beau- 
tiful order  contains  about  50  known  species,  natives  of  trop 
ical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  None  are  found  in  Europe. 
^They  all  have  a  mucilaginous  nauseous  juice,  but  with  this 
tliere  is  often  much  starch,  w^hich,  being  separated,  forms  a 
wholesome  food.  A  kind  of  sago  is  made  in  Japan  from 
the  cellular  substance  which  occupies  the  interior  of  the 
stem  of  Gycas  rewluta,  in  the  Eastern  Peninsula  from  G. 
pectinata,  and  in  the  Moluccas  from  G.  circinalis.  From 
these  species,  which  are  trees  30-40  ft.  high,  there  exudes  a 
transparent  gum,  resembling  tragacanth  in  its  properties. 
Their  nuts  also  are  eaten,  after  being  fermented  and  roasted. 
The  large  seeds  of  Dion  edule  afford  a  kind  of  Arrow-root 
in  Mexico;  and  a  starchy  substance,  called  sometimes  Arrow- 
root, sometimes  Sago,  is  obtained  from  Zamia  pumila  and 
other  dwarf  species  in  the  W.  Indies.  Caffer  Bread  (q.v.) 
belongs  to  this  order. — Fossil  C.  are  numerous,  and  occur  in 
some  of  the  oolitic  and  other  strata  in  England. 

CYCADACEOUS,  a.  sik' d-da  shus  [L.  cycas,  a  kind  of 
palm;  cycddis,  of  a  palm:  Gr.  kukas,  a  kind  of  palm] :  per- 
taining to  the  natural  order  of  Cycads,  sl'kddz,  or  small 
palm-like  trees,  the  Cycadace^,  s)k'(i-da  shl-e,  from  the 
pith  of  some  of  which  a  kind  of  sago  is  obtained.  Cyc  - 
ADiTES,  n.  plu.  -diis,  fossil  plants  from  the  oolite  and  chalk, 
apparently  allied  to  the  existing  cycads. 

CYCAS,  n.  sl'kds:  typical  genus  of  the  order  Cycadacece 
(q.v.). 

CYCHLA,  si' kid:  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Ghromid^B 
(included  by  Cuvier  in  the  Labridce,  or  Wrasse  family),  of 
which  many  species  occurs  in  the  rivers  of  tx'opical  America. 
They  have  small  and  crowded  teeth,  forming  a  large  band. 
Some  are  reckoned  among  the  finest  fishes  for  the  table  in 
Brazil  and  Guiana.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  beauty 
and  brilliancy  of  color.  Some  of  them  are  large,  and  some 
small.  Allied  to  this  genus  is  Gfiromis,  of  which  one  spe 
cies,  (7.  Niloticus,  Egyptian  Gorycina  of  the  ancients,  in- 
habits the  Nile,  and  is  reckoned  the  best  fish  in  Egypt.  It 
attains  the  length  of  two  feet. 

CYCHRUS,  n.  slk'rus  [Gr.  Kuchreus,  a  myth,  name] : 
genus  of  predatory  beetles,  family  GaraUd/je. 

CY'CLADES:  see  Archipelago  and  Greece. 

CYCLADID^,  n,  sl-kldd'i  de  [L.  cydas,  and  suf.  4d(B\\ 
family  of  GoncMfera,  section  Siphonida,  and  that  portion  of 
it  in  which  the  pallial  line  is  simple. 

894 


CYCLAMEK-CYCLAS. 
CYCLAMEN,  u.  sWla-7nen  [L,  cyclOmlnos;  Gr.  kiklaml- 
nos,  the  plant  sow-bread— from  Gr.  ktcklos,  a  circle,  referring 
to  the  round  leaves]:  in  bot.,  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Frimulace(jp,y  Laving  a  wiieel-shaped  corolla,  with  a  long  re- 


Cyclamen  Europaeum: 
a,  the  whole  plant;  h,  the  fruit. 


flexed  limb,  and  flow^er-stalks  twisted  spirally  downward 
after  flowering.  The  species  are  herbaceous  perennials, 
not  numerous,  and  natives  chiefly  of  the  s.  of  Europe.  They 
have  turnip-like,  partly  subterranean  stems,  very  acrid, 
nevertheless  greedily  eaten  by  swine,  and  the  plants  are  ac- 
cordingly often  designated  Sow-bread.  They  are  drastic 
and  emmenagogue.  A  very  stimulant  ointment  is  prepared 
from  them, which  externally,  applied  by  friction,  expels  in- 
testinal worms  from  children.  Several  of  the  species  are 
favorites  in  flower-gardens,  producing  beautiful  and  fragrant 
flowers  in  early  spring. — The  active  properties  of  the  species 
of  C.  have  recently  been  found  to  depend  upon  a  peculiar 
principle  called  Cyclamine,  which  produces  effects  on  the 
animal  system  similar  to  those  of  Curare  (q.v.). 

CYCL ANTHER,  n.  sl-Mdn' the-e  [mod.  L.  cydardTius, 
and  suf .  -e(B\ :  one  of  the  two  tribes  into  which  the  Fan- 
danacm  are  divided.  Cyclan'thus,  -thus  [Gr.  kuklos;  a 
circle;  anthos,  a  flower,  in  allusion  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers]:  typical  genus  of  the  tribe  Cyclanthece.  The 
species  are  from  tropical  America. 

CYCLAS,  n.  slk-las  [L.  cyclas;  Gr.  kuklas,  a  woman's 
dress  with  a  border  all  round  it] :  a  rich  stuff  manufactured 
in  the  Cyclades;  also  called  Ciclatun  or  Ciclatoun;  a  gar- 
ment made  of  this  stuff;  in  zool.,  genus  of  mollusks  typical 
of  the  family  Cycladidce, 

m 


CYCLE— CYCLOID. 

CYCLE,  n.  si'kl  [F.  cycle— from  Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle,  an 
orb:  W.  cylch,  a  circle]:  a  round  or  circle  of  years,  after 
which  the  same  course  begins  again;  a  period;  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  certain  period  of  time  which  finishes  and  begins 
again  in  a  perpetual  circle:  V.  to  recur  in  cycles.  Cycling, 
imp.  sl'Ming.  Cycled,  pp.  si' kid.  Cyclic,  a.  si'klik,  per- 
taining to  a  cycle  or  circle;  also  Cy'clical,  a.  -kli-kdl. 
Cy'clas,  n.  -kids,  in  zool.,  a  genus  of  fresh-water  bivalves 
having  oval,  transverse,  equivalved  shells.  Cycle  of  the 
MOON,  or  golden  number,  a  period  of  19  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  new  and  full  moons  occur  again  on  the  same 
days  of  the  month.  Cycle  of  the  sun,  a  period  of  28 
years.    Cycle  of  indiction,  a  period  of  15  years. 

CY'CLE,  in  Chronology:  an  interval  of  time  in  which 
certain  phenomena  always  recur  in  the  same  order. 
Cycles  have  arisen  chiefly  from  the  periods  of  revolution 
of  the  earth  and  other  celestial  bodies  not  being  commen- 
surable. One  unit  of  time  is  the  day  of  24  hours,  being 
the  period  of  revolution  of  the  earth  round  its  axis.  But 
neither  the  year — the  period  of  the  earth  round  the  sun — 
nor  the  month — the  period  of  the  moon  round  the  earth — 
can  be  measured  by  days,  or  even  by  hours,  so  exactly  as 
not  to  leave  fractions.  Cycles  have  been  invented  to 
swallow  up  these  fractions  of  time  in  whole  numbers 
expressing  days,  in  such  a  way  that  after  a  certain  number 
of  revolutions  of  the  body  whose  period  has  been  put 
against  that  of  the  earth  on  her  axis,  the  body  shall  at  last 
occupy  the  same  place  in  the  heavens  and  calendar  as  it 
did  when  the  C.  commenced.  For  the  more  important  of 
the  numerous  cycles  or  periods  of  this  kind  that  have  been 
invented,  see  their  specific  titles:  see  Indiction:  Metonic 
Cycle:  Period:  Golden  Number:  etc. 

CYCLOBRANCHIATE,  a.  sikld-hrdng'ki-at  [Gr.  kuklos, 
a  circle;  hrangcMd,  gills]:  having  the  gills  disposed  in  a 
circular  manner,  as  among  certain  shell -fish,  like  the  limpet. 
Cyclobranchia'ta,  order  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  in 
which  the  gills  usually  form  a  series  of  lamellae,  surround- 
ing the  body  between  the  foot  and  the  mantle:  to  this  order 
belong  the  univalve  Patellidm,  or  Limpets,  and  the  multi- 
valve  Chitonidcti,  or  Chitons. 

CYCLOGRAPH,  n.  si'klo-grdf  [Qx.  gmpJio,  I  write]:  in- 
genious and  useful  instrument,  devised  1880,  for  describing 
the  arcs  of  very  large  circles:  it  consists  of  two  small  disks 
on  a  spindle,  with  a  pencil  aflSxed  for  necessary  tracings 
on  a  paper. 

CYjULOID,  n.  sl'kloyd  [Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle;  eidos,  form]: 
a  geometrical  curve  traced  out  by  a  point  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  rolling  upon  a  straight  line,  as  the  path 
described  by  a  nail  in  the  rim  of  a  railway-carriage  wheel 
running  along  a  straight  line.  This  curve  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  known  in  respect  both  of  its  geometrical 
properties  and  of  its  connection  wdth  dynamics.  One  of  its 
most  interesting  properties  is  this:  The  time  of  a  body's 
descending  from  rest  from  any  point  in  the  arc  of  an  inverted 
C.  to  the  lowest  point  is  the  same,  from  whatever  point  of 


CYCLOLABRIDJ^-CYCLOPEAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  curve  the  body  begins  to  descend:  this  is  sometimes 
expressed  by  saying  that  the  C.  is  the  isochronous  (Gr.  equal - 
time)  curve.  The  bod}^  having  reached  the  lowest  point, 
will,  through  the  impetus  received  in  the  fall,  ascend  the 
opposite  branch  of  the  curve  to  a  height  equal  to  that  from 
which  it  fell,  losing  velocity  in  its  ascent  by  the  same 
degrees  as  those  by  which  it  acquired  it  in  its  descent,  and  it 
will  employ  precisely  the  same 
time  in  ascending  as  it  did  in  de-  ^ 
scending.  It  is  clear  that  if  a  (y^ 
surface  could  be  procured  that  /f 
would  be  perfectly  smooth  and  /  k 
hard,  the  C.  w  ould  thus  present  a  ^-"l^— 
solution  of  the  perpetual  motion. 
The  curve    was  discovered  by  The  Cycloid. 

Galileo  1615.  The  line  AB,  which 

is  called  the  base  of  the  cycloid,  is  equal  to  the  circumfer^ 
ence  of  the  generating  circle;  and  CD,  w^hich  is  the  axis  of 
the  cycloid,  is  equal  to  the  diameter.  In  any  position  EPF 
of  the  generating  circle,  AE  is  equal  to  the  arc  EP,  AQ, 
the  absciss,  =  AE  —  QE  =  arc  EP  —  sine  of  EP;  and  PQ, 
the  ordinate,  =  1  —  cosine  of  EP.  Cycloid,  a.  applied 
to  the  scales  of  certain  fishes,  which  have  a  circular  or 
elliptical  outline  with  an  even  margin.  Cycloi'dal,  a.  -dal, 
pertaining  to.  Cycloi  deans,  n.  plu.  -kloy' di-dnz,  or  Cy"- 
CLOiD  FISHES,  in  the  system  of  Agassiz,  the  fourth  order  of 
fishes,  having  cycloid  scales— smooth  scales  formed  of  con- 
centric layers,  not  covered  with  enamel,  and  not  spinous  on 
the  margins.  Cycloid  scales  are  generally  imbricated,  but 
are  sometimes  placed  side  by  side  without  overlapping. 
Very  many  of  the  existing  fishes  are  of  the  cycloid  order, 
e.g.  the  salmon  and  herring  and  fossil  C.  fishes  are  numerous 
in  the  more  recent  strata  from  the  chalk  upward,  but  they 
first  appear  in  the  chalk. 

CYCLOLABRIDJS,  n.  si  klo-lah' rl-de  [Gr.  kuklos,  a 
circle;  L.  lahrum,  a  lip,  and  suf.  -idxE]'.  family  of  spine- 
finned  fishes,  iiAhe  Pharyngognathi.  It  contains  the  Wrasses: 
see  Wrasse. 

CYCLOLITES,  sl-kld-ll'tez  {Gr  kuklos,  a  circle;  lithos,  a 
stone]:  genus  of  Actinozoa,  family  FrengidcB.  It  ranges 
from  the  Cretaceous  to  the  Miocene  strata. 

,  CYCLOLITH,  n.  sl'kld-Uth:  a  circle  of  stones  such  as 
those  at  Stonehenge  (q.v.):  see  also  Standing  Stones. 

^  CYCLOMETRY,  n.  sl-Mom'e-tri  [Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle; 
metron,  a  measure]:  the  art  of  measuring  circles  or  cycles. 

CYCLONES,  n.  plu  sl'kldnz  [Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle]:  rota^ 
tory  hurricanes  which  occur  most  frequently  between  the 
equator  and  the  tropics,  and  near  the  equatorial  limits  of 
the  trade- winds:  Latham  recommends  the  spelling  Cy- 
CLOONS,  sVklOnz.   See  Storms. 

CYCLOPE'AK  ARCHITECTURE,  or  Cyclopean 
Masonry:  denoting  a  construction  or  a  wall  of  large 
irregular  stones,  unhew^n  and  uncemented.  The  term 
originated  in  Greece,  where  structures  of  this  kind  were 

397 


CYCLOPEDIA— CYCLOPHORUS. 

fabled  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  Cyclopes,  or  one-eyed 
giants.  The  walls  of  Thyns,  near  Nauplia — alluded  to  by 
Homer — are  an  example  of  the  ruder  style  of  Cyclopean 
masonr3\  They  are  of  irregular  unshapen  stones,  from  6 
to  9  ft.  long,  from  3  to  4  ft  wide,  and  from  2  to  3  ft.  thick; 
the  interstices  are  tilled  up  by  small  stones,  but  no  mortar 
is  used.  The  walls  of  Mycenae  and  of  Epirus  are  examples 
of  more  advanced  C  A.:  here,  the  blocks,  though  irregular 
in  size  and  shape,  are  titted  carefully  to  each  other,  show- 
ing close  joints  and  a  smooth  surface.  These  structures  are 
now  commonly  believed  to  have  been  reared  by  the  Pelas- 
gians  (q.v  ),  probably  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  They  are  found  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

The  next  stage  of  Cyclopean  masonry  shows  an  approach 
to  horizontal  courses,  as  in  the  walls  of  several  towns  in 
Greece,  and  of  some  in  Etruria.  Lastly,  the  name  of  Cyclo- 
pean w^ork  is  applied,  perhaps  not  quite  accurately,  to  a 
kind  of  masonry  which  obtained  among  the  Etruscans  (q.v.), 
wherej;he  blocks  are  both  squared  and  laid  in  horizontal 
courses,  but  are  not  cemented.  In  some  cases — as  in  the 
walls  of  Cosa,  in  Tuscany,  believed  to  have  been  first  a 
Pelasgian,  then  an  Etruscan,  city — the  lower  part  is  of 
irregular  polygonal  blocks,  the  Tipper  part  of  squared  stones 
in  horizontal  courses.  In  at  least  one  instance — a  wall  in 
the  Peloponnesus — a  foiuidation  of  excellent  ashlar  is  sur- 
mounted by  irregular  polygonal  blocks  of  the  usual  Cyclo- 
pean type. 

Masonry  partaking  more  or  less  of  the  Cyclopean  char- 
acter is  seen  in  Persepolis,  and  elsewhere  in  Asia,  in  several 
parts  of  w.  Europe,  and  in  some  parts  of  America.  The 
walls  of  Cuzco,  and  the  ruins  of  what  is  called  the  house  of 
Manco  Capac,  on  an  island  in  the  lake  of  Titicaca,  in  Peru, 
are  interesting  examples  of  the  C.  A.  of  the  New  World. 
Instances  of  Cyclopean  w^ork  on  a  smaller  scale  are  found 
in  the  British  Islands,  in  the  walls  of  the  primitive  '  duns  ' 
or  hill-forts,  or  in  the  *  cashels'  or  precincts  of  early  religious 
houses.  Among  Irish  examples  are  the  Grianan  of  Ailech, 
county  Donegal;  Staigue  Fort,  county  Kerry;  Dun  ^ngus, 
on  one  of  the  Isles  of  Arran,  on  th^  w.  coast  of  Gal  way; 
the  Giant's  Sconce,  near  Coleraine;  and  the  Rock  of  Cashel 
Among  Scotch  instances  are  the  Laws,  in  the  parish  of 
Monitieth,  not  far  from  Dundee;  and  the  ruins  on  St. 
Columkille's  Island,  near  Migsted,  in  Skye.  In  the  Biblio- 
theque  Mazarine  at  Paris,  there  is  an  interesting  set  of 
models  of  the  Cyclopean  buildings  of  Greece  and  Italy,  by 
M.  Petit-Radel,  author  of  liecfierclies  sur  les  Monumens 
Cyclopeens. 

CYCLOPEDIA,  or  Cyclopedia,  n.  si' Md-pe' di-a  [Gr. 
kuklos,  a  circle;  paideia,  learning,  instruction]:  book  or 
series  of  volumes  of  universal  knowledge;  a  book  contain- 
ing treatises  on  every  branch  of  knowledge,  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order:  see  Encyclopedia. — Cyclopedic,  a. 
SI  klo-pe'dik,  of  or  pertaining  to  a  cyclopedia. 

CYCLOPHORUS,  n.  sl-klofer-as  [Gr,  kuklos,  a  circle; 


CYCLOPS. 


phoros,  bearing]:  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  family 
Gyclostomidm  (q.v.). 

CYCLOPS,  n.  sing,  or  plii.  sl'klops,  also  Cyclopes,  n. 
plu.  si-kld'jpez  [Gr.  kiikldps,  or  kukldpa;  L.  cy clops,  or  cyclo- 
pem—iYom  Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle;  ops,  the  eye]:  in  Greek 
myth.,  giants,  described  as  huge  misshapen  monsters,  hav- 
ing but  one  eye,  and  that  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 
They  were  of  three  kinds.  1.  The  Homeric  C,  a  wild, 
lawless,  gigantic  race  inhabiting  the  sea  coasts  of  Sicily, 
most  prominent  of  whom  is  Polyphemus  (q.v.).  Although 
Homer  does  not  directly  call  them  one-eyed,  yet  he  ex- 
pressly terms  Polyphemus  such,  and  the  later  poets  attribute 
his  peculiarity  to  the  rest.  2.  The  three  C.  mentioned  by 
Hesiod — Brontes,  Stereopeg,  and  Arges— each  having  one 
eye  in  the  middle  of  Ms  forehead;  these  were  sons  of 
Uranus  and  Goea,  belonged  to  the  race  of  Titans,  and 
forged  thunderbolts  for  Zeus.  Hurled  into  Tartarus  by 
their  father,  but  delivered  by  their  mother,  they  helped 
Kronos  to  usurp  the  government  of  heaven.  Kronos,  how- 
ever, in  his  turn,  threw  them  back  to  Tartarus,  from  which 
they  were  again  released  by  Zeus,  w^hose  servants  they  new 
became.  Finally,  they  were  slain  by  Apollo,  because  they 
forged  the  thunderbolt  with  which  Zeus  killed  Asclepius. 
Later  tradition  placed  their  workshop  in  Mount  Etna,  or  in 
the  volcanoes  of  Lemnos  and  Lipari,  and  made  them  the 
slaves  of  Hephcestus.  3.  The  C.  mentioned  by  Strabo,  as 
a  people  who  had  come  from  Thrace  or  Lycia  to  Argolis, 
and  were  distinguished  for  their  skill  as  builders.  Their 
constructions  are  known  as  the  Cyclopean  walls,  and  many 
of  them  still  exist  in  parts  of  Greece  and  Italy.  The  state- 
ment of  Strabo  is  quite  untrustworthy.  More  probably 
the  so-called  Cyclopean  walls  were  built  by  some  ancient 
race,  perhaps  the  Pelasgians  (q.v.),  at  a  period  long  before 
the  historical  civilizations  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Cy'clo- 
pe'an,  a.  -klo-pe'dn,  pertaining  to  the  Cyclops;  vast;  ter- 
rihc;  applied  to  those  vast  remains  of  anc.  architecture 
which  consist  of  large  unhewn  masses  of  stone  fitted  to- 
gether without  mortar.  Cyclop'ic,  a.  -kldp'ik,  pertaining 
to  the  Cyclops;  savage;  gigantic. 


-  Cyclops  Vulgaris: 
a,  young;  6,  6,  egg-bags. 

CY'CLOPS;  genus  of  nuoute  entomostracous  crusta* 

m 


CYCLOPTERIS-CYESIOLOGY. 

ceans  of  the  order  Branchiopoda  (q.v.),  having  a  soft  and 
rather  gelatinous  body  divided  into  two  portions,  one 
consisting  of  the  head  and  thorax,  the  other  forming  the 
tail.  There  is  only  one  eye,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the 
forehead,  and  generally  of  a  bright  crimson  color,  spark- 
ling like  a  gem  when  the  animal  is  viewed  through  a  mi- 
croscope. The  species  of  C.  are  numerous;  they  inhabit 
both  the  sea  and  fresh  waters,  generally  residing  among  or 
upon  aquatic  plants.  They  are  extremely  active,  and  dart 
about  with  great  rapidity. 

CYCLOPTERIS,  n.  si-kl6p' Ur-ls  [Gr.  kuUos,  a  circle; 
pteris,  a  fern] :  in  geol. ,  a  genus  of  palaeozoic  ferns  having 
their  leaflets  of  a  round  shape. 

CYCLOP'TERUS:  see  Lumpsucker:  Sucking  Fish. 

CYCLORAMA,  sl-klo-rd'md:  series  of  views,  which,  be- 
ing wound  round  cylinders,  are  unrolled  to  pass  in  con- 
secutive order  before  the  spectator,  so  as  to  produce  the 
effect  of  motion  on  his  part,  as  when  the  banks  of  a  river 
are  seen  from  a  steam-boat,  or  the  country  from  a  railway. 

CYCLOSIS,  n.  sl-klo'sis  [Gr.  kukldsis,  a  surrounding,  a 
circulation — from  kuklos,  a  circle]:  name  designating  cer- 
tain still  very  imperfectly  understood  movements  of  the 
contents  of  cells  in  plants — formerly  supposed  to  be  a  par- 
tial circulation  of  the  juices.  As  they  have  been  observed 
in  plants  of  the  most  different  natural  orders,  it  is  pre- 
sumed that  they  prevail  throughout  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. 

CYCLOSTOMID^,  n.  sl-klbs-tom'l-de  [Gr.  kuklos,  a 
circle;  stoma,  a  mouth]:  family  of  gasteropodous  moUusks, 
ord.  Pulmonifera,  section  Operculata.  Cyclosto'ma,  n. 
-to  ma,  typical  genus  of  the  Cyclostomidce. 

CYCLOSTOMOUS,  a.  si- kids' td-miis  [Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle; 
stoma,  a  mouth] :  having  a  circular  mouth  or  aperture  for 
sucking,  among  certain  fishes,  as  the  lamprey.  Cyclo- 
STOME,  n.  sik'lds-tdm,  a  fish  with  a  mouth  formed  for  suck- 
ing. Cyclostomi,  n.  plu.  si-klos'td-ml,  also  Cyclostomata, 
a  division  of  the  vertebrates,  including  the  hag  fishes  and 
lampreys:  see  Lamprey:  Cartilaginous  Fishes:  Zoology 
(Table). 

CYCLOTELLA,  n.  si-klo-tella  [Gr.  kuldos,  a  circle;  L. 
dim.  suf .  -ella]^ :  genus  of  Diatomacece,  in  which  the  valves 
are  circular,  flat,  depressed,  or  undulated,  striated  and 
marked  with  dots  or  depressions  arranged  in  radiating 
rows. 

CYCLOTUS,  n.  sl-kld'tus  [Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle;  ous, 
gen.  otos,  the  ear]:  sub-genus  of  Cyclopliorus  (q.v.).  There 
are  44  known  recent  species,  from  tropical  America,  s. 
Asia,  etc. 

CYDER,  n.  si'der:  for  Cider,  which  see. 
CYD  NUS:  river  in  Cilicia:  see  Tarsus. 
CYDO'NIA:  see  Quince. 

CYESIOLOGY,  n.  sl-ez-l-6l' o-jl  [Gr.  kuesis,  conception, 

400 


CYGNET— CYMA. 

pregnancy ;  logos,  a  discourse] :  the  science  whicli  concerns 
itself  with  gestation. 

CYGNET,  n.  sig'net  [OF.  eigne,  a  swan — from  L.  cygnus; 
Gr  kuknos,  a  sw^an]:  a  young  sw^an.  Cygnet-iioyal,  in 
heraldry,  a  swan  gorged  with  a  ducal  coronet,  having  a 
chain  thereunto  alHxed,  and  retiexed  over  its  back. 

CYG'NUS:  see  Swan. 

CYG'NUS:  constellation  in  the  n.  hemisphere,  between 
Lyra  and  Cassiopeia:  see  Stars. 

CYLICHNA,  n.  sl-Uk'na  [Gr.  kuUcJme,  a  small  cup,  a 
dish  for  food):  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  family 
Bullida':  see  Bulla. 

CYLINDER,  n.  sil'm-der  [F.  cyUndre—from  L.  cyl'm- 
drus;  Gr.  kul'indros,  a  roller]:  a  roller;  a  long  rounded 
body  of  uniform  diameter.  Cylinder,  in  geom.,  denotes  a 
genus  of  solid  figures,  of  which  there  may  be  endless 
species.  The  most  common  kind  of  C.  is  that  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram  about  one 
of  its  sides,  which  line  is  called  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 
But  in  order  to  embrace  all  varieties  of  cylinders,  we  must 
generalize  the  mode  of  generation.  A  C, 
then,  is  a  solid  generated  by  a  line  which 
moves  parallel  to  itself  while  one  end  traces 
upon  a  plane  any  curve  whatever.  When 
the  position  of  the  generating  line  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane,  the  C.  is  right;  when 
not,  it  is  oblique.  If  the  curve  traced  is  a 
circle,  and  the  line  perpendicular  to  the 
plane,  the  C.  is  a  o'iglit  circular  C,  etc.  In 
all  cases,  the  content  of  the  C.  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  square  units  in 
the  base  by  the  number  of  linear  units  in 
the  altitude,  which  is  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance between  the  two  ends.  The  area  of 
the  convex  surface  is  equal  to  a  rectangular 
parallelogram  whose  base  is  the  circumference  of  the  end, 
and  its  height  the  length  of  the  generating  line.  To  this 
must  be  added  the  areas  of  the  two  ends,  to  get  the  whole 
surface  of  the  cylinder.  Cylindric,  a.  sl-lin'drik,  or 
Cylin'drical,  a.  -dri-kal,  pertaining  to;  having  the  form 
of  a  cylinder.  Cylin'dricule,  n.  -kM,  a  small  cylinder. 
Cylin  DRiCALLY,  ad.  -kul  li.  Cylindricity,  n.  sU'ln-drW- 
V  ti.  Cylindriform,  a.  si-lm' di'i-faicrm  [L. shape]: 
in  the  form  of  a  cylinder.  Cylindroid,  n.  sWm-droyd 
I  [Gr.  eidoSy  resemblance] :  a  cylinder  having  its  ends  ellipti- 
cal. Cylindrenchyma,  n.  sW In-dreiig' kl-md  [Gr.  engchii 
raa,  juice,  the  substance  of  organs — from  engchub,  I  infuse]: 
in  hot.,  plant  tissue  made  up  of  cylindrical  cells. 

CYLINDRELLA,  n.  sU-ln-drel'la  [dim.  of  L.  cylindrus, 
cylinder]:  genus  of  pulmoniferous  gasteropods,  called  in 
English  Cylinder  Snails. 

CYMA,  n.  si' ma,  or  Cyme,  n.  slm  [Gr.  huma,  a  wave]: 
In  arcli.,  a  molding  whose  contour  resembles  that  of  a 
wave,  being  a  hollow^  and  a  round  conjoined;  an  ogee: 


Right  Circular 
Cylinder. 


CYMAPHEN— CYMBELLA. 
when  hollow  in  the  upper  part,  it  is  termed  C.  recta;  when 


Cyma  Reversa. 


hollow  in  the  lower  part,  C.  reversa.  Cy'moid,  n.  -moyd 
[Gr.  eicloSy  resemblance] :  formed  like  a  c^^ma. 

CYMAPHEN,  n.  sV ma-fen  [Gr.  kuma,  a  wave;  phaindy 
I  show] :  an  apparatus  in  a  telephone  for  receiving  trans- 
mitted electric  waves. 

CYMAK,  n.  si-mdr  [F.  simmake,  a  gown  —  from  It. 
zimo,rvd\\  a  slight  covering;  a  scarf;  also  Simar. 

CYMA'TIUM:  see  Entablature. 

CYMBA,  n.  sim'ha  [L.  cyrnba;  Gr.  kumbe,  a  boat,  a 
skiff]:  boat-shell,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  fam- 
ily VolutidcB. 

CYMBAL,  n.  shn'hdl  [OF.  cimhale;  F.  cymhale — from  L. 
C'jmhdlum;  Gr.  kumhdlon,  a  cymbal — from  Gr.  kumbos,  a 
cavity:  It.  cimbalo]:  musical  instrument  of  percussion,  of 
brass  in  a  circular  form  like  a  dish,  struck  together  in  pairs 
when  used,  and  producing  a  loud,  harsh  clanging  sound. 
The  best  are  those  made  in  Turkey  and  in  China.  Attempts 
to  discover  and  imitate  the  composition  of  the  metal  have 
all  failed.  The  notes  in  music  for  this  instrument  are  all 
placed  on  the  same  line  or  space,  in  rhythmical  succession. 
Cymbals  are  military  instruments,  but  are  now  much  used 
in  the  orchestra. 

CYM'BEL:  organ  stop  of  the  mixture  species,  consist- 
ing  of  three  ranks  of  pipes.  Also  a  stop  found  in  very  old 
continental  organs,  consisting  of  a  machine  like  a  star 
placed  high  up  on  the  front  of  the  organ,  on  which  were 
hung  small  bells,  which  sounded  when  the  star  was  moved 
round  on  its  centre  by  a  current  of  air  from  the  organ. 

CYMBELLA,  n.  slm-bel'la  [dim.  of  L.  cymbalum,  a  cym 
bal]:  a  reproductive  locomotive  body  of  an  elliptical  shape, 
found  in  some  Algcn;  a  genus  of  Diatomacem  (q.v.),  typical 
of  the  sub-order  Cymbellecp,  so  called  from  its  cymbiform 
valves.  Cymbel'le^,  sub  order  of  Algce,  order  Diatomacem. 
The  individuals  ave  quite  free. 

402 


CYMBIFORM— CYNANCHE. 

CYMBIFORM,  a.  sim'hl-fawrm  [L.  cymha,  a  boat;/(?m(», 
shape]:  boat-shaped. 

CYME,  n.  Sim  [L.  cyma;  Gr.  kumoj,  the  young  sprout  of  a 
cabbage]:  in  hot.,  a  common  form  of  centrifugal  (q.v.)  in- 
florescence, in  which  the  rachis  or  floral  axis  disappears  by 
separating  into  irregular  branches,  and  these  are  short  and 


Example  of  a  Cyme. 


corymbose.  It  is  of  very  general  occurrence  in  the  Garyo- 
phyllacece.  Examples  may  be  seen  also  in  the  common  elder, 
different  species  of  Viburnum,  etc.  The  mrticillasters  of 
the  Labitam  are  small  cymes  in  the  axils  of  opposite  leaves, 
assuming  nearly  the  appearance  of  whorls.  C^moid,  a. 
sl'moyd  [Gr.  eidos,  reseml3lance] :  having  the  form  of  a  cyme. 
Cy'mose,  a.  -moz,  flowering  in  cymes.  Cymule,  n.  slm'ul, 
in  hot.,  a  diminutive  cyme;  a  branch  or  cluster  of  compound 
cymes. 

CYMENE,  n.  sl-me'ne  [from  cumin,  as  if  cyminos]:  an 
organic  compound  of  the  aromatic  series  found  in  cumin- 
oil;  a  hydrocarbon  obtained  from  camphor— also  Cymol, 
n.  sl'mol  [cumin,  and  L.  oleum,  oil]:  another  name  for  cy- 
mene. 

CYMOPHANE,  n.  sl'mo-fdn  [Gr.  kuma,  a  wave;  phaino, 
I  appear] :  a  semi-transparent  variety  of  chrysoberyl.  Cy- 
MOPKANOUS,  a.  sl-mof  d-nus,  having  a  wavy  floating  light. 

'  CYMRY,  n.  kim'ri:  the  Welsh,  etc.  Cym'ric,  a.  n.  -rik, 
one  division  of  the  Celtic  family  of  languages  comprising 

!  Welsh,  Manx,  and  Cornish,  as  distinguished  from  Gaelic, 
which  comprises  the  Scotch  Gaelic  and  anc.  Irish  or  Erse: 
see  Celtic  Nations. 

CYNAKCHE,  n.  sl-ndn'ke  [Gr.  kaon,  a  dog;  angcJio,  I 
strangle] :  disease  of  the  windpipe  attended  with  inflamma- 
tion— so  named  from  the  dog-like  bark  by  which  it  is  some- 
times accompanied;  general  term  for  severer  forms  of  sore 
throat :  see  Throat,  Affections  of  the. 

403 


CYISTANCHUM— CYNOMORIUM. 

CYNANCHUM,  sl-nan'kum  or  si-ndng'kum:  genus  ol 
plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  Asclepiadacecv ,  having  a  wheel -shaped 
corolla,  and  a  lobed  or  cleft  corona.  C.  Mompeliacum — a 
herbaceous  twining  plant,  with  roiiiidish,  heart  shaped, 
stalked  leaves,  native  of  the  shores  of  ihe  Mediterranean  — 
yields  the  drug  called  Montpellier  Scaimiwny,  a  violent 
purgative,  not  much  used.  C.  ovdlifoUum  is  a  native  of 
Penang,  and  its  sap  yields  caoutchouc  of  excellent  quality. 

CYNANTHROPY,  n.  sln  dn'throjj-t  [Gr.  MoJi,  a  dog; 
anthrOpos,  a  man]:  a  kind  of  madness  in  which  a  man  im- 
agines himself  a  dog,  and  imitates  its  bark  and  habits. 

CYNARA,  n.  sln'a-ra  [L.  cinara;  Gr.  Mnara,  an  arti- 
choke: comp.  also  Gr.  kunara,  the  artichoke,  or  possibly 
the  dog-rose]:  genus  of  composite  plants,  typical  of  the  tribe 
Cynarem.    See  Artichoke. 

CYNAROCEPH'AL^:  see  Composite. 

CYNARRHODON,  n.  sin-dr' ro-don  [Gr.  kudn,  a  dog; 
rhodon,  a  rose] :  applied  to  the  hips  or  fruit  of  dog-roses,  and 
roses  in  general. 

CYNIC,  n.  sin'tk  [L.  cynicus,  a  cynic — fromGr.  kunlkos, 
dog -like— from  kiibn,  a  dog]:  a  surly  or  snarling  man;  a 
misanthrope;  one  of  the  cynics.  Cyn  ics,  n.  plu.  an  anc. 
sect  of  philosophers  distinguished  mainly  for  their  morose 
and  snarling  ethics:  they  contemned  riches,  the  arts,  the  sci- 
ences, and  usages  of  societ}^;  for  their  opinions,  see  Antis- 
THENES:  Diogenes:  Menippus:  etc.:  hence,  generally,  rude 
or  censorious  men.  Cyn  ic,  a.  or  Cyn  ical,  a.  -i-Md,  snarl- 
ing; having  the  qualities  of  a  surly  dog;  scornful;  assuming 
to  be  universal  critics,  but  with  capacity  only  for  fault-finding. 
Cyn'ically,  ad.  -II.  Cyn'icalness,  n.  Cyn  icism,  n.  -sizm, 
austerity;  churlishness. 

CYNICTIS,  n.  sin-ik'tis  [Gr.  kmn,  a  dog;  iktls,  a  kind 
of  weasel  or  ferret] :  genus  of  mammals  whose  proper  place 
is  perhaps  among  the  ViverridcE  (Civets),  though  it  has  affin- 
ities also  to  dogs  and  hyenas,  in  the  family  GanidcB. 

CY'NIPS:  see  Gall-fly. 

CYNOCEPHALUS,  n.  sV nd-sef' d-lus  [L.— from  Gr.  kuno- 
kepli'dlos,  a  dog's  head — from  kudn,  a  dog;  kephdle,  a  head]: 
an  ape  with  a  dog's  head:  see  Baboon. 

CYNODON,  sin'o-don:  genus  of  grasses,  having  digitate 
or  racemose  spikes,  with  spikelets  on  one  side,  glumes 
nearly  equal,  boat-shaped,  and  containing  one  floret, 
which  has  two  awnless  palege,  the  fruit  coated  with  the 
hardened  palese.  The  most  important  species  is  G.  dactylon, 
a  grass  very  widely  diffused,  being  the  principal  fodder 
grass  and  best  pasture  grass  of  India,  where  it  is  the  prin- 
cipal covering  of  many  thousands  of  sq.  m.,  and  is  known 
by  the  names  of  Dhoh,  Doorba,  etc. ;  common  also  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  Its  creeping  roots,  and  those  of  its  con- 
gener, G.  Uneare,  have  medicinal  virtues,  and  are  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  sarsaparilla. 

CYNOMORIUM,  si-nd-md'Ti-iim:  genius  of  plants  of  the 
curious  parasitic  nat.  ord.  Uhizantliece  (q.v.).  G.  coccineum, 
plant  of  a  strange  fungus-like  appearance,  is  found  in  the 

404 


CYNOSURE— CYPERACE^. 

islands  of  Malta  and  Gozo,  most  abundantly  on  a  particu- 
lar rock  in  Gozo.  It  was  long  known  as  Fungus  Meliten- 
sis,  and  had  the  highest  reputation  as  a  styptic,  besides  be- 
ing used  as  an  astringent  in  dysentery  and  other  maladies. 
So  high  a  value  was  set  upon  this  plant,  that  the  knights  of 
Malta  took  it  under  their  particular  care  as  one  of  their 
choicest  possessions;  it  was  carefully  gathered,  and  deposit- 
ed in  a  government  office,  from  which  the  grand-master 
sent  it  to  friendly  sovereigns,  and  to  the  hospitals  of 
the  island.  A  keeper  of  the  rock  which  produces  the  plant 
is  still  appointed,  and  his  salary  appears  in  the  public  ac- 
counts of  Malta. 

CYKOSURE,  n.  sl'no-zhur  [L.  cynosura — from  Gr. 
kunosoura,  a  dog's  tail — from  Gr.  kudu,  a  dog,  kands,  of  a 
dog;  a  tail] :  the  north  star  or  pole-star,  being  the 

bright  star  of  the  constellation  Little  Bear,  by  which  sea- 
men used  anciently  to  steer,  and  to  which,  therefore,  they 
directed  their  looks:  or,  as  some  suppose  (less  probably),  C. 
refers  to  the  constellation  Ursa  Minor,  which  holds  its 
place  always  near  the  pole,  and  toward  which  therefore  all 
the  other  constellations  as  they  wheel  round  it  may  be  said 
to  gaze.    Milton's  lines  suit  either  view: 

Where  perhaps  some  beautj^'  hes, 

The  Cynosure  of  neighboring  eyes. — Allegro. 

Hence,  generally,  any  bright  or  beautiful  object  drawing 
general  attention. 

CYNOSU'RUS:  see  Dog's-tail  Grass. 

CYNTHIA,  n.  sin'thi-a  [GyntJms,  the  mountain  in  Delos 
where  Apollo  and  Diana  were  born] :  in  Latin  myth.,  Diana; 
the  moon  represented  by  Diana. 

CYNTHIANA,  sin-the-d' na:  city,  cap.  Harrison  co.,  Ky., 
33  m.  n.n.e.  of  Lexington,  66  m.  s.  of  Cincinnati,  on  the  s. 
fork  of  the  Licking  river,  and  on  the  Ky.  Central  railroad. 
It  was  settled  1780;  has  six  churches,  court-house,  graded 
free  school,  college  for  girls,  national  bank,  two  flour-mills, 
two  carriage-factories,  and  a  cigar-factory;  and  is  noted 
for  its  manufactures  of  Bourbon  whisky,  and  for  its  for- 
merly celebrated  race-course.  During  the  civil  war,  it  was 
attacked  and  captured  by  the  Confederates  twice  and  the 
Union  forces  once.    Pop.  (1870)  1,771;  (1880)  2,200. 

CYPERACE^,  si-per-d'se-e,  or  Caricine^,  sometimes 
popularly  called  Sedges:  nat.  ord.  of  plants,  akin  to 
grasses,  but  having  generally  a  triangular  stem  without 
joints,  or  almost  so,  and  often  leafless.  The  leaves  are 
sometimes  sheathing,  but  their  sheaths  are  always  entire, 
not  split  as  in  the  grasses.  The  flowers,  hermaphrodite 
in  some,  unisexual  in  others,  consist  of  a  scale-like  glume, 
under  which  lie  the  organs  of  fructification,  the  pistils  alone 
being  frequently  inclosed  in  a  separate  urn-shaped  cover- 
ing; the  place  of  the  perianth  is  sometimes  supplied  by  a 
few  bristles.  The  stamens  are  1-12  in  number,  the  an- 
thers erect:  the  ovary  is  one-seeded,  the  style  single,  trifid 
or  bifid;  the  fruit  a  small  crustaceous  or  bony  nut,  the  em- 
bryo lenticular,  and  inclosed  within  the  base  of  the  al- 

405 


CYPER  ACEOUS  -  CYPERUS. 

bumen.  Plants  of  this  order,  which  contains  fully  2,000 
known  species,  occur  in  all  zones;  some  of  the  genera,  as 
Car^a?  (q. v.),  abounding  in  the  colder,  some,  as  Cyperus 
(q.v.),  in  the  w^armer  parts  of  the  world.  !See  also  Scirpus. 
Many  are  plants  of  very  humble  growth,  some,  as  bul- 
rushes, papyrus,  etc  ,  comparatively  large;  none  rival  in 
size  the  bamboos  and  other  gigantic  grasses.  Most  of  them 
grow  in  marshy  and  moist  places,  but  a  few  in  sunny  dry 
places.  Their  stems  and  leaves  are  in  general  very  de- 
cient  in  succulence,  and,  in  most  of  them,  also  very  rough, 
so  that  they  are  eaten  by  domesticated  cattle  only  when  in 
a  very  young  state,  and  rather  from  necessity  than  from 
choice,  and  are  regarded  by  farmers  as  mere  weeds.  For 
some  uses  of  plants  of  this  order,  see  Bulrush:  Cotton- 
grass:  Papyrus. 

CYPERACEOUS,  a.  sl'per-d'sMs  [Gr.  kupel'ros,  a  kind 
of  rush]:  belonging  to  the  nat.  ord.  of  plants,  the  sedges, 
consisting  of  grass-like  herbs  grow- 
ing in  tufts — called  the  Cy'pera'- 
CE^,  se-e.  Cy'perites,  n.  plu.  -per- 
Its,  in  geoL,  long  narrow  ensiform 
leaves  occurring  in  the  coal-meas- 
ures. 

CYPERUS,  sVper-us  or  si-pe'riis: 
genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  Cy- 
peracece,  distinguished  by  hermaph- 
rodite flowers  and  compound  spike- 
lets  of  numerous  two  rowed  glumes 
including  no  bristles  or  scales.  It 
contains  a  great  number  of  species, 
chiefly  tropical,  and  gradually  de- 
creasing in  number  toward  the 
colder  parts  of  the  globe.  Many 
of  the  species  have  tubers  or 
corms,  which  in  some  are  mucil- 
aginous and  nutritious;  in  others, 
contain  also  a  bitter  principle,  and 
possess  medicinal  qualities.  Of  the 
latter  class  is  G.  longus,  or  Sweet  C, 
common  in  ditches  and  wet  meadows 
in  some  parts  of  Europe,  the  rhizome 
of  which  has  an  odor  of  violets,  and 
is  astringent,  tonic,  and  stomachic. 
It  has  been  employed  in  medicine 
from  very  ancient  times;  but  is  now 
used  more  in  perfumery.  Some  of 
the  Indian  species  are  also  used  me- 
dicinally and  in  perfumery  in  their 
Cyperus  Esciilentus:  native  country,  as  well  as  species  of 
a,  whole  plant;  6,  cluster  kindred  genera.  Of  those  with  es- 
ofspikelets;  c,  a  single  culent  tubers,  the  most  important 
is  G.  esculentus,  sometimes  called 
Rushnut,  native  of  the  s.  of  Eu- 
rope and  n.  of  Africa,  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  Egypt,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  s.  of  France. 

406 


CYPHER— CYPRESS. 

The  root  of  this  plant  iLrows  out  creeping  branches  at  the 
end  of  which  form  farinaceous  tubers  of  the  size  of  a 
hazel-nut,  called  Earth  Almonds  {Amaiide  de  Terre)  by  the 
French.  They  have  a  sweetish  taste,  and  are  used  like 
almonds  for  the  dessert,  also  for  making  Orgeat  (q.v.). 
They  are  said  to  possess  not  only  nutritive,  but  restorative 
and  stimulant,  properties.  Of  late,  they  have  become  a 
considerable  article  of  commerce,  on  account  of  the  bland 
tixed  oil  which  they  yield,  and  are  exported  chiefly  from 
Spain  and  Portugal  to  Holland.  They  contain  about  16 
per  cent,  of  oil.  The  roots  of  this  plant  and  its  allies  are  the 
only  roots  known  to  contain  much  oil.  The  tubers  of  C.  hul- 
bosus  or  Jemenicus  are  eaten  in  India,  either  roasted  or  boiled, 
or  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  made  into  bread;  but  their  small 
size  makes  them  troublesome  of  collection  and  preparation. 
Those  of  C.  geminatus  also  are  eaten.  The  tubers  of  some 
species  of  Scirpus  (q.v.)  resemble  in  quality  those  of  the  es- 
culent species  of  cypei'us.  The  fibre  of  C.  textilis  is  so  strong 
that  it  is  used  in  India  for  making  mats, 

CYPHER,  li.  sl'fer:  another  spelling  of  Cipher, which  see. 

CYPHONISM,  n.  si'fon-mn  [Gr.  kupMnismos,  punish- 
ment in  the  pillory;  kuiyltm,  a  pillory]:  ancient  mode  of 
punishment  or  torture  inflicted  on  criminals.  It  consisted 
in  nibbing  the  offender  with  honey,  and  afterward  exposing 
him  in  a  cage,  or  fastening  him  to  a  stake  to  be  a  prey  to 
swarms  of  insects. 

CYPR^'A:  see  Cowry. 

CYPR^IDJE,  n.  plu.  sl-pre'l-de  [L.  Cypria,  a  name  of 
Venus— from  the  island  Cyprus]:  the  cowry  family;  the 
shells  of  carnivorous  gasteropods  chiefly  inhabiting  the  shores 
of  warm  seas,  a  small  species  of  which  is  used  extensively 
as  money  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

CY  PRES,  si  pres  or  se  prd:  a  doctrine  in  English  Law, 
concerning  estates  left  by  will.  As  the  law  forbids  the 
giving  of  an  estate  tail  to  the  son  of  an  unborn  son  of  a 
living  person,  after  a  life-estate  given  to  such  unborn  son, 
and  would  regard  such  estate  tail  as  void,  the  courts,  when 
such  a  gift  is  made  in  a  will,  apply  the  doctrine  of  C.  P., 
and  endeavor,  as  near  as  possible,  to  carry  out  the  testator's 
wish,  by  giving  to  the  unborn  son  of  the  living  person  an  es- 
tate tail,  mstead  of  for  life,  and  so  enabling  his  son  to  suc- 
ceed if  the  entail  be  not  barred:  see  Entail.  So  also,  when 
a  charity  cannot  reasonably  be  administered  precisely  as  di- 
rected by  the  testator,  the  court  will,  by  the  doctrine  of 
C.  P.,  administer  it  as  near  as  possible  to  his  directions. 

CYPRESS,  n.  sVpres  [OF.  cresj^e,  a  Cyprus  or  thin  ma- 
terial for  a  woman's  neck]:  in  OE.,  a  thin,  light,  deep  black 
fabric.    Cypress-lawn,  crape:  see  Skeat. 

CYPRESS,  n.  sl'pirs  [OF.  cypres— from  L.  cyparis'sus, 
and  cupressus,  the  cypius],  {Cupressns):  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  Coniferce,  the  species  of  which  are  evergreen  trees 
or  shrubs,  with  small,  generally  appressed  and  imbricated 
leaves,  and  with  almost  globular  cones,  the  scales  of  which 
bear  numerous  hard  seeds.    The  best  known  species  is  the 

407 


CYPRESS. 


Common  C.  {G.  sempermrens),  native  of  the  Levant,  the  n. 
of  Africa,  and  the  s.  of  Europe.  It  is  a  tree  of  no  great 
height,  with  quadrangular  twigs.  The  leaves  are  dark  green, 


Branch  and  Fruit  of  Cypress  {Cupressus  sempervirens). 

and  the  tree  has,  therefore,  a  sombre  aspect,  and  from  very 
early  times  has  been  an  emblem  of  mourning;  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  put  its  twigs  in  the  coffins  of  the  dead,  they  used  it 
to  indicate  the  house  of  mourning,  and  planted  it  about 
burial-grounds,  as  is  still  the  custom  in  the  East.  The  wood 
of  the  C.  is  yellow  or  reddish,  and  has  a  pleasant  smell.  It 
is  very  hard,  compact,  and  durable ;  the  ancients  reckoned 
it  indestructible ;  and  the  resin  which  it  contains  gives  it 
the  property  of  resisting  for  a  long  time  the  action  of  water. 
It  is  not  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  was  formerly 
much  esteemed  for  the  purposes  of  the  cabinet-maker.  Some 
believe  that  the  C.  is  the  true  cedar- wood  of  Scripture,  and 
is  has  also  been  supposed  that  it  is  Gopher  wood.  Specimens 
of  this  wood  in  museums  are  known  to  be  several  thousands 
of  years  old.  The  doors  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  made  of  C, 
lasted  from  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  that  of  Pope 
Eugene  IV.,  above  1,100  years,  and  were  perfectly  sound 
when  at  last  removed,  that  brazen  ones  might  be  substituted. 
Medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed  both  to  the  wood 
and  to  the  seeds  of  the  C,  and  the  balsamic  exhalations  of 
the  tree  were  reckoned  very  salutary  in  diseases  of  the  chest. 
— Several  other  species  of  C.  are  natives  of  temperate  and 
warm  climates  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  There  are 
many  species,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Portugal  C.  or 
Cedar  of  Goa  {€.  Lusitanica),  native  of  Goa  naturalized  in 
Portugal;  C.  thurifera,  native  of  Mexico,  which  exudes  a 
resin  used  in  that  country  for  incense;  C  torulosa,  native  of 
the  Himalaya, which  has  been  grown  successfully  in  Britain; 
C\  funebris,  lately  introduced  into  Britain  from  China;  the 
White  C.  or  White  Cedar  of  N.  America  (0.  thyoides).  The 


408 


CYPRIAN— CYPRINIDiE. 

Deciduous  C.  or  Virginian  C.  {Taxodium  distichum,  or  8chu- 
bertia  disticha),  attaining  a  height  of  120  ft.,  and  growing 
in  the  cypress  swamps  of  Delaware  and  some  other  states, 
is  now  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  different  genus.  Cyprine, 
a.  slp'rin,  pertaining  to  the  cypress  tree. 

CYPRIAN,  a.  sip'ri-dn  [L.  Cyprus,  where  Yenus  was 
worshipped]:  pertaining  to  Cyprus:  N.  a  lewd  woman. 
Cyp  RIOT,  n.  -at,  an  inhabitant  of  Cyprus. 

CYPRIAN,  sip'ri-an,  Thascius  C^cilius:  illustrious 
father  of  the  African  Church:  b.  Carthage  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  3dc. ;  d.  258.  He  belonged  to  a  respectable 
family,  and  was  a  distinguished  teacher  of  rhetoric  before 
his  conversion  to  Christianity,  246.  His  benevolence  se- 
cured him  great  popularity,  and  his  piety  no  less  venera- 
tion; in  consequence  of  which  in  less  than  three  years  he 
was  made  bishop  of  his  native  city.  In  250,  he  tied  into 
the  desert,  to  avoid  the  persecution  of  Decius.  Here  he 
remained  a  whole  year,  but  not  in  idleness.  The  same 
prudence,  energy,  and  activity  that  he  had  always  evinced 
were  now  shown  in  that  extensive  correspondence  which 
he  carried  on  with  his  clergy  on  ecclesiastical  matters.  On 
his  return  to  Carthage,  251,  he  suppressed,  but  with  mod- 
eration, the  rising  controversy  regarding  the  Lapsed  (q.v.), 
or  Christians  who,  during  the  time  of  trial,  had  apostatized. 
C.  's  views  regarding  the  proper  dignity  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  have  frequently  been  mistaken:  he,  indeed,  recog- 
nized the  Roman  b?shop  as  the  successor  of  Peter,  and  as 
the  representative  of  the  unity  of  the  church;  but  he  as- 
serted that  the  pre-eminence  of  the  Roman  see  was  confined 
to  the  earliest  times,  and  that,  in  later  times,  other  bishops, 
or  successors  of  the  apostles,  had  dignities  equal  to  that  of 
the  successors  of  Peter.  He  therefore  firmly  opposed  the 
supremacy  asserted  by  the  Roman  bishop,  Stephanus,  in 
the  question  of  baptism  by  heretics.  In  the  persecution 
under  Valerian,  257,  C.  was  banished  to  Curubis;  but  hav- 
ing returned  to  Carthage  in  the  following  year,  he  was 
there  beheaded.  C.  was  both  learned  and  eloquent,  but 
he  was  even  more  conspicuous  for  his  dignified,  moderate, 
and  wise  conduct.  His  knowledge  of  human  nature  en- 
abled him  to  exercise  a  wide  influence  over  the  African 
Church;  and  his  correspondence,  from  which  the  best  idea 
of  his  character  is  obtained,  gives  an  interesting  picture  of 
the  times  in  which  he  lived.  His  writings — less  crabbed 
and  rhetorical  than  those  of  his  teacher,  Tertullian — con- 
tain, besides  81  Epistolcp,  or  official  letters,  several  important 
treatises,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  De  Unitate 
Ecclesice  CatlioUc/p,  the  De  Lapsis,  the  De  Disciplina  ei  Hahitu 
Virginum,  the  De  Gratia  Dei,  and  the  De  IdolorumVanitate. 
The  best  editions  of  C.'s  complete  w^orks  are  that  of  Fell, 
Bp.  of  Oxford  (1682),  and  of  Baluze  (Paris  1726).  There  are 
many  lives  of  C.  One  of  the  most  recent  is  by  Reinkens 
(1873\. 

CYPRINE,  n.  sip'rin  [L.  cuprum,  copper]:  a  blue  min- 
eral found  in  Norway. 

CYPRINID^,  sl-prin'i-d' :  family  of  malacopterous 

409 


CYPRINODONTID^— CYPRUS. 

fishes,  having  a  small  mouth,  the  jaws  almost  toothless,  but 
the  pharynx  or  hinder  part  of  the  mouth  furnished  with 
teeth;  the  body  generally  covered  with  scales,  the  gill-rays 
few,  and  no  adipose  fin  (like  the  second  dorsal  fin  of  the 
trout  or  salmon).  The  genera  and  species  are  numerous. 
All  the  C.  are  fresh- water  fishes,  and  they  are  found  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  almost  all  parts  of  the  world.  To  this 
family  belong  the  Carp,  Dace,  Tench,  Bleak,  Bream,  Bar- 
bel, Minnow,  Gold  Fish,  Roach,  Loach,  etc.  Many  of  the 
species  are  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  fecundity 
of  the  C.  is  great. 

CYPRINODONTID^,  si-prm-o-dont'i-de:  family  of 
malacopterous  fishes,  allied  to  Cyprinidce,  with  which  they 
were  formerly  ranked,  but  differing  from  them  in  having 
the  jaw^s  more  protractile  and  toothed.  Some  are  Ameri- 
can, some  Asiatic;  some  inhabit  fresh,  and  some  salt, 
water.  To  this  order  belong  some  interesting  and  curious 
fishes,  particularly  the  Anableps  (q.v.),  remarkable  for  the 
conformation  of  its  eyes.  The  species  of  the  genus  Orestias 
are  found  in  the  lakes  of  the  Andes,  at  a  great  elevation 
above  the  sea,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 

CYPRINOID,  a.  sip'rl-noyd  [L.  cyprimis,  a  carp;  Gr. 
eidos,  likeness]:  carp-like.  Cyprinodonts,  n.  plu.  sl-iwln'- 
o  donts  [Gr.  odous  or  odonta,  a  tooth] :  recent  fossil  species 
of  carp-like  small  fishes. 

CYPRIPEDIE^,  sip-ri-pe-dl'e-e:  orchidaceous  plants, 
genus  Cypvipedium,  differing  from  other  orchids  in  having 
two  anthers  instead  of  one;  familiarly  known  as  lady's  slip- 
pers and  moccasin-flowers.  They  have  a  range  of  growth 
from  the  tropics  to  Siberia  and  Canada,  and  exhibit  a  pleas- 
ing variety  of  species,  as  the  common  native  (U.  S.)  stem- 
less  (7.  acaule,  the  yellow^ -flowered  C.  parviflomim  and  C. 
pnhescens,  the  ram's  head  C.  arietinum,  the  small  white  C. 
candidum,  and,  handsomest  of  all,  the  showy  C.  spectaUle. 
They  thrive  best  in  deep  peaty  soil,  are  cultivated  with 
ease,  derive  their  popular  name  from  the  inflation  of  the 
third  or  lower  lip  or  petal  to  the  form  of  a  sac  resembling 
somew^hat  a  slipper,  and  furnish  materia  medica  a  powerful 
antispasmodic. 

CYPRIPEDIUM:  see  Cypripedie^:  Lady's  Slipper. 

CYPRIS,  n.  sVpris,  Cyprid'id^,  plu.  -prid'ide  [Gr. 
kupris,  a  name  of  Venus]:  genus  of  minute  entomostra- 
cous  crustaceans  of  the  order  BrancJiiopoda  (q.v.),  having 
the  body  inclosed  in  a  shell  of  two  horn}^  pieces,  some- 
what resembling  that  of  a  bivalve  mollusk.  The  antennoe 
and  feet  are  beautifully  feathered  with  long  fringed 
bristles,  by  means  of  which  these  animals  swim  with  much 
vivacity.  They  abound  in  pools  of  stagnant  water.  Their 
horny  shells  are  very  abundant  in  a  fossil  state  in  the 
Wealden  rocks  of  England,  in  the  limestone  of  the  car- 
boniferous series,  etc. 

CYPRUS,  n.  sl'prus  [Cyprus,  an  island  in  the  Levant]:  a 
thin,  transparent,  black  stuff. 

CYPRUS,  sl'prus  [anc.  Gr.  Kupros,  mod.  Gr.  Kihris,  Y\\ 

410 


CYPRUS. 

Chip-e,  Ital.  Cipro]:  island  46  m.  s.  of  Asia  Minor,  60  m. 
w.  of  Syria;  in  that  n.e.  portion  of  the  Mediterranean 
called  the  Levant.  C.  was  anciently  divided  into  many 
small  kingdoms.  It  was  originally  possessed  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Greeks,  subsequently 
to  the  Egyptians  and  Persians.  After  the  victories  of  Al- 
exander, it  declared  for  Macedon.  It  next  became  a  por- 
tion of  the  Grgeco-Egyptian  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies,  then 
of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  empires.  The  Arabs  con- 
quered it  A.D.  648;  in  1191,  it  was  taken  by  Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion,  who  ceded  it  to  the  Templars.  After  sev- 
eral vicissitudes,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Venetians 
(under  whom  the  pop.  is  said  to  have  been  1,000,000),  from 
whom  it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks,  1571.  The 
'  conditional  convention'  concluded  between  the  English 
and  Turkish  governments,  1878,  leaves  C.  a  Turkish  pos- 
session, but  provides  for  its  being  occupied  and  adminis- 
tered by  England:  it  is  now  actually  a  British  dependency. 

The  island  was  a  celebrated  seat  of  the  worship  of  Venus, 
introduced  in  remote  antiquity  when  it  was  colonized  by 
the  Phoenicians  who  inhabited  the  neighboring  coast:  the 
Phoenician  goddess  Ashtaroth  (Astarte  of  the  Greeks,  and, 
later,  Venus  of  the  Romans)  had  here  numerous  temples 
and  altars — scenes  of  a  frightfully  impure  idolatry.  Under 
the  guidance  of  Gen.  di  Cesnola,  U.  S.  consul  in  Cyprus, 
1865  and  subsequent  years,  treasures  of  ancient  art,  won- 
derful for  beauty,  value,  and  number,  were  exhumed,  of 
which  the  great  part  were  purchased  for  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  are  now  open  to  the  public  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  in  Central  Park.  The  collection  comprises 
many  hundreds  of  objects,  such  as  rings,  diadems  of  kings, 
vases,  sculptures,  etc.,  some  of  which  date  3,500  years  ago. 

C.  is  145  m.  long,  by  60  m.  broad;  area  3,700  sq.  m. 
A  range  of  mountains — the  Stavro  Vuno  and  Santa  Croce 
(ancient  Olympus) — the  sides  of  which  are  very  bold  and 
rugged,  runs  through  the  whole  length  of  the  island,  attain- 
ing an  elevation  of  nearly  7,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Three- 
fifths  of  the  island  is  mountainous.  Of  these  one-fifth  has 
noble  forests  of  oak  interspersed  with  walnut-trees,  and 
would  furnish  large  supplies  of  sulphur,  pit-coal,  and 
metals  of  various  kinds,  under  intelligent  management; 
while  two-fifths  is  adapted  for  vine  and  olive  culture,  and 
the  growth  of  fruit  trees  generally.  '  The  remaining  two- 
fifths  is  composed  of  magnificent  plains,  and  extensive  open 
country,  which,  though  wanting  in  rivers  and  streams,  are 
still  very  productive  in  cereals. '  The  soil  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  yielding  all  kinds  of  grain.  The  chief  products 
are  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  silk,  madder  roots,  oil,  wine, 
carobs,  and  salt.  The  wine  of  Cyprus  is  still  excellent. 
The  chief  drawbacks  to  production,  besides  mismanage- 
ment, are  the  want  of  water — most  of  the  streams  becom- 
ing dry  in  summer — and  the  ravages  of  the  locusts.  It  is 
said  that  there  are  good  crops  onl}^  twice  in  five  years.  The 
climate  varies  in  various  parts  of  the  island;  in  the  central 
plain,  and  about  Larnaca,  the  summer  heat  is  intense,  es- 
pecially from  the  middle  of  Sep.  till  the  end  of  Oct. 

4U 


CYPSELA— CYRENAICA. 

Fevers,  seldom  fatal,  are  prevalent  in  the  hot  months.  The 
first  year  of  the  English  occupation,  1878,  was  exception- 
ally unhealthful  both  for  natives  and  for  foreigners;  1879 
and  1880  were  extremely  healthful.  The  planting  of  trees, 
which  have  been  hitherto  recklessly  extirpated,  will  doubt- 
less improve  the  climate  and  help  to  fertilize  again  the 
more  arid  regions.  Some  swamps  might  with  advantage 
be  drained.    Several  roads  have  been  made. 

The  English,  in  entering  on  the  administration,  endeav- 
ored in  the  main  to  improve,  not  to  overthrow,  the  exist- 
ing Turkish  sj^stem.  The  courts  of  justice,  having  English 
assessors,  became  pure  and  less  dilatory.  Tithes  were  re- 
tained, but  their  collection  simplified.  Several  rather  high- 
handed ordinances,  designed  to  prevent  disturbance  during 
a  transition  period,  were  withdrawn;  and  in  1880  the  ad- 
ministration of  C.  was  transferred  from  the  foreign  office 
to  the  colonial  otlice.  About  one-fourth  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Mohammedans,  the  rest  orthodox  Greeks. 

In  1879  the  imports  were  valued  at  £208,407;  the  exports, 
at  £222,218.  In  the  year  1884-5  the  imports  were  £804,375; 
the  exports,  £287,521.  Between  1879  and  85  the  direct 
trade  between  C.  and  the  United  Kingdom  rose  from  £79,300 
to  £160,180.  The  chief  towns  are  Lefkosia  or  Nicosia, 
the  capital;  Famagosta,  Larnaca,  and  Limassol.  In  187J, 
C.  was  connected  by  telegraph  with  Syria.  Pop.  (1881) 
185,869. 

See  works  on  C,  published  in  1878  and  1879  by  R.  H. 
Lang,  Hepworth  Dixon,  E.  G.  Ravenstein,  Sir  Samuel 
Baker,  and  Mrs.  Stevenson,  also  the  Beport  hy  H.  M.  Com- 
missioner for  1879  (1880);  and  for  archeology,  Cesnola's 
Cyprus  (1877). 

CYPSELA,  n.  sip'sel-d  [Gr.  hupsele,  a  hollow,  a  chest]: 
the  inferior,  monospermal,  indehiscent  fruit  of  Compositse; 
an  achsenium. 

CYPSELUS:  see  Swift. 

CYR,  St.,  sang  ser:  village  in  France,  dept.  of  Seine-et- 
Gise,  abt.  3  m.  w,  of  Versailles.  The  village  owes  its  origin 
to  an  educational  institution  for  the  daughters  of  nobles  of 
fourth  descent  on  the  father's  side,  founded  here  1686  by 
Louis  XIY.,  on  the  suggestion  of  Madame  de  Maintenon. 
There  were  about  250  pupils,  for  whom  Racine  wrote  his 
^tragedies  of  Esther  and  Athalie.  Madame  de  Maintenon 
died  here,  and  was  buried  in  the  choir  of  the  church. 
The  institution  was  suppressed  at  the  Revolution.  In  1803, 
the  buildings  were  converted  by  Napoleon  to  the  uses  of 
a  military  school,  which  still  continues.  Pop.  of  St.  C. 
(1876)  1,695. 

^  CYRENAIC,  a.  sl're-nd'lk:  pertaining  to  Gyrene,  a  Gre- 
cian colony  on  the  n.  coast  of  Africa,  Cyrenaic  school: 
see  Aristippus.  Cyre'nians,  n.  plu.  -re'ni-dnz,  the  phi- 
losophers of  a  school  fou  ided  at  Cyrene. 

CYRENAICA,  sir-e-nd't-kd:  ancient  district  in  Africa, 
whose  capital  was  Cyrene  (q.v.);  at  one  period  nominally 
extending  from  Carthage  to  Egypt,  and  inland  as  far  s. 
as  the  oasis  of  Fezzan;  but  a  great  portion  of  this  territory 

412 


CYRENE-CYRIL. 

was  occupied  by  the  subject  Libyan  tribes,  and  not  by  the 
Greek  colonists,  who  were  couiined  chietly  to  the  phiteau 
of  Barca,  with  the  subjacent  coast.  This  portion  of  C.  w^as, 
and  still  is,  one  of  the  loveliest  and  most  agreeable  regions 
of  the  w^orld.  The  climate  delicious,  mountains  on  the 
s.  sheltering  the  land  from  the  scorching  blasts  of  the 
Sahara,  and  cool  sea-winds  fanning  it  on  the  north.  From 
the  central  plateau,  whose  breadth  is  about  80  m.,  the  land 
slopes  down  in  verdant  terraces  to  the  Mediterranean. 
These  terraces  are  cut  and  watered  by  mountain  streams, 
forming  luxuriant  ravines.  The  productions  of  C.  men 
tioned  by  ancient  writers  are  corn,  oil,  wine,  honey,  fruits 
of  all  kinds,  cucumbers,  truffles,  cabbage;  tiowers  yielding 
the  richest  perfumes;  and  a  rare  plant  caUed  silphium  {^Xhi 
abundant),  from  w^hich  was  obtained  the  gum-resin, 
greatly  esteemed  for  medicinal  piirposes.  The  country 
was  noted  for  its  breed  of  horses,  but  was  much  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  locusts.  Ancient  C,  which  nearly 
corresponds  with  modern  Barca  (q.v.),  was  overrun  by 
the  Arabs  in  647. 

CYRENE,  si-re'ne:  capital  of  Cyrenaica  (q.v.);  founded, 
B.C.  631,  by  a  colony  of  Spartans  under  Battus,  whose 
dynasty  lasted  nearly  two  centuries.  During  this  period, 
it  made  rapid  advances.  On  the  death  of  Arcesilaus  IV., 
the  last  of  the  Battidse,  about  B.C.  450,  a  republic  was 
established,  but  the  political  condition  of  the  city  under  the 
new  government  was  far  from  prosperous.  Party  contests 
raged,  until  at  last  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
During  its  prosperity,  C.  carried  on  a  great  commerce  with 
Greece  and  Egypt,  and  to  a  less  extent  with  Carthage.  Its 
extensive  ruins  still  attest  its  former  magnificence.  C.  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  philosophers  Aristippus,  Anniceris, 
and  Carneades,  the  poet  Callimachus,  the  astronomer  Era- 
tosthenes, and  the  rhetorician  Synesius,  who  afterward  be- 
came bp.  of  Apollonia. 

CYRENIUS,  sl-re'm-us,  PuBLirs  Sulpicius:  called 
QuiRiNUS  by  the  Romans:  gov.  of  Syria:  d.  a.d.  22.  He 
was  born  at  Lanuvium,  and  though  descended  from  an 
obscure  family,  attained  great  honor  through  the  favor  of 
Augustus.  It  is  believed  that  he  held  the  office  of  gov.  of 
Bjrm  twice,  B.C.  4  to  1  and  a.d.  6  to  11.  He  w^as  appointed 
preceptor  of  Caius,  grandson  of  the  emperor;  married  a 
grand-daughter  of  Sylla  and  Pompey. 

CYRIL,  sir'U:  prof,  of  law^  in  the  ancient  college  of 
Berytus,  in  the  5th  c,  called  'the  great  C  to  distinguish 
him  from  the  noted  jurist  of  a  later  day  w^ho  compiled  an 
epitome  of  the  Digest.  He  had  a  great  reputation  as  a 
teacher  of  law,  wrote  a  learned  treatise  on  legal  definitions, 
was  a  founder  of  the  ecumenical  school  of  jurists  which 
preceded  Anastasius's  succession  to  the  eastern  empire,  and 
translated  the  commentary  of  Ulpian  on  the  Edict  and  the 
Besponsa  Papiniani,  and  wrote  a  number  of  works  showing 
an  acquaintance  with  the  ancient  sources  of  law. 

CYRIL:  ^apostle  of  the  Slaves'  in  the  9th  c:  d.  869. 
He  sprang  from  a  respectable  family  in  the  half  Slavic, 

413 


CYRIL. 

half-Greek  town  of  Thessalonica.  On  account  of  his 
knowledge,  he  obtained  the  surname  of  the  Philosopher. 
Having  been  consecrated  a  priest,  he  went  forth  daring  the 
r^^ign  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Michael  III.,  to  evangelize 
the  Chasars,  who  dwelt  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  His  labors 
were  very  successful,  the  khan  himself  being  among  his 
converts.  Boris,  heathen  prince  of  Bulgaria,  having  about 
this  time  besought  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  to  send 
him  a  preacher  of  the  gospel,  C,  with  his  brother  Method, 
were  selected.  Their  labors  were  not  in  vain.  Boris  was 
baptized  860.  liastic,  prince  of  Moravia,  next  invited  them 
to  his  country.  They  accepted  the  invitation,  and  while 
there,  assisted  by  a  number  of  their  own  pupils,  completed 
their  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  is  in  use  to 
the  present  day,  as  a  sacred  or  church  language,  among  all 
Grreek-Catholic  Christians  (Russians,  Bulgarians,  and  Serbs), 
i^'rom  Moravia.  Christianity,  according  to  the  Slavic  ritual, 
.spread  into  Bohemia,  whose  prince,  Boriwoj,  and  his  spouse, 
Ludmilla,  were  baptized  by  Cyril.  C.  invente  d,  abt.  863, 
the  Cyrillic  Alphabet,  which,  modified,  is  the  present  Rus- 
sian alphabet.  The  Apologi  Morales,  ascribed  to  C,  were 
[published  by  Corter  (Vienna  1630).  See  Richter's  Cyril  and 
Method  (Olmiitz  1825). 

CYRIL,  Saint:  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  beginning  412;  d. 
444;  one  of  the  most  energetic,  but  least  amiable,  of  the 
church  fathers.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  He 
was  educated  by  the  fanatical  monks  of  Nitria,  with  whom 
he  lived  for  five  years,  and  who  probably  inspired  him  with 
that  fiery,  intolerant,  and  ignorant  zeal  which  characterized 
him  through  life.  Subsequently,  he  went  to  Alexandria, 
where  he  became  a  presbyter,  and  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
Theophilus,  412,  obtained  the  episcopal  see.  The  Alexan- 
drian Jews,  who  were  numerous  and  wealthy,  were  the  first 
to  feel  the  fierceness  of  his  religious  hate.  Some  Christian 
blood  having  been  shed  by  them  in  a  city  tumult,  C.  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  rabble  of  zealots,  attacked  the 
Jewish  quarter  of  Alexandria,  destroyed  the  houses,  and 
banished  the  inhabitants.  Orestes,  the  prefect  of  Egypt, 
having  drawn  up  an  accusation  against  C,  was  attacked  in 
the  streets  by  500  monks,  who  had  come  up  from  the  deserts 
of  Nitria,  at  the  call  of  their  old  companion,  eager  for  the 
work  of  destruction.  One  of  these  monks  having  fallen  in 
the  skirmish,  his  corpse  was  carried  in  procession  to  the 
High  Church  of  Alexandria,  where  C.  delivered  a  sangui- 
nary discourse,  gave  the  dead  monk  the  name  of  Thauma- 
siiis,  and  pronounced  him  a  martyr  and  a  saint.  But  per- 
haps the  most  barbarous  deed  with  which  this  persecutor  of 
heretics  and  heathens  had  to  do  was  the  murder  of  the 
heathen  maiden  Hypatia  (q.v.),  daughter  of  the  mathema- 
tician Theon.  Theodoret  gravely  accuses  him  of  instigating 
the  Alexandrian  populace  to  this  horrid  act.  But  the  most 
important  historic  event  in  his  career  was  his  controversy 
with  Nestorius  (q.v.).  All  the  worst  features  of  his  dispo- 
sition appeared  in  this  broil.  Even  the  gentle  Neander 
overflows  with  pious  wrath,  and  pursues  C.  through  60 
pages  of  bis  Church  History  with  the  fiercest  epithets.  In 

414 


CYRIL— CYRUS. 

the  midst  of  unquietudes,  which  he  himself  had  largely 
occasioned,  he  died.  C.'s  numerous  writings  consist  of 
commentaries,  treatises,  homilies,  epistles,  etc.  The  best 
edition  was  published  by  Aubert  (7  vols.  Paris  1638).  See 
Neander's  KircliengescJiicJite,  transl.  by  Bohn,  IV,  133-196. 

CYRIL,  Saint:  Bishop  of  Jerusalem;  eminent  church 
father:  abt.  315-386;  b.  Jerusalem.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  334,  presbyter  345,  and  on  the  death  of  Maximus 
351  was  elected  bishop  of  his  native  city.  His  metropolitan 
was  the  Arian  bp.,  Acacius  of  Csesarea,  with  whom  he 
was  soon  engaged  in  hot  conflict  concerning  originally  the 
rights  of  his  office,  but  ultimately  their  difi:'erences  of  doc- 
trine. Acacius  accused  C,  before  a  council  hastily  gathered 
at  Csesarea,  358,  of  selling  the  treasures  of  his  church  in  a 
time  of  famine  to  feed  the  poor  !  Strange  to  say,  C.  was 
deposed  for  doing  this  praiseworthy  action.  He  now  ap- 
pealed to  a  larger  synod,  held  at  Seleuceia.  This  synod 
restored  him  to  his  office;  but  once  moi-e,  through  the  per- 
severing hostility  of  Acacius,  he  was  deposed  by  a  council 
at  Constantinople,  360.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius,  he  was  again  restored  to  his  episcopate,  362.  Soon 
afterward  his  old  enemy  Acacius  died,  but  C.  was  immedi- 
ately involved  in  new  difficulties.  After  considerable  strife, 
C.  was  banished,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Yalens,  367;  nor 
did  he  return  till  the  emperor's  death,  378. 

C.'s  writings  are  extremely  valuable,  not  for  vigor,  pro- 
fundity, or  beauty,  but  for  theology.  They  consist  of  23 
treatises,  18  of  which  are  addressed  to  catechumens,  and  5 
to  the  newly  baptized.  The  former  are  for  the  most  part 
doctrinal,  and  present  in  a  more  complete  and  systematic 
manner  than  the  extant  writings  of  any  other  father  the 
creed  of  the  church;  the  latter  are  ritual,  and  give  a  mi- 
nute account  of  baptism,  chrism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Their  style  is  simple  and  unattractive.  The  best  edition  of 
C.'s  works  was  published  bv  Touttee,  Benedictine  monk 
(Par.  1720). 

CYRIOLOGIC,  a.  sl'ri-o-loj'ilc  [Gr.  Mrios,  chief;  logos, 
discourse] :  pertaining  to  capital  letters. 
CYRUS  (river  in  Asia):  see  Kura. 

CYRUS,  sl'rus:  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  com- 
monly called  C.  the  Elder:  d.  b.c.  529.  According  to 
Herodotus,  he  was  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian  noble,  and 
of  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages,  Medo-Persian  king. 
His  birth  was  a  source  of  alarm  to  his  grandfather  Astya- 
ges, who  had  previously  had  a  dream,  the  interpretation 
of  which  portended  that  the  offspring  of  Mandane  would 
one  day  be  the  ruin  of  the  Median  supremacy  and  the  ruler 
of  all  Asia.  He  therefore  contrived  to  get  the  infant  into 
his  own  hands,  and  gave  it  to  Harpagus,  his  chief  servant, 
with  orders  to  put  it  to  death.  Harpagus  promised  to  do 
so,  but  intrusted  it  privily  to  the  care  of  a  herdsman,  who 
brought  up  the  child  with  his  own  children.  The  young 
C.  quickly  distinguished  himself  among  the  country  lads 
by  his  superior  daring  and  dignity.  On  one  occasion,  he 
was  elected  king  in  some  boyish  game  by  his  companions, 

415 


CYRUS. 

and,  in  the  exercise  of  his  regal  authority,  caused  a  noble- 
man's son  to  be  severely  scourged.  The  father  complained 
to  Astyages,  who  caused  the  culprit  to  be  brought  before 
him,  and  recognizing  in  his  person  and  mien  his  own 
grandson,  sent  C.  back  to  Persia — the  Magi  having  in  some 
way  satisfied  him  that  his  dream  had  already  received  its 
fulfilment.  C.  himself,  however,  did  not  think  so,  and  as 
he  grew  up  to  manhood,  began  to  meditate  ambitious 
schemes.  All  writers  testify  to  his  courage,  amiability,  and 
address.  He  was  exactly  the  kind  of  man  to  gather  round 
him  brave,  venturesome,  lo^^al  followers.  The  tyranny  of 
Astyages  had  made  him  hateful  to  his  subjects,  and  by  the 
help  of  the  crafty  Harpagus,  C.  soon  formed  a  party 
among  the  Medes  favorable  to  his  designs.  Putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  Persian  troops,  C.  advanced  into 
Media,  and  overthrew  the  forces  of  Astyages  (b.c.  559). 
After  consolidating  his  new  dominions,  which  seems  to 
have  cost  him  many  years'  labor,  he  proceeded  in  his  career 
of  conquest.  The  kingdom  of  Lydia  first  yielded  (b.c. 
546),  and  its  king,  the  famous  Cra^sus,  fell  into  his  hands. 
Ultimately,  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  was  subdued.  But 
the  crowning  triumph  of  C.  was  his  capture  of  Babylon, 
the  metropolis  of  Assyria  (b.c.  538),  whose  king  was  the 
Belshazzar  of  Daniel  [as  recent  researches  show,  Nabouedus, 
who  had  left  as  associate  king  in  Babylon  his  son,  Bel- 
shazzar]. Through  the  instrumentality  of  C.  the  Jews 
w^ere  delivered  from  their  captivity,  and  allowed  to  return 
to  Palestine.  His  vast  ambition,  however,  proved  his  ruin. 
He  wished  his  power  to  overshadow  all  Asia,  in  harmony 
with  the  dream  of  his  grandfather;  and  though  his  domin- 
ions already  extended  from  the  Hellespont  almost  to  the 
Indus,  he  resolved  to  subjugate  the  Scythian  peoples,  and 
began  an  unjust  war  with  the  Massageta?,  a  nation  or  tribe 
n.e.  of  the  Caspian,  beyond  the  Araxes,  whose  queen  was 
called  Tomyris.  At  first  C.  was  successful,  but  in  a  second 
engagement  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Such  is  the  account  given  by  Herodotus;  and  though  we 
are  unable  to  affirm  that  it  rests  on  absolutely  historical 
ground,  it  is  unquestionably  to  be  preferred  to  any  other. 
The  work  of  Xenophon,  entitled  the  Cyropadeia,  is  not  a 
history;  it  is  a  historical  romance,  and  was  manifestly  in- 
tended by  the  author  for  such.  Xenophon  wished  to 
picture  a  great  and  wise  king,  and  finding  the  elements 
both  of  greatness  and  wisdom  in  C,  he  took  advantage  of 
his  historic  personality,  and  engrafted  upon  it  whatever, 
according  to  his  own  notion,  would  ennoble  and  dignify  it. 

CY'RUS,  THE  YouNGEii:  second  son  of  Darius  Kothus,  or 
Ochus;  lived  about  130  years  after  the  great  Cyrus.  He  con- 
spired against  his  brother  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  (b.c.404).  The  plot  being  discovered,  he 
was  at  first  sentenced  to  death,  but  afterward  pardoned,  and 
even  restored  to  his  dignity  as  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  Here 
he  employed  himself  in  secret  arrangements  for  war  against 
his  brother.  In  the  spring  of  B.C.  401,  he  left  Sardis  at  the 
head  of  100,000  Asiatics  and  13,000  Greek  mercenaries, 
under  pretense  of  chastising  the  robbers  of  Pisidia.  Arta- 

416 


CYST-  CYSTICERCU3. 

xerxes  being  warned  of  C.'s  perfidy,  made  preparations  to 
oppose  him,  and  the  two  armies  encountered  each  other  in 
the  plains  of  Cunaxa,  500  stadia  from  Babylon.  C.  was 
defeated  and  slain,  though  the  Greeksfought  with  the  great- 
est courage,  and  even  routed  that  portion  of  Artaxerxes' 
troops  immediately  opposed  to  them.  The  fortunes  of  the 
Greeks,  on  their  retreat  through  the  highlands  of  Armenia, 
in  severe  winter-weather,  are  recorded  by  Xenophon  in  his 
Anabasis  (q.v.). 

CYST,  n.  sist,  or  Cystis,  n.  sis'tis  [Gr.  Jcustis,  a  blad- 
der]: in  animal  bodies,  a  bag  or  vesicle.  Cys  tic,  a.  -ilk, 
pertaining  to  or  contained  in  a  cyst.  Cystica,  n.  sis'ti-kd, 
the  embryonic  forms  of  certain  intestinal  worms,  as  tape 
worms:  see  Cystic  Worms.  Cys'ticle,  n.  -tl-kl,  a  small 
cyst.  Cystine,  n.  sis'tm,  a  body  related  to  urea,  forming  a 
rare  kind  of  calculus  in  the  human  bladder.  Cystid'eans, 
n.  plu.  -tld'l-dnz,  or  Cystoidea,  n.  plu.  sis-toy  de-d  [Gr. 
eidos,  appearance]:  in  geol,  a  family  of  palaeozoic  echino- 
derms,  having  a  spherical  or  bladder-iike  form.  Cystiphyl- 
LUM,  n.  sis'tl-f  'd'ldm  [Gr.  plmllon,  a  leaf] :  in  geol.,  a  genus 
of  Silurian  turbinated  corals,  composed  internally  of  small 
bladder-shaped  cells.  Cysti  tis,  n.  -tl'fis,  inflammation  of 
the  bladder:  see  Bla^dder.  Cystocarp,  n.  -td-kdrp  [Gr. 
karpos,  fruit]:  the  body  which  contains  the  reproductive 
cells  in  certain  red  sea-weeds.  Cys'tocele,  n.  -to-sel  [Gr. 
kele,  a  tumor]:  hernia  or  rupture  of  the  bladder.  Cys'to- 
liths,  n.  plu.  -llths  [Gr.  lithos,  a  stone]:  in  hot.,  curious 
groups  of  crystals  found  in  the  superficial  cells  of  nettles, 
and  some  other  plants,  as  in  the  India-rubber  plant.  Cys- 
toid,  a.  sis'toyd  [Gr.  eidos,  resemblance]:  resembling  a  cyst. 
Cys'tose,  a.  -  toz,  containing  cysts.  Cystot  omy,  n.  -tot'd-ml 
[Gr.  tome,  a  cutting]:  the  act  or  art  of  opening  encysted  tu- 
mors. Cystid'ia,  n.  -tid'i-d,  in  bot,,  sacs  containing  spores; 
a  kind  of  fructification  in  fungi . 

CYST:  in  the  original  sense,  a  hollow  internal  organ  with 
thin  walls,  as  the  urinary  bladder  and  gall  bladder;  but  com- 
monly denoting  pathological  structures  or  new  formations 
within  the  body,  having  the  bladder  form.  Cysts  are  com- 
monly transparent,  often  almost  structureless  in  their  tenu- 
ity; they  are  usually,  however,  lined  by  an  epithelium  (q.v.), 
and  have  membranous  walls,  with  faint  indications  of 
fibrous  structure.  They  are  either  simple  or  compound, 
unilocular  or  multilocular;  they  are  sometimes  small,  nu- 
merous, and  separate;  in  other  cases  they  grow  to  an  enor- 
mous size,  and  are  very  complex.  Some  cysts  are  distinctly 
parasitic,  and  of  independent  animal  nature;  such  are 
Hydatids  (q.v.)  and  the  cystic  Entozoa  (q.v.)  generally. 
Others  are  probably  formed  out  of  the  structures  in  which 
they  arise;  their  true  pathology  is  obscure.  Such  are  the 
cysts  of  the  kidney,  and,  still  more  distinctly,  the  immense 
complex  cystic  structures  which  sometimes  form  in  the 
ovary:  see  Ovaries. 

CYSTICERCUS,  sis-ti-ser' kus  [Gr.,  bladder-tail]:  ac- 
cording to  many  naturalists,  a  genus  of  Cystic  Worms 
(q.v.),  characterized  by  a  dilated  cyst  with  a  single  head, 

417 


CYSTIC  WORMS— CYTHEREAK. 

which  has  four  suckers  and  a  circlet  of  hooks.  This  genus 
has,  however,  latterly  been  displaced  from  the  system  of 
nature  by  the  discovery  that  the  forms  referred  to  it  are 
only  the  young  of  tape- worms.  This  discovery  has  been 
confirmed  by  a  multitude  of  observations  and  experiments 
with  regard  particularly  to  C.  cellidosw,  found  in  human 
beings,  and  in  many  rodent  and  pachydermatous  animals 
— as  rabbits,  pigs,  etc. — the  young  of  the  common  tape- 
worm; and  C.  tenukollis,  found  more  rarely  in  human  be- 
ings, but  often  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  ruminant  quad- 
rupeds, and  of  pigs,  horses,  and  many  other  animals — the 
young  of  a  tape-worm  of  the  dog.  C.  cellulom  often 
exists  in  great  numbers  in  the  flesh  of  pigs,  causing  the 
diseased  appearance  known  as  measly:  see  Cestoid.  It 
sometimes  occurs  in  like  manner  infesting  the  human 
body,  in  muscles  of  most  various  parts;  it  has  been  found 
even  in  the  heart,  in  the  brain,  and  in  the  eye.  That  in 
such  cases  it  sometimes  causes  death  is  certain,  and  its  re- 
moval is  not  easy,  except  when  it  is  so  situated  that  it  can 
be  reached  by  the  knife,  nor  is  there  any  sure  indication 
by  which  its  presence  in  many  situations  can  be  known; 
but  it  appears  also  that  it  may  die  and  be  absorbed  without 
causing  any  very  serious  consequences  to  the  person  in 
whom  it  has  dwelt.  The  cysts  of  this  species  are  always 
small;  those  of  (7.  temdcolliB,  however,  which  generally 
occurs  in  the  liver,  or  in  other  abdominal  organs,  some- 
times become,  in  some  of  the  low^er  animals,  as  large  as  a 
child's  head.  Injurious  consequences  are  produced  by 
them  when  either  numerous  or  very  large:  see  Cobbold's 
Entozoa. 

CYS'TIC  WORMS:  order  of  Entozoa,  or  Intestinal 
Worms,  according  to  the  system  of  Zeder  and  Rudolphi, 
for  some  time  generally  received  by  naturalists;  character- 
ized by  the  body  ending  in  a  transparent  cyst  or  bladder 
filled  with  pellucid  fluid,  this  body  having  sometimes  only 
one  head,  as  in  Cysticercus,  sometimes  many,  as  in  Cmmirus. 
It  has,  however,  been  found  that  certain  species,  as  Cysti- 
cercus  celluloses  *dndfC(E7iurus  cerehralis,  are  the  young  of 
cestoid  worms,  and  it  is  therefore  deemed  highly  probable 
that  all  the  C.  W.  are  of  the  same  nature,  particularly  as 
all  present  the  appearance  of  immaturity,  in  the  want  of 
visible  organs  of  reproduction.  Until  a  comparatively  re- 
cent date,  the  animal  nature  of  C.  W.  was  not  recognized, 
nor  is  it  long  since  their  relation  to  tape-worms  and  other 
cestoid  worms  has  been  full}^  ascertained.  See  Cestoid: 
Cysticercus:  Echinococcus:  Staggers:  Tape-worm. 

CYS'TIN",  or  Cys'tic  Oxide:  rare  variety  of  calculus 
(q.v.).  It  contains  C6H8KO4S2,  has  a  crystalline  texture, 
a  brownish-yellow  color,  and  is  semi-transparent.  It  is 
not  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  but  dissolves  in  the 
strong  acids. 

CYSTITIS:  inflammation  of  the  urinary  bladder  (q.v.). 
CYTHERA:  see  Cerigo. 

CYTHEREAN,  a.  sUh'er-e'dn  [Gythera,  an  island  in  the 
iEgean  Sea,  now  Cerigo,  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  Ve- 

418 


CYTISUS-CZAR. 

nus] :  of  or  belonging  to  Venus,  or  to  love.  Cytherid^, 
n.  plu.  si-ther'l-de,  a  family  of  minute  bivalve  crustaceans. 

CYTISUS,  slt'l-sus:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Legtmdnosce,  sub-order  Papilionacete,  of  which  some  species 
having  long  twiggy  branches  are  popularly  called  Bkoom 
(q.v.),  others  are  called  Laburnum  (q.v.),  while  others  still 
are  generally  known  by  the  name  Cytisus.  For  the  char- 
acters of  the  genus,  see  Broom.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous—small trees  or  shrubs,  with  leaves  of  three  leaflets, 
and  yellow,  white,  or  purple  flowers,  natives  chiefly  of  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  the  old  world.  Many  are 
very  beautiful,  and  some  are  esteemed  ornaments  of  shrub- 
beries or  green-houses. 

CYTOBLAST,  n.  sl'to-Uast  [Gr.  kutos,  a  vessel,  a  cell; 
Uastdno,  I  bud]:  the  nucleus  of  animal  and  vegetable  cells: 
see  Cell:  Cell  Theory.  Cy'toblaste'ma,  n.  -bids  W ma, 
the  viscous  fluid  in  which  animal  and  vegetable  cells  are 
produced,  and  by  which  they  are  held  together. 

CYTOGENESIS,  n.  sl'to-jen'e-sis  [Gr.  kutos,  a  cell;  geii- 
esis,  origin]:  the  development  of  cells  in  animal  and  vege- 
table structures.  Cytogenetic,  a.  sl'td-jen-et'^k,  pertain- 
ing to  cell-formation.  Cytogenous,  a.  sl-toj'e-nus,  having 
connective  tissue.  Cytogeny,  n.  sl-toj'e-nl,  cell-formation. 

CYTOID,  a.  si'toyd  [Gr.  kutos,  a  vessel,  a  cell;  eidos, 
resemblance]:  resembling  a  cell. 

CYZICUS,  siz'i-kus:  peninsula  of  Anatolia,  Asia  Minor, 
projecting  into  the  Sea  of  Marmora;  s.e.  of  the  island  of 
Marmora,  and  about  70  m.  s.w.  of  Constantinople.  It  was 
at  one  time  an  island,  but  the  gradual  formation  of  an 
isthmus  connected  it  with  the  mainland.  It  measures  from 
s.  to  n.  about  9  m.,  and  from  e.  to  w.  18  m.  In  early 
times,  C.  was  a  Milesian  colony,  and  the  city  of  C,  upon 
whose  site  vineyards  and  orchards  now  flourish,  is  de- 
scribed by  Strabo  as  one  of  the  first  cities  in  Asia  for  both 
extent  and  splendor. 

CZACKI,  cMts'ke,  Tadeusz:  1765-1813,  Feb.  8;  b. 
Poryck,  in  Yolhynia:  Polish  author.  At  the  age  of  20, 
he  obtained  an  oflice  in  the  supreme  justiciary  court  at 
Warsaw,  and  was  also  made  director  of  the  crown  archives 
— enabling  him  to  gratify  his  taste  for  Polish  history. 
Some  essays  on  Polish  finance  induced  the  diet  to  select 
him,  1788,  as  a  member  of  the  commission  of  inquiry  into 
the  state  of  the  revenue.  A  valuable  result  of  his  travels 
and  labors  in  Poland  is  a  map  of  its  river  system.  The 
chief  labor  of  his  life  was  in  connection  with  the  educa- 
tion of  his  countrymen,  especially  in  the  old  Polish  prov- 
inces of  Russia,  where  education  had  been  almost  w^holly 
neglected.  In  1807,  he  was  appointed  the  deputy  of 
Prince  Czartoryski,  who  had  the  care  of  public  instruction 
in  the  Polish  govt,  of  w.  Russia.  C.  died  at  Dubno.  His 
most  valuable  work  is  upon  Lithuanian  law  (0  Litewskich 
i  Polskicli  Prawach,  2  vols.  War.  1800). 

CZAR,  n.  zdr,  sometimes  written  Tzar  [Polish  form  of 
the  Russian  title  of  the  Kaiser,  Gmsar,  or  Emperor:  Russ, 

4iy 


CZAKTORYSKI. 

Tsare]:  title  of  the  emperor  of  Russia;  a  king.  Czarina, 
n.  zdr-e'nd,  title  of  the  empress  of  Russia.  Czaroavitch, 
n.  zdr'6-vetz,  eldest  son  of  the  emperor  of  Russia.  Czar- 
EVNA,  n.  zdr-ev'na,  wife  or  consort  of  the  Czaro witch;  one 
of  the  daughters  of  the  Czar. — The  word  Czar  is  derived 
from  the  old  Slavonic  language,  and  signifies  much  the 
same  as  Ger.  Kaiser,  Lat.  Ccesar,  to  which  it  probably 
owes  its  origin;  though  some  etymologists  identify  it  with 
the  termination  of  the  names  of  the  old  Assyrian  kings — 
such  as  Plialassar,  Nabonassar,  and  Nabopolassar.  After 
the  12tli  c,  the  Russian  annalists  gave  the  title  of  Czar  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Wladimir,  Monomach  (died  1125),  and  to 
several  of  his  successors.  In  general,  however,  the  rulers 
of  the  various  Russian  provinces  were  called  Grand  Dukes 
till  the  16th  c. ;  e.g.  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Wladimir,  Kiew, 
Moscow,  etc.  The  Grand  Duke  Wassilij  Iwanowitch  first 
assumed,  1505,  the  title  of  Samodershez,  which  signifies  au- 
tocrat. The  son  of  Wassilij,  Iwan  11. ,  Wassiljewitch  the 
Cruel,  caused  himself  to  be  solemnly  crowned  Czar,  1547, 
Jan.  16.  From  this  time,  the  Russian  monarchs  called 
themselves  Czars  of  Moscow;  and  after  the  conquest  of 
Little  Russia  and  Smolensk,  Czars  of  All  the  Russias. 
The  word  now  became  practically  the  equivalent  of  em- 
peror; yet  Peter  I.,  1724,  thought  fit  to  assume  this  latter 
title  in  addition;  and  as  the  Russian  language  had  no  term 
corresponding  to  it  besides  Czar,  the  Latin  word.  Imperator 
was  introduced,  while  the  empress  was  termed  Impei^atriza. 
At  first,  several  European  powers  refused  to  sanction  the 
assumption  of  imperial  dignity  by  the  Russian  Czar,  but 
ultimately  consented  to  do  so.  The  wife  of  the  Czar  was 
named  Czariza  (Czarina);  the  sons,  Czare witch;  the 
daughters,  Czarevna;  but  after  the  death  of  Alexei — Peter 
I.'s  son — these  titles  were  abolished,  and  the  imperial 
princes  were  called  Grand  Dukes,  and  the  imperial  prin- 
cesses Grand  Duchesses.  In  1799,  the  emperor  Paul  I.  in- 
troduced the  title  of  Cesarewitch  (not  Czarowitch)  for  his 
second  son,  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine.  The  heir-ap- 
parent and  his  wife  are  still  called  Cesarevitch  and  Cesar- 
evna.  Among  the  Russian  people  themselves,  the  em- 
peror is  more  frequently  called  Gossudar  (Hospodar,  i.e., 
Lord)  than  Czar. 

CZARTORYSKI,  cJidr-io  ris'ke,  Adam  George:  1770, 
Jan.  14—1861,  July.;  b.  Warsaw;  son  of  Prince  Adam 
Casimir  C,  of  an  ancient  Polish  house,  sometimes  (but 
wrongly)  said  to  to  be  sprung  from  the  Jagellons  (q.v.). 
Having  completed  an  excellent  education  at  Edinburgh  and 
London,  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and  took  part 
against  Russia  in  the  war  at  the  second  partition  of  Poland. 
On  the  defeat  of  the  Poles,  C.  was  taken  to  St.  Petersburg 
as  a  hostage,  and  showed  so  much  ability  and  prudence  as  to 
gain  the  friendship  of  the  grand  duke  Alexander,  to  whom 
he  was  attached,  and  the  confidence  of  the  emperor  Paul, 
who  made  him  ambassador  to  Sardinia.  When  Alexander 
ascended  the  throne,  he  appointed  C.  assistant  to  the  minis- 
ter of  foreign  allairs;  and  he  was  in  official  life  until  after 
the  peace  of  Tilstit,    As  curator  of  the  university  of  Wilna, 

420 


CZASLAU-CZENSTOCHAU 

to  which  he  was  nominated  1803  by  Russia,  he  exerted  all 
his  intluence  to  keep  alive  a  spirit  of  nationality;  and  when 
some  of  the  students  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  sedition, 
and  sent  to  Siberia,  C.  resigned  his  oflice.  His  successor 
reported  to  the  emperor  that  the  amalgamation  of  Russia 
and  Lithuania  had  been  delayed  a  century  by  C.'s  occu- 
pancy of  the  curatorship.  Russian  favors  could  not  deaden 
C.  's  patriotism.  In  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  elected 
president  of  a  provisional  government,  and  in  this  capacity 
summoned  a  national  diet,  which  ,met,  and,  1831,  Jan., 
declared  the  Polish  throne  vacant,  and  elected  C.  head  of 
the  national  government.  He  immediately  devoted  half  of 
his  large  estates  to  the  public  service,  and  adopted  energetic 
measures  to  meet  the  power  of  Russia,  but  in  vain;  the 
Poles  were  crushed,  and  C. — specially  excluded  from  the 
general  amnesty,  and  his  estates  in  Poland  confiscated — 
escaped  to  Paris,  where  he  afterward  resided,  the  liberal 
friend  of  his  poor  expatriated  countrymen.  In  1848,  he 
liberated  all  his  serfs  in  Galicia,  and  during  the  Crimean 
war  he  inefl'ectually  endeavored  to  induce  the  Allies  to 
identify  the  cause  of  Poland  with  that  of  Turkey. 

CZASLAU,  cMs'low:  town  of  Bohemia,  45  m.  e.s.e  of 
Prague.  Its  deanery-church,  in  which  the  celebrated  blind 
Hussite  leader.  Gen.  Ziska,  was  buried,  is  surmounted  by 
the  highest  steeple  in  Bohemia.  C.  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  an 
important  victory  over  the  Austrians  by  Frederick  the  Great, 
1742,  May  17.  There  are  copper- works,  manufactures  of 
chicory  and  beet-root  sugar,and  a  distillery.  Pop.  (1880)6,178. 

CZECH,  n.  tzek  or  cMk:  native  name  of  the  Bohemians: 
the  language  spoken  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia,  and 
by  the  Slovaks  of  n.  Hungary;  also  spelt  Tsech.  The 
Czechs  are  the  most  westerly  branch  of  the  great  Slavic 
family  of  nations.  About  a.d.  451-495,  the  emigrated 
from  their  lands  in  Carpathia,  on  the  upper  Vistula,  and 
came  into  the  country  now  known  as  Bohemia.  According 
to  tradition,  their  chieftain  was  named  Czech.  Georgsberg, 
near  Raudnitz,  on  the  Elbe,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
place  chosen  by  the  C.  for  their  encampment.  Other  Slavic 
tribes  migrated  into  Bohemia;  but  in  the  course  of  time  the 
C.  gained  such  ascendency  that,  in  the  9th  c,  the  name  C. 
was  commonly  applied  to  the  whole  Slavic  population  of 
Bohemia  (q.v.).  Here,  in  Moravia,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Austria,  the  C.  now  number  in  all  above  6,000,000. 

CZEGLED,  isd'gUd:  market-town  of  Hungary,  40  m. 
s.e  of  Pesth.  It  has  some  handsome  buildings  and  large 
breweries.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  principally  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  the  district  around  yielding  much 
grain  and  red  wine.    Pop.  (1880)  24,872. 

CZENSTOCHAU,  cMns-tocJiow,  or  Czenstochowa, 
cMns-to-cMm:  monastery  of  the  order  of  St.  Paul  the 
Hermit,  in  the  Polish  govt,  of  Kalisch;  the  most  frequented 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  whole  country,  and  celebrated 
throughout  the  Slavic  nations.  It  occupies  a  commanding 
position  on  the  Warthe,  not  far  from  the  Silesian  frontier, 
and  possesses  the  faraous  dark-colored  picture  of  the 


CZERKASY--CZERNY. 

mother  of  Christ,  which  has  given  occasion  to  the  worship 
of  the  Black  Virgin  by  all  the  Polish  Catholics.  This 
picture  is  probably  of  Byzantine  origin.  According  to  the 
legend  in  connection  with  it,  it  was  painted  by  Luke  hini- 
self;  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  princess  Helena;  sub- 
sequently found  its  way  through  a  Russian  prince,  Laon, 
to  Belz  in  Galicia;  and  finally,  through  Wadyslaw,  Duke 
of  Oppeln,  who  built  the  monastery  of  C  ,  was  brought 
thither  to  assist  him  against  the  Tartars.  In  more  recent 
times,  C.  is  noted  as  the  only  place  in  Poland  which  offered 
resistance  to  the  army  of  Charles  Gustavus,  king  of  Sweden, 
on  which  occasion  {16^5)  the  inmates,  comprising  70  monks 
and  150  soldiers,  withstood  a  siege  of  88  days  carried  on 
by  a  Swedish  force  of  10,000  men.  At  a  later  period,  C. 
lost  its  importance  as  a  military  position.  At  the  foot  of 
the  eminence  on  which  the  monastery  stands  lie  two  little 
towns.  Old  and  KewC  ,  which  carry  on  considerable  trade 
in  holy  pictures  and  amulets. 

CZERKASY,  cMr-kct' se\  town  in  Russia,  govt,  of  Kiev. 
It  is  on  the  river  Dnieper.    Pop.  13,311. 

CZERNOWITZ,  chlr'no  mts:  city,  cap.  of  Bukowina  in 
Austria;  on  a  hill  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Pruth,  about 
140  m.  s.e.  of  Lemburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  arch- 
bishop; and  in  1875  a  university  was  founded  here.  The 
manufactures  are  fast  developing.  Pop.  (1869)  33,884; 
(1880)  45,600. 

CZERNY,  cher'ne,  Georg  (Turkish,  Karadjordje,  i.e.. 
Black  George):  leader  of  the  Servians  in  their  struggles  for 
independence:  1770-1817,  July;  b.  the  neighborhood  of 
Belgrade.  He  showed,  when  young,  his  hatred  of  the  op- 
pressors of  his  country  by  murdering  a  Moslem.  After 
spending  some  time  in  Austria,  he  returned  to  his  paternal 
estate.  In  1801,  Aug  ,  a  band  of  janizaries  broke  into  his 
dwelling,  and  plundered  it.  C.  tied,  vowing  vengeance. 
He  soon  collected  a  band  of  malcontents,  and  commenced 
a  sort  of  guerilla  war.  Gradually  his  numbers  increased, 
and  in  1804  he  captured  the  fortress  of  Schabaz  Subse- 
quently, he  invested  Belgrade,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
1806  routed  the  Turks  at  the  rivers  Drina  and  Morawa. 
Assisted  secretly  by  Russia,  he  captured  Belgrade  1806, 
Dec.  After  the  treaty  of  Slobosje  (1808,  July  8),  he  was 
elected  gov.  by  the  people,  and  recognized  as  Prince  of 
Servia  by  the  sultan.  The  French  invasion  of  Russia  1812 
compelled  the  latter  country  to  let  Servia  shift  for  itself. 
Hostilities  recommenced;  the  Turks  w^ere  successful,  and 
C.  had  to  flee  to  Russia.  He  afterward  went  to  Austria. 
Meanwhile,  the  freedom  of  Servia  had  been  secured 
through  the  leadership  of  Milosch  Obrenowicz;  and  1817, 
July,  C.  returned,  intending,  as  some  suppose,  to  rally  his 
partisans  for  the  furtherance  of  his  ambitious  schemes, 
when  he  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  Prince  Milosch. 

CZERNY,  cMr'ne,  Karl:  1791-1857;  German  musical 
composer  and  teacher.  His  pieces  were  very  numerous, 
and  his  Practical  School  of  Composition  has  had  extensive 
use.    Among  his  pupils  was  the  Abbe  Liszt. 

4-22 


D 


D  or  d,  de:  consonant;  fourth  letter  in  the  English  and 
all  the  Gr^BCO-Roman  alphabets;  called  in  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages daleth  (hence  Gr.  delta,  i.e.,  '  door;'  and  in  all  prob- 
ability its  original  hieroglyphic  or  picture  form  was  a  door. 
The  Greek  J,  in  fact,  yet  preserves  a  recognizable  resem- 
blance to  the  door  or  opening  of  a  tent,  the  kind  of  door 
most  familiar  to  a  nomadic  people.  D  belongs  to  the  or- 
der of  letters  called  dentals  (see  Letters:  Alphabet),  t,  d, 
ih  (in  tJiin),  th  (in  thine),  and  in  the  corresponding  words  of 
sister-languages  is  often  exchanged  with  those  of  the  same 
order  or  organ;  thus:  Ger.  du.  Eng.  tJiou;  Ger.  tod,  Eng. 
death;  Lat.  due-.  Eng.  tug;  Lat.  duo,  Eng.  two.  A  more 
remarkable  interchange  is  that  between  d  and  I,  and  d  and 
r;  see  L  and  R.  D  seems  to  have  been  drawn  into  some 
words  (to  which  it  does  not  radically  belong)  by  a  kind  of 
affinity  for  n,  as  Lat.  cam's,  Gr.  kyon,  Eng.  hound;  Lat. 
gener-,  Eng.  gender.  JDi  followed  by  a  vowel  is  sometimes 
transformed  into  J;  as  in  Janus  for  Dianus;  Journal  from 
diurnal.  Di  followed  by  a  vowel  in  Latin,  has  in  Italian 
become  z;  and  from  mss.  and  other  evidence,  we  know 
that  this  sibilant  sound  of  di  prevailed,  in  the  popular  pro- 
nunciation at  least,  while  Latin  was  yet  a  living  tongue. 
Thus,  diaholus  is  found  written  zaholus,  and  Amazones, 
Amadiones. — D,  the  Roman  numeral  for  500,  arose  out  of 
the  character  Iq:  see  Numerals. 

D,  in  Music:  second  note  in  the  natural  scale;  a  whole 
tone  above  C,  to  which  it  stands  in  mathematical  propor- 
tion as  9  :  8,  that  is,  when  C  vibrates  eight  times,  D  vibrates 
nine  times.  The  whole  tone  from  C  to  D  is  called  the 
greater  whole  tone,  being  a  comma  larger  than  the  next 
whole  tone  from  D  to  E. 

DAB,  v.  dab  [a  word  imitative  of  the  sound  of  a  blow  on 
a  soft  substance,  as  clay:  F.  dauber,  to  beat — from  old  Ger. 
dubhan,  to  dab:  old  Dut.  dabben,  to  pinch]:  to  strike  gently: 
N.  a  gentle  blow;  a  small  lump  of  anything  soft  and  moist; 
something  moist  thrown  on  a  person ;  a  small  flat  fish  like  a 
sole  or  plaice.  Dabbing,  imp.  Dabbed,  pp.  ddbd. 
Dab  BER,  n.  an  instrument  used  by  engravers  and  others 
for  applying  ink.  Dabble,  v.  dab'l,  to  play  among  water, 
or  among  mud  and  water;  to  throw  water  and  splash  it 
about;  to  do  anything  in  a  slight  and  superficial  manner;  to 
meddle;  to  do  anything  in  a  small  way.  Dabbling,  imp. 
dab'ling.  Dabbled,  pp.  ddb'ld.  Dab'blingly,  ad.  -11. 
Dab  bler,  n.  -ler,  one  who  meddles  without  going  to  the 
bottom;  a  superficial  meddler. 

DAB,  n.  dab  [corrupted  from  ade]^t\,  an  expert;  aa 
adept. 

423 


DAB-DACCA. 

DAB  (Platessa  limanda):  fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
plaice  and  flounder,  and  much  resembling  them,  but  easily 
distinguished  by  its  more  uniform  and  lighter-brown  col- 
or, the  roughness  of  its  scaly  surface,  and  its  more  curved 
lateral  line,  which  rises  into  a  high  arch  over  the  pectoral 
fin.  It  is  common  on  all  sand}^  parts  of  the  British  coasts, 
inhabits  deeper  water  than  the  flounder,  and  does  not,  like 
it,  enter  the  mouths,  of  streams.  It  is  known  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Firth  of  Forth  as  the  Salt-water  Fluke.  It  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  flounder  for  the  table.  It  seldom  exceeds  12 
inches  in  length.  A  rather  larger  species  of  the  same  ge- 
nus, is  the  Lemon  D.  or  Smooth  D.  (P.  microcephala):  its 
body  is  smooth,  its  color  a  pretty  mixture  of  various  shades 


Dab  (Platessa  limanda). 


of  reddish-brown  and  yellow;  its  head  and  mouth  are  very 
small. 

DABBLE:  see  under  Dab  1. 

DABCHICK,  n.  dah'chik  [Norw,  daitbe — from  dauber,  to 
dive:  Dut.  dohher,  a  float]:  the  little  grebe,  a  bird  so  named 
from  its  constant  habit  of  floating  and  bobbing  underwater: 
see  Grebe. 

DABEOCIA,  n.  da-he-d'si-a  [named  after  St.  Ddbeoc]:  in 
hot.,  Irish-wort,  formerly  considered  a  genus  of  plants,  but 
now  made  a  sub-genus  of  Menziesia,  consisting  of  a  single 
species,  D.  polyfolia,  nat.  ord.  Ericacece. 

DA  CAPO,  dd  kd'po  [It.  da,  from,  and  capo,  head,  be- 
ginning]: in  music,  a  direction  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
part  or  movement,  indicating  that  the  performer  must  re- 
turn to  the  beginning  of  the  movement,  or  to  some  other 
part  of  it  usually  marked  with  the  sign  :$:,  and  finish  where 
the  word  ^716  is  placed.  Scarlatti  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  da  capo  in  his  opera  of  Theodora.  The 
words  are  generally  abbreviated  thus,  D.  C,  sometimes  Z>. 
C.  al  fine. 

DACCA,  ddk'ka:  district  in  Bengal;  n.  lat.  from  23°  12' 
to  24°  17',  and  in  e.  long,  from  90°  11'  to  90°  58';  2,797  sq. 
m.;  (1881)  2,116,350  inhabitants.  Forming  part  of  the 
great  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  it  is  traversed 
by  streams  in  every  direction,  being  so  low  and  level  as  to 
be  generally  flooded  during  the  rainy  season.  It  is,  on 
this  account,  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice. 
From  the  character  of  the  country,  roads — happily  reu- 

424 


DACCA— DACE. 

dered  less  necessary  by  the  network  of  rivers — are  very 
difficult  of  construction.  In  addition  to  the  cap.  city  of  its 
own  name,  the  district  has  two  principal  towns,  Narain- 
ganj  and  Islarapoor.  Though  the  climate,  ^s  a  whole,  is 
moist,  it  is  not  uniformly  so,  the  annual  rainfall  varying 
in  different  years  from  46  to  93  inches.  Among  commer- 
cial crops,  cotton — the  raw  material  of  the  far-famed  mus- 
lins—formerly was  prominent.  It  is  now  comparatively 
neglected,  being  too  short  in  the  staple  for  the  coarse  fab- 
rics which  are  all  that  are  now  made  in  the  district.  Re- 
ceut  attempts  to  introduce  a  better  variety  from  the  United 
States  have  failed.  It  was  in  1765 — the  epoch  of  the  ces- 
sion of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa  on  the  part  of  the  Great 
Mogul — that  D.  became  subject  to  England;  but  till  1845, 
the  heirs  of  the  native  ruler  succeeded  each  other  as  sti- 
pendiaries  of  the  E.  India  Company. 

DACCA:  city  of  Bengal  Proper,  about  190  m.  n.e.  of 
Calcutta;  lat.  23°  43'  n.,  and  long.  90'  25'  e.  It  it  on 
the  Burha  Gunga,  a  considerable  auxiliary  of  the  Dulas- 
seree,  which  is  itself  at  once  a  mingled  olfset  of  the 
Brahmaputra  and  the  Ganges,  and  an  affluent  of  the 
lower  course  of  the  former  stream.  The  city  thus  enjoys 
singular  facilities  in  the  way  of  inland  navigation.  Till 
the  close  of  the  18th  c  ,  D.  was  widely  noted  for  the  deli- 
cate texture  of  its  muslins,  which,  in  the  phraseology  of 
the  East,  were  characterized  as  '  flowing  water '  and  '  even- 
ing dew;'  and,  in  connection  with  this  manufacture,  the 
French  and  the  Dutch,  as  well  as  the  English,  had  exten- 
sive establishments  in  the  place.  Since  1801,  however, 
these  European  agencies  have  disappeared;  while  the  an 
nual  value  of  the  elegant  fabric,  under  the  influence  of 
British  competition,  has  gradually  fallen  from  £250,000  to 
nothing  at  all.  The  present  aspect  of  the  city  is  in  keeping 
with  this  utter  decay  of  its  staple  trade.  In  many  quar- 
ters are  ruins  overgrown  with  jungle,  haunts  of  tigers  and 
serpents;  and  in  many  cases  these  are  ruins  of  splendid 
edifices,  such  as  the  residences  of  its  native  princes  and 
the  factories  of  its  foreign  sojourners.  Still  D.,  within  a 
space  of  4  m .  in  length  by  1 J  in  breadth,  contains  a  large 
population.  It  seems,  of  late  years,  to  have  partially  re- 
covered from  its  commercial  decline,  and  produces  lac. 
dye,  soap,  cheese,  and  gold  and  silver  ornaments.  Some 
times  as  many  as  300  elephants  are  for  sale  in  the  depots 
here.  There  are  180  mosques  and  119  pagodas,  and  places 
of  worship  belonging  to  Roman  Catholics,  Armenians, 
Greeks,  and  English;  also  a  college  and  several  schools. 
D.  is  connected  with  Calcutta  by  the  Eastern  Bengal  rail 
way.  The  maximum  temperature  1871  was  89^  and  the 
minimum  was  54.6°.  The  rainfall  1871  was  82  inches. 
Pop.  (1881)  79,076. 

DACE,  n.  ddSy  or  Dare,  or  Dart  [F.  dard'],  (Leuciscus 
vulgaris)',  small  fresh- water  fish  of  the  family  Cyprinidm 
(q.v.),  and  of  the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  ide,  chub, 
bleak,  minnow,  etc.  It  inhabits  usually  the  deep  and  clear 
water  of  quiet  streams.  It  is  found  in  Italy,  France,  Ger 
m 


DACELO— DACIA. 


many,  etc.,  and  in  some  of  the  rivers  of  England,  but  is 
very  local.  In  America  it  is  plentiful.  It  is  in  form  like 
the  roach,  but  rather  more  elongated;  the  mouth  rather 
larger,  the  scales  are  smaller.  The  upper  parts  are  dusky 
blue,  becoming  paler  on  the  sides,  and  passing  into  white 
on  the  belly,  the  cheek  and  gill- covers  silvery  white.  The 
D.  is  gregarious,  and  swums  in  shoals.  Its  flesh  is  not 
highly  esteemed.    The  D.  is  perhaps  the  liveliest  and  most 


active  of  the  Cyp'im'dcB,  and  affords  the  angler  fair  sport 
both  with  fly  and  bait.  It  is  fished  for  with  a  light  float 
and  a  fine  gut-line.  The  float  is  set  so  that  the  bait  may 
almost  touch  the  bottom.  At  the  least  symptom  of  a  bite, 
the  angler  must  strike  quickly.  The  best  baits  are  the 
red- worm,  the  tail  of  a  lob- worm,  gentles,  greaves,  and 
flies  or  grubs  of  any  kind.  The  best  places  to  fish  with 
bait  are  moderately  sharp  streams,  of  from  two  to  four  or 
five  ft.  deep.  Dace  at  times  take  the  fly  very  freely,  and 
show  capital  sport.  Small  red  and  black  palmers  will  be 
found  the  most  useful  flies  for  the  purpose,  and  their  kill- 
ing properties  will  be  greatly  increased  if  the  hook  is 
tipped  with  a  tough  gentle,  as  D.  are  very  apt  to  follow 
the  fly  without  taking  it,  when  the  gentle  overcomes  their 
scruples;  a  small  piece  of  the  white,  tough,  inner  rind  of 
bacon  answers  equally  well;  and  even  a  small  piece  of 
wash-leather  may  be  used.  Shallows,  scours,  and  by  the 
edge  of  weed-beds,  are  the  best  spots  for  the  lly.  D.  may 
be  taken  also  by  '  dapping'  with  the  natural  fly,  and  those 
so  taken  are  usually  the  finest  fish.  D.  seldom  exceed  a 
pound  in  weight,  though  in  some  rivers  they  have  been 
taken  up  to  1|  lb.  They  spawn  in  the  end  of  April,  or 
early  in  May,  and  soon  recover  their  condition  again. 

DACELO,  n.  dd'se-ld  [transposition  of  alcedo,  theL.  name 
for  the  kingfisher  (q. v.)]:  in  ornith,,  genus  of  kingfishers, 
natives  of  Australia. 

DACIA,  dd'shi-a:  land  of  the  Daci  or  Getae.  Its  geo- 
graphical limits  were  very  indefinite  until  its  conquest  by  the 
Romans.  After  that  period,  it  comprised  the  various  coun- 
tries now  known  as  Eastern  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Buko- 
wina,  Moldavia  w.  of  the  Pruth,  Wallachia,  and  the  Banat 
of  Temesvar.  The  Getse  came  originally  from  Thrace,  and 
were  divided  into  various  tribes.  Their  course  northward 
can  be  only  imperfectly  traced;  but  we  know  that,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (b.c.  335),  they  had 


Dace  {Leuciscus" vulgaris). 


4M 


DACIER-DACNIS. 

migrated  across  the  Danube.  It  is  not  known  when  or  for 
what  reason  the  Geta3  changed  their  name  to  Daci.  They 
seem  to  have  been  the  most  valiant  of  the  Thracian  barba. 
rians.  Curio,  the  first  Roman  general  who  ever  penetrated 
as  far  n.  as  the  Danube,  did  not  venture  to  assail  them. 
Julius  Caesar,  however,  is  said  to  have  intended  their  sub- 
jugation. In  B.C.  10,  Augustus  sent  an  army  up  the  valley 
of  the  Maros.  From  this  time,  there  vas  almost  continual 
fighting  between  the  Romans  and  the  Daci,  on  the  whole, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  latter,  who  actually  compelled  their 
civilized  enemies,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  to  pay  tribute. 
In  A.D.  101,  the  emperor  Trajan  crossed  the  Theiss,  and 
marched  into  Transylvania,  where  he  fought  a  great  battle 
near  Thorda.  The  peasants  call  the  battle-field  to  the  pres- 
ent day  Prat  de  Trajan  (Prat am  Trajani,  field  of  Trajan). 
The  Daci,  who  were  commanded  by  their  famous  chief  De- 
cebalus,  were  defeated.  A  second  expedition  of  the  empe- 
ror (A.D.  104)  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  their  capital, 
the  death  of  Decebalus,  aud  the  loss  of  their  freedom.  Roman 
colonists  were  sent  into  the  country,  a  bridge  was  built  over 
the  Danube — the  ruins  of  which  are  extant — and  three  great 
roads  were  constructed.  In  270-275,  the  Romans  abandoned 
the  country  to  the  Goths,  and  the  colonists  were  transferred 
to  Moesia.  After  a  series  of  vicissitudes,  D.  fell  into  the 
possession  of  the  Magyars  in  the  9th  c. 

DACIER,  da-se-d\  Andre:  French  author:  1651,  Apr.  6 
— 1722,  Sep.  18;  b.  Castres,  in  Upper  Languedoc;  of  Protes- 
tant parentage.  He  studied  at  Saumur;  and  in  1672  came 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  employed  to  bring  out  an  edition  of 
the  Latin  writer  Festus,  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin,  which 
he  did  1681.  In  1683,  he  married  Anne  Lefevre.  also  Prot- 
estant; and  two  years  later,  both  entered  the  Rom.  Catb. 
Church.  D.  subsequently  became  royal  librarian,  member 
of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions,  and  perpetual  sec.  of  the 
'Academic.'  D.*s  works,  besides  his  Festus,  are  numerous, 
but  of  small  value. 

DACIER,  Anne:  1651-1720,  Aug.  17;  b.  Saumur;  wife 
of  Andre  D.  After  the  death  of  her  learned  father,  who  had 
developed  her  talent,  she  came  to  Paris,  where  she  acquired 
such  reputation  by  her  edition  of  Callimachus  (1674),  that 
the  Duke  of  Montausier  commissioned  her  to  edit  several  of 
the  ancient  authors  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin.  Similarity 
of  tastes  and  employment  led  to  a  marriage  between  her  and 
Andre  Dacier.  Her  domestic  duties  did  not  weaken  her 
literary  ardor.  Besides  editing  various  of  the  classics,  she 
translated  the  comedies  of  Terence;  several  plays  of  Plautus, 
with  an  able  dissertation;  and  portions  of  Anacreon,  Sappho, 
and  Aristophanes.  Her  admiration  of  Homer  was  un- 
bounded, and  involved  her  in  two  learned  controversies. 

DACNE,  n.  dak-ne  [Gr.  dakno,  I  bite,  I  sting]:  in  entom.^ 
genus  of  coleoptera,  belonging  to  the  family  Clamcornes. 

DACNIS,  n.  ddk'nis  [Gr.  daknb,  I  bite]:  genus  of  birds 
belonging  to  the  family  Gonirosters  (q.v.).  The  forehead, 
shoulders,  and  wings  are  sky-blue,  the  tail  black.  They  are 
natives  of  Mexico. 

421 


DACOIT-DACTYLIUM. 
DACOIT,  n.  do.k'oyt;  Dacoity,  n.  da-Jcoy'tl-  see  Da- 

KOIT. 

DACOITS',  or  Dako'tah  Indians:  see  Sioux:  Indians. 

DACRYDIUM,  da-hrid%-  um:  genus  of  trees  of  the  nat. 
ord.  TaxaceiM^  having  male  and  female  flowers  on  separate 
trees.  The  species  are  lofty  trees,  natives  chiefly  of  Austra- 
lia and  New  Zealand.  D.  Franklinii  is  called  Huon  Pine, 
though  rather  a  yew  than  a  pine.  Its  timber  is  harder  than 
any  Baltic  pine,  and  is  excellent  for  spars  for  naval  purposes. 
B.  taxifoUum,  the  Kakaterra  Tree  of  New  Zealand,  attains 
a  height  of  200  ft.,  and  is  very  valuable  for  timber.  A 
beverage  resembling  spruce-beer  is  made  from  its  branches. 

DACRYOLITE,  n.  dalc'ri-o-llt  [Gr.  dakru,  a  tear;  lithos, 
a  stone]:  in  med.,  a  calculous  concretion  in  the  lachrymal 
passage. 

DACRYOMA,  n.  dak-ri-oma  [Gr.  dakruo,  I  weep— 
from  dakru,  a  tear]:  a  diseased  condition  of  the  lachrymal 
duct  of  the  eye,  by  which  the  tears  are  prevented  from 
passing  into  the  nose,  and  consequently  trickle  over  the 
cheek. 

DACTYL,  n.  ddk'til  [Gr.  daktulos;  L.  dactylus,  a 
finger] :  name  of  a  measure  or  '  foot '  in  Greek  and  Latin 
versification,  consisting  of  three  syllables,  one  long  and 
two  short,  as  in  the  word  duCdist.  It  was  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  finger,  which  consists  of  three  joints 
—one  long  and  two  short.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied 
to  a  trisyllabic  measure  in  English  verse,  consisting  of  one 
accented  syllable  and  two  unaccented  syllables,  as  in 
destiny:  see  Verse.  Dactyl,  the  razor-fish:  see  Solen. 
Dactyl'ic,  a.  -ik,  relating  to  or  consisting  of  dactyls;  dac- 
tylic verses  consist  of  dactyls  and  equivalent  feet:  see 
Hexameter.  Dac'tyltst,  n.  one  who  writes  flowing 
dactylic  verse.  Dactyl'oglyph,  n.  -d-glif  [Gr.  gluplio,  I 
engrave] :  the  name  of  the  artist  inscribed  on  a  finger-ring 
or  gem.  Dac  tylog  raphy,  n.  -til-og'ra-fi  [Gr.  graplio,  I 
write]:  the  art  of  gem- engraving.  Dac  tylol  ogy,  n.  -tU- 
ol'o-ji  [Gr.  logos,  discourse] :  the  art  of  communicating  ideas 
by  certain  movements  and  positions  of  the  fingers:  see 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  Dactylion,  n.  -i-6n,  in  surg.,  cohesion 
between  two  fingers,  whether  congenital  or  from  burning; 
in  mus.,  an  instrument  invented  by  Henry  Herz  for  train- 
ing the  fingers  and  suppling  the  joints:  see  Chiroplast. 

DACTYLETHRA,  n.  dak-tU-eth' ra  [Gr.  daktulos,  a 
finger;  etheira,  hair]:  genus  of  amphibians  natives  of  s. 
Africa,  the  only  one  of  the  family  Dactylethridce.  It  con- 
tains two  species.  They  are  remarkable  for  having  the 
three  inner  toes  enveloped  in  a  sharp-pointed  claw  or 
nail. 

DACTYLI,  n.  plu.  ddk'ttl-l  [Gr.  daktulos,  a  finger]:  the 
priests  of  Cybele  in  Phrygia,  so  called  from  having  been 
five  in  number,  corresponding  with  the  number  of  fingers 
on  the  hand. 

DAC'TYLIS:  see  Cock's-Foot  Grass. 

DACTYLIUM,  n.  ddk-tU'l-um  [Gr.  daktulos,  a  finger]: 

4-28 


D  ACTYLOPOR  A-  D^D  ALI AK. 

genus  of  hyphomycetous  fungi,  consisting  of  molds  grow- 
ing over  decayed  plants.  One  species,  Dactylium  oogenuniy 
grows  upon  the  surface  of  the  membrane  within  the  shell 
of  the  eggs  of  fowls  and  other  birds. 

DACTYLOPORA,  n.  ddk-tU-o-por' a ,  or  Dactylipor'a, 
-l-pdr'a  [L.  dactylus;  Gr.  daMulos,  a  linger,  and  L.  porus; 
Gr.  poros,  a  passage]:  genus  typical  of  the  JDactyloporidcB, 
a  family  of  imperforate  foramiuifera,  sub  tribe  MilioUda. 

DACTYLOP  TERUS:  see  Flying  Gurnard. 

DACTYLORHIZA,  n.  ddk-til-oriza  [Gr.  daktulos,  a 
finger;  rliiza,  a  root]:  disease  in  the  bulbs  of  turnips,  caus- 
ing them  to  branch  out  and  become  hard  and  useless.  It 
is  commonly  called  Fingers-and-Toes. 

DAD,  n.  dad,  or  Daddy,  n.  ddd'di  [W.  tad;  Gael,  taid; 
Ir.  daid;  Lap.  dadda,  a  father]:  in  children's  language, 
name  for  a  father;  in  familiar  use  among  the  less  refined 
of  many  countries. 

DAD,  n.  dad,  or  Dawd,  n.  dawd  [an  imitation  repre- 
senting the  sound  of  a  blow]:  a  blow;  a  thump:  Y.  to  slam, 
as,  '  he  dadded  to  the  door/  Dad'ding,  imp.  Dadded, 
pp.  ddd'ed. 

DADE,  V.  dad  [imitative  of  the  syllables  da,  da,  the  in- 
coherent utterances  which  accompany  the  muscular  exer- 
tions of  an  infant:  F.  dada,  a  hobby-horse]:  to  teach  a 
child  to  walk;  to  hold  up  a  child  by  leading  strings  while 
attempting  to  walli.  Da'ding,  imp.  Da'ded,  pp.  Dading- 
STRiNGS,  leading-strings  by  which  a  child  is  held  up  while 
learning  to  walk.  D addle,  v.  dad' I,  or  Daidle,  v.  dadl, 
[Scot.]:  to  walk  unsteadily  like  a  child;  to  waddle  like  a 
duck;  to  do  anything  imperfectly;  to  trifle.  D addling, 
imp.  ddd'lmg.  Daidling,  imp.  ddd'ling.  Daddled,  pp. 
dad' Id,    Daidled,  pp.  dad' Id. 

DADO,  n.  dd'dd  [It.  dado,  a  cube  or  die  for  playing  with] : 
in  classical  arch.,  the  cubic  block  which  forms  the  body  of  a 
pedestal.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  plane  face  and  the  series  of 
moldings  which,  in  the  interiors  of  buildings,  form,  as  it 
were,  a  continuous  pedestal.  The  interior  D.,  often  called 
wainscot,  is  formed  of  wood,  and,  running  round  the  bot- 
tom of  the  walls  of  a  room,  serves  to  protect  the  plaster  or 
paper  from  injury.  It  is  generally  about  three  ft.  in  height, 
and  surmounted  by  a  narrow  cornice.  It  is  sometimes  imi- 
tated in  paper. 

DADUR,  dd'ddr' :  town  of  Beloochistan,  five  m.  e.  of  the 
Bolan  Pass.  Though  it  is  in  the  30th  degree  of  n.  lat.,  yet 
it  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  hottest  places  in  the  world.  It 
contains  about  3,000  inhabitants.  It  is  worthy  of  notice 
chiefly  as  the  spot  where,  1840,  Nov.,  the  British  troops 
routed  a  Kelat  force.  The  ueighborhood  yields  grains  of 
various  kinds,  pulse,  cotton,  sugar,  madder,  and  fruits.  Pop. 
of  D.  abt.  3,000. 

D^^EDALEKCHYMA,  n.  de'dd-leng'ki-md  [Gr.  daidaUos, 
skilfully  wrought,  variegated;  engchuma,  an  infusion, 
tissue] :  tissue  composed  of  entangled  cells,  as  in  some  fungi. 

DAEDALIAN,  a.  de-dd'li'dn  [L.  doiddlm,  artificial,  skil- 

423 


DJEDALUS— DAFFODIL. 

ful— f rom  Gr.  Daidalos;  L.  Dc^dalus,  a  renowned  Athenian 
artificer]:  formed  with  art;  displaying  artistic  skiJl;  intri- 
cate. D^DALOUS,  a.  dedd-lu.s,  mhot.,  irregularly  jagged, 
as  the  broad  apex  of  a  leaf;  having  a  variegated  or  wind- 
ing border. 

D^^]DALUS,  ded'a-ltis,  in  Greek  Mythology:  descendant 
from  the  old  Athenian  race  of  kings,  the  Erechtheidae ;  con- 
temporary of  Theseus  and  Minos.  He  was  famous  as  an 
artist  and  mechanician.  Among  his  numberless  works  were 
the  Cretan  labyrinth,  the  Colymbethra  or  reservoir,  near 
Megaris  in  Sicily,  the  temples  of  Apollo  at  Capua  and  Cumae, 
that  of  Artemis  Britomartis  in  Crete,  and  an  altar  sculptured 
with  lions  on  the  Libyan  coast.  His  mechanical  genius  is 
clearly  celebrated  in  the  poetic  fiction  of  his  tiying  safely 
over  the  ^gean  by  wings  w^hich  he  had  himself  made.  D. 
got  the  credit  among  the  Greeks  of  having  invented  carpen- 
try, and  most  of  its  tools,  such  as  the  saw,  the  ax,  the 
plumb-line,  the  gimlet,  as  also  glue.  The  history  of  D.  is 
obviously  a  myth,  wherein,  as  recent  criticism  has  conclu- 
sively shown,  is  embodied  that  epoch  in  which  the  first  rude 
forms  of  art  w  ere  thrown  aside,  and  a  higher  skill  and  in- 
telligence brought  into  action. 

DEFECATE:  see  Defecate. 

D^MONOROPS,  n  de-7ndn-dr'ops  [Gr.  daimon,  a  god  or 
demon ;  horad,  I  see  ( ?) ;  ops,  the  face  ( ?)] :  genus  of  palms,  tribe 
Galamm.    Dcemonorops  draco  is  the  Dragon's-blood  Palm. 

DAENDELS,  ddn'deis,  Hermann  Wtliielm:  1762-1818, 
June;  b.  Hattem,  Gueldres:  Dutch  general.  He  took  part 
in  the  revolutionary  disturbances  in  Holland  1787,  and  was 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  France.  In  the  campaign  of 
1793,  he  rendered  important  service  to  Dumourier,  and  was 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  gen.  of  brigade.  In  1799,  he  com- 
manded one  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  republican  army, 
which,  wath  a  third  corps  under  the  orders  of  General 
Brune,  compelled  the  Anglo-Russian  forces  to  surrender. 
He  left  the  service  1803,  but  in  1806  he  was  re-instated  in 
his  former  rank  by  the  king  of  Holland.  He  conquered 
E.  Friesland,  and  was  made  gov. gen.  of  Minister,  com- 
mander in-chief  of  the  Dutch  cavalry,  marshal  of  Holland, 
and  gov. gen.  of  the  Dutch  E.  Indian  possessions.  This 
last  oflice  he  held  1808-11  He  published  a  work  on  his 
administration  in  Java,  which  was  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  European  knowledge  of  that  island.  On  the  over- 
throw of  Xapoleon,  his  services  w^ere  secured  by  the  new 
king  of  Holland,  Wilhelm  L,  who  intrusted  him  with  the 
organization  of  government  in  those  colonies  on  the  coast 
of  Africa  which  had  been  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

DAFF,  v.  daf  [do,  and  aft,  after:  formed  as  doff  -  do  off, 
and  don  =  do  on]:  in  OE.,  to  throw  back  or  toss  aside;  to 
make  sport;  to  toy.  Daff'ing,  imp.  Daffed,  pp.  daft. 
Daffin,  n.  daf%n,  or  Daf'fing,  n.  merriment;  foolery; 
excessive  diversion;  a  dallying;  a  toying. 

DAFFODIL,  n.  dafo  dll  [F.  aspJiodele;  OF.  aspliodile— 
from  Gr.  asp]iodelos\\  also  the  corrupted  forms  Daf'fo- 

439 


DAFILA— DAGHESTAN. 
dil'ly,  n.  'dil'li,  and  Daf'fodowndil'ly,  n.  -down-dil'li: 
name  of  those  species  of  Narcissus  (q.v.  )  which  have  a  large 
bell  shaped  corona.  The  common  D.  {N.  pseudo- narcissus) 
is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  growing  in  woods  and 
hedges.  All  the  other  species  are  more  southerly,  abound- 
ing in  the  countries  near  the  Mediterranean.  Some  of  them, 
as  N.  Minor,  have  become  naturalized  in  more  northerly 
countries,  as  ornaments  of  gardens,  in  which  double- 
flowered  varieties  are  also  cultivated.  They  are  favorites, 
not  so  much  for  their  beauty,  which  is  not  of  the  most  deli- 
cate kind,  as  for  their  large  yellow  flowers  in  early  spring. 
The  bulbs  are  purgative  and  emetic.  The  mode  of  cul- 
tivation is  the  same  as  for  other  species  of  Narcissus. 

DAFILA,  n.  daf'il-a:  genus  oi  Anatida^,  comprising  the 
pintail  ducks. 

DAFT,  a.  daft  [Gael,  daihlite,  excited  with  drink]:  in 
Scot.,  insane;  stupid;  foolish. 

DAG,  n  dag  [imitative  of  the  noise  of  a  blow  with  some- 
thing sharp:  F.  dague:  It.  daga,  a  dagger]:  a  thick  clumsy 
pistol,  the  original  pistol,  used  in  the  15th  and  16th  c.  In 
the  Spardsh  Tragedy,  1603,  one  of  the  characters  shoots  the 
dag.  Daggek,  n.  dagger  [W.  dagr;  Ir.  daigear,  a  dagger]: 
a  poniard;  weapon  resembling  a  sword,  but  considerably 
smaller,  being  used  for  stabbing  at  close  quarters;  generally 
two-edged,  and  very  sharp  toward  the  point.  Originally,  it 
had  no  guard  for  the  hand,  and  was  worn  at  the  girdle  in  a 
sheath.  It  is  now  a  general  military  weapon. — The  sign  of 
the  Dagger,  in  printing,  is  used  as  a  mark  of  reference — 
thus  (f):  y.  to  pierce  or  stab  with  a  dagger.  To  look 
DAGGERS,  to  look  fiercely  or  reproachfully.  Daggers 
DRAWN,  at  enmity. 

DAGGETT,  dag' get,  Naphtali,  d.d.:  1727,  Sep.  8.-^ 
1780,  Nov.  25;  b.  Attleborough,  Mass. :  Presb.  and  Congl. 
minister.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  1748,  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Presb.  Church,  Smithtown,  L.  I.,  1751,  be- 
came prof,  of  divinity  in  Yale  College  1755,  and  held  the 
office  till  death;  also  served  as  pres.  pro  tern,  of  the  college 
1766-7.  He  took  part  in  the  defense  of  New  Haven  against 
the  British  1779,  July,  was  captured,  and  forced  by  bayo- 
net thrusts  to  act  as  guide  for  them.  He  published  an 
account  of  the  British  occupation,  1780. 

DAGGLE,  V.  ddg'l  [OE.  dag,  a  jag  or  shred:  Fin.  taT^ku, 
a  shaggy  fleece:  Sw.  dagg,  dew;  dagga,  to  bedew:  Icel. 
dJjggm,  to  bedew]:  to  trail  in  the  dirt;  to  hang  in  wet  dirty 
dags  or  jags,  as  the  wool  at  a  sheep's  tail.  Dag  gling,  imp. 
Daggled,  pp.  dag'ld,  trailed  in  mud  or  foul  water;  be- 
fouled. Dag  LOCK,  n.  a  lock  of  v^ool  on  a  sheep  that  hangs 
and  drags  in  the  wet.  Dagswain,  a  coarse  woolen  blanket. 
Daggle-tailed,  -tCdd,  bemired  or  bespattered  behind  with 
mud  or  water. 

DAGHESTAN,  dd-ges-tdn'  [Tartar,  TagJi  stan,  signify- 
ing mountainous  country]:  province  of  Asiatic  Russia 
(called  also  Derbend),  between  the  Caucasus  and  the  w. 
coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  about  10,000  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  generally  mountainous,  traversed  by  ofl!sets  from  the 

481 


DAGO— DAGUERBE. 

Caucasus,  but  there  are  valleys  and  level  tracts  of  great  fer- 
tility. The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Lesghians  (fanatical 
Mohammedans).  Until  1812,  the  country  belonged  to  Per- 
sia. Since  its  annexation  by  Russia,  the  Lesghians  have 
fought  desperately  for  independence  (see  Shamyl:  Cau- 
casus). Chief  town  is  Derbend  (q.v.).  Pop.  of  province 
(1880)  482,000.— See  DagJiesian,  by  A.' Cunynghame,  1872. 

DAGO,  da  go:  island  in  the  Baltic  sea,  part  of  the  Rus- 
sian govt,  of  Esthonia;  near  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  The  narrow  channel  called  Sele-sund  separates 
it  from  the  island  of  Oesel  on  the  south.  Its  length  is  esti- 
mated about  34  m.,  breadth  15  miles.  The  soil,  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  chalk  for  the  most  part,  is  not  fertile,  the 
coasts  are  rocky,  and  shoals  make  navigation  dangerous. 
The  people,  Esthouians  mostly,  are  employed  in  fishing 
aud  cattle-rearing.    Pop.  abt.  10,000. 

DAGOBA,  n.  dag'6-hd,  or  Daghopa  [according  to  Wil- 
son, from  delia,  the  body,  and  goi[)a,  what  possesses,  because 
it  contains  the  hair,  teeth,  etc.,  of  Buddha;  according  to 
others,  from  dliatu,  a  relic,  and  gabha,  a  shrine]:  monu- 
mental structure  frequent  in  the  East,  containing  relics  of 
Buddha;  its  usual  form  is  a  hemispherical  dome  of  earth 
or  stone,  with  a  small  cross  erection  on  its  top  called  a  tee. 
Dagoba  seems  the  Singhalese  term  for  such  monuments; 
but  the  more  general  name  is  Stupa  or  Tope  (q.v.). 

DAGON,  n.  dagon  [Heb.  dag,  a  fish]:  national  idol  of 
the  Philistines;  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture;  in  pro- 
fane history,  the  name  by  which  it  is  known  is  Derceto. 

It  is  always  represented  on  an- 
cient medals  as  half-fish,  half- 
woman,  but  the  Hebrew  writer 
or  writers  speak  of  it  as  a  mas- 
culine being.  Some  scholars 
have  attempted  to  show  that 
the  word  D.  comes  from  the 
Phoenician  dagan,  wheat;  and 
that  it  is  not  the  name  of  a  fish- 
god,  but  of  a  god  of  agriculture. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  com- 
bine bothnotions,  bysupposing 
that  D.  was  a  deified  mortal 
who  had  come  in  a  ship  to  the 
coast,  and  taught  the  people 
agriculture  and  other  useful  arts.  Ancient  history  abounds 
with  such  mythological  personages,  one  of  whom  was  called 
by  the  Babylonians  Odakon,  and  is  regarded  by  the  learned 
Selden  as  identical  with  the  fishy  idol  of  the  Philistines. 

DAGUERRE,  dd-gcir' ,  Louis  Jacques  Mande:  1789- 
1851,  July  12;  b.  Cormeilles,  France:  inventor.  He  went 
to  Paris  at  an  early  age  and  became  a  successful  scenic 
painter,  then  assisted  Prevost  in  painting  large  panoramas 
of  the  great  European  cities,  and  while  so  engaged  invent- 
ed the  diorama  by  which  he  imitated  the  changes  of  the 
day  and  season  by  throwing  colored  lights  and  shadows  on 
his  paintings.    In  1826,  he  and  Joseph  Nicephore  Niepce 

432 


DAGUERREOTYPE. 

began  experimenting  to  discover  a  means  of  securing  true 
copies  of  objects  by  the  sun's  chemical  action.  The  latter 
obtained  a  process  1829;  both  strove  to  perfect  it,  Niepce 
died  1883,  D.  made  further  improvements,  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  invention  was  announced  to  the  French  Acad, 
of  Sciences  1839,  Jan.  The  govt,  granted  an  annuity  of 
6,000  fr.  to  D.  and  4,000  fr.  to  Niepce's  son  on  their  mak- 
ing the  invention  public,  and  also  made  D.  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  The  Daguerreotype,  named  from  him, 
was  the  lirst  successful  application  of  the  principle  since 
largely  developed  in  photography  (q.v.). 

DAGUERREOTYPE,  n.  da-ger'6-tlp  [from  M.  Daguerre 
of  Paris,  the  inventor,  and  type\\  painting  or  portrait  on 
metal  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  silver  iodide  by  means 
of  sunlight — the  original  photographic  process,  1839.  Not- 
withstanding that  it  has  now  become  so  unpopular,  because 
of  the  very  feature  which  gives  such  perfection  to  the  re- 
sult— viz  ,  the  polish  of  the  plate — this  process  yields  to 
none  in  microscopic  perfection  of  detail  and  perfect  grada- 
tion of  shade.  D.  pictures  are  positive  or  direct,  as  given 
in  the  camera,  though  they  appear  also  as  negative  when 
viewed  at  certain  angles,  and  are  the  result  of  the  succes- 
sive action  of  the  vapors  of  iodine,  bromine,  and  mercury 
upon  a  highly  polished  surface  of  chemically  pure  silver. 
The  manipulations  in  the  process  are:  1.  Cleaning  and 
polishing  the  plate;  2.  Rendering  the  plate  sensitive;  3. 
Exposing  it  in  the  camera;  4.  Developing  the  latent  image; 
5.  Fixing  the  picture. 

A  copper  plate  of  moderate  thickness  is  coated  with  sil- 
ver by  the  electrotype  or  other  suitable  method,  and  then 
polished  to  the  utmost  possible  degree,  so  as  to  obtain, 
though  by  mechanical  means,  a  chemically  pure  surface;  it 
is  then  exposed  first  to  the  vapor  of  iodine,  then  to  the  vapor 
of  bromine  for  a  period,  ascertained  in  practice  by  watching 
the  beautiful  succession  of  prismatic  colors  which  begin 
to  appear  with  the  first  contact  of  the  vapor.  The  length 
of  exposure  in  the  camera  which  follows  is  determined  by 
the  amount  of  light  at  the  time  of  operating,  and  the  rela- 
tion between  the  diameter  and  focal  length  of  the  lens  em- 
ployed. The  development  of  the  latent  image,  which  is 
the  next  operation,  is  effected  by  exposing  the  plate  in  a 
suitable  box  to  the  vapor  of  mercury,  which  attaches  itself 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  picture  in  proportion  to  the  more 
or  less  intense  action  of  the  light.  Those  portions  of  iodide 
and  bromide  of  silver  unacted  on  by  light  are  next  re- 
moved by  immersing  the  plate  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda;  and  the  picture  is  subsequently  fixed  and  intensi- 
fied by  pouring  over  its  surface  a  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  go}d,  and  applying  heat;  by  which  means  it  is  coated 
with  a  thin  film  of  metallic  gold,  and  thereby  rendered  so 
permanent  that  it  cannot  be  rubbed  out  by  ordinary  means, 
but  requires  a  chemical  solvent  for  its  removal.  Though 
M.  Daguerre  published,  1839,  the  first  practicable  process 
for  taking  pictures  by  the  agency  of  light,  his  experiments 
seem  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  researches  of  M.  Niepce, 
who,  1820,  obtained  impressions  on  silver  plates  rendered 

433 


DAHL-DAHLIA. 

sensitive  by  exposure  to  the  vapors  of  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus.   See  Photography. 

DAHL,  ddl,  JoHANN  Christian  Clausen:  Norwegian 
landscape  painter:  1788,  Feb.  24—1857,  Oct.  14;  b.  Ber- 
gen.  He  was  at  first  intended  for  the  priesthood,  but 
turned  to  art.  He  studied  painting  for  six  years  under 
the  direction  of  Prof.  J.  G.  MoUer.  His  first  attempts 
were  in  genre'^Yid  miniature.  Public  attention  was  drawn 
by  a  work  which  he  exhibited  in  Dresden  1819,  Cascade 
among  Bocks  in  Norway.  Next  year,  he  went  to  Italy, 
where  Thorwaldsen  and  the  Prussian  consul-general,  Bar- 
tholdy,  commissioned  him  to  execute  several  wwks.  In 
1821,  he  was  appointed  prof,  of  painting  at  Dresden. 
Among  his  more  famous  works  are  a  View  of  Naples,  Win- 
ter in  Zeeland,  View  of  Bergen,  Scene  from  the  Environs  of 
Ghristiania,  and  a  Winter  Scene  on  the  Banks  of  the  Elbe, 
the  last  two  of  which  attracted  great  attention  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  1855.  D.,  who  was  a  member  of  several  acad- 
emies, died  at  Dresden. 

DAHLGREN,  dCilgren,  John  Adolph,  u.s.n.:  1809, 
Nov.  13—1870,  July  12;  b.  Philadelphia.  He  entered  the 
U.  S.  navy  as  midshipman  1826,  Feb.  1;  was  made  passed 
midshipman  1832;  commissioned  lieut.  1837;  commander 
1855;  capt.  1862,  July  16;  and  rear-admiral  1863,  Feb.  7. 
He  became  commandant  of  the  Washington  navy-yard 
1861,  Apr.  22;  chief  of  bureau  of  ordnance  1862;  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  S.  Atlantic  blockading  squadron 
1863,  July  6:  in  conjunction  with  Gen.  Gilmore  took  pos- 
session of  Morris  Island,  silenced  Fort  Sumter,  and  occu- 
pied Charleston  harbor  1863;  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  S.  Pacific  squadron  1866;  chief  of  bureau  of  ord- 
nance 1868;  and  commandant  of  the  Washington  navy-yard 
1870.  Admiral  D.  was  author  of  a  number  of  text-books 
on  ordnance  and  gunnery,  and  made  valuable  improve- 
ments in  navy  ordnance. 

DAHLGREN,  Ulric,  u.s.a.:  1842-1864,  Mar.  4;  b. 
Bucks  CO.,  Penn.;  son  of  Rear-Admiral  D.  He  studied 
civil  engineering  and  law;  placed  and  took  charge  of  a 
naval  battery  on  Maryland  Heights  after  the  first  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  by  his  father's  order;  was  Gen.  Sigel's  chief  of 
artillery  [at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run;  was  aide  to 
Gens.  Sigel,  Burnside,  Hooker,  and  Meade;  lost  a  leg  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  1863,  July,  and  was  killed  in  a  raid  of 
his  own  planning  to  release  the  Union  prisoners  in  Rich- 
mond. This  gallant  young  ofiicer's  early  death  was  recog- 
nized as  a  great  loss  to  the  army. 

DAHLGREN  GUN  [named  after  Admiral  John  A. 
Dahlgren,  U.  S.  navy]:  a  piece  of  large  ordnance,  the  re- 
sult of  a  careful  series  of  experiments.  One  peculiarity 
consists  in  having  relatively  less  metal  in  front  of  the 
trunnions,  and  more  behind,  than  had  been  customary. 
Dahlgren  guns,  made  to  fire  shells  or  hollow  shot,  have 
been  largely  introduced  into  the  United  States  navy. 

DAHLIA,  n.  dd'U-d  or  ddl'ya:  genus  of  large  perennial 
herbaceous  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  Comjpositce,  sub- order 

434 


DAHLIA-PAPER-~DAHLMANK 

CorymUferce,  natives  of  Mexico.  All  the  varieties  in  cul- 
tivation, of  which  not  fewer  than  2,000  have  been  carefully 
enumerated,  are  derived  from  two  species,  D.  mriahilis 
and  D.  coccinea,  ohmlXy  from  the  former.  Fev/  plants 
manifest  so  strong  an  inclniation  to  sport  and  produce  new 
varieties  as  the  D.,  and  florists  have  obtained  many  also  by 
the  artificial  fecundation  of  one  with  the  pollen  of  another. 
Dahlias  were  first  brought  to  Madrid  by  Spanish  botanists 
in  1789,  and  were  soon  iutroduced  into  England,  but  did 
not  become  well  known  in  English  flower-gardens  till 
about  30  years  afterward.  The  name  was  given  in  honor 
of  Dahl,  a  Swedish  botanist;  but  because  another  genus  of 
plants  had  received  the  same  name,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  change  it  to  Georgina,  which  is  sometimes  used  on  the 
continent,  but  D.  universally  prevails  both  popularly  and 
among  botanists  in  Britain  and  America.  Among  the 
essential  characteristics  of  a  fine  D.,  acccording  to  florists, 
are  a  fulness  of  the  flower,  a  perfect  regularity  in  the 
shape  of  the  florets,  and  the  absence  of  an  eye  or  disk;  the 
florets  of  the  disk,  as  in  other  '  double '  Corymbiferce,  hav- 
ing assumed  the  appearance  of  florets  of  the  ray.  Dahlias 
have  tuberous  roots,  which  contain  considerable  Dahline, 
or  Inulin  (q.v.),  and  are  in  use  as  food  in  Mexico.  It  was 
at  one  time  attempted  to  introduce  them  into  cultivation 
in  Europe  for  the  food  either  of  man  or  of  cattle;  but  the 
taste  is  nauseous  to  European  palates,  and  even  cattle  do 
not  readily  eat  them.  Dahlias  are  liable  in  northern  coun- 
tries to  be  cut  down  by  early  frosts,  in  the  very  midst  of 
their  flowering;  and  their  tubers  require  to  be  taken  up 
for  the  winter,  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  out  of  the  reach 
of  frost  till  spring.  They  are  propagated  by  seed,  by  cut- 
tings, and  by  tubers.  The  finer  varieties  are  sometimes 
grafted  on  ordinary  stocks. 

DAHLIA  PAPER,  a  kind  of  paper  made  for  the  pro- 
duction of  artificial  flowers,  especially  dahlias. 

DAHLMANN",  ddl'mdn,  Fkiedrich  Christoph:  prof, 
of  history  and  political  science  in  the  Univ.  of  Bonn:  1785, 
May  17-  1860,  Dec.  5;  b.  Wismar.  His  earlier  studies  in 
Copenhagen  and  Halle  were  in  archeology  and  philology; 
but  his  attention  was  subsequently  directed  to  the  study  of 
politics  and  the  history  of  the  middle  ages.  The  results 
appeared  in  his  Vita  Ansgarii,  his  Researches  in  German 
History  (2  vols.  Altona  1822-3),  his  edition  of  the  Dithmarsh 
Chronicle  (Kiel  1827),  and  other  works.  In  1829,  D.  was  ap- 
pointed prof,  of  political  science  in  Gottingen,  where  he 
published  (1830)  his  valuable  work  on  the  Sources  of  German 
History.  Banished  1837,  by  King  Ernest  of  Hanover,  on  ac- 
count of  his  protest  against  the  abolition  of  the  Hanoverian 
constitution,  he  went  to  Leipsic  and  Jena,  where  he  wrote 
his  historical  masterpiece,  History  of  Denmark  (3  vols. 
Hamburg  1840-43).  In  1842,  he  became  prof,  of  history 
at  Bonn,  and  was  prominent  in  the  political  alfairs  of  Ger- 
many after  the  movement  in  1848,  heading  the  constitu- 
tional liberals,  who  were  unfortunately  too  reasonable  to 
be  successful. 

435 


DAHOMEY— DAHRA. 

DAHOMEY,  dd-Mmd:  independent  stale  of  Guinea,  w. 
Africa,  extending  along  the  coast  from  Fort  Badagry  on 
the  e.,  to  the  river  Volta,  which  separates  it  from  Ashan- 
tee,  on  the  w.  Its  limits  have  not  been  precisely  defined, 
but  it  is  usually  regarded  as  extending  back  to  the  Kong 
Mountains.  It  will  thus  lie  between  lat.  6° — 8°  50'  n.,  and 
long.  0°  30' — 3°  e. ;  its  breadth  about  200,  and  its  length 
180  m.  D.  is  for  the  most  part  a  vast  plain,  rising  with 
gentle  ascent  from  the  sea  toward  the  Kong  Mountains, 
with  offsets  of  which  it  is  traversed  in  its  most  northerly 
parts.  Though  it  has  no  river  of  any  importance  save  the 
Volta  on  its  w.  boundary,  it  is  well  watered  by  springs 
and  streams;  and  the  soil,  a  rich,  red- colored  clay,  almost 
quite  free  of  stones,  is  extremely  fertile.  Magnificent  trees 
clothe  the  hills  in  the  north,  and  corn,  beans,  and  peas 
grow  in  splendid  luxuriance  on  the  plains,  as  well  as  yams, 
potatoes,  melons,  limes,  oranges,  pine-apples,  and  other 
tropical  fruits;  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  indigo  also  are 
raised.  The  scenery  is  described  as  exceedingly  varied  and 
beautiful.  Lions,  tigers,  elephants,  hyenas,  and  enormous 
snakes  of  the  boa  kind  abound.  The  Dahomans,  who 
came  into  possession  of  this  tract  of  country  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  c,  are  for  the  most  part  tall,  well- 
formed,  and  intelligent,  and,  for  an  African  race,  singu- 
larly honest  and  far  advanced  in  agriculture.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  Mohammedans,  whose  religious  belief 
is  in  no  way  interfered  with,  they  all  are  pagans,  and  prac- 
tice fetish-worship.  The  king  is  the  most  absolute  of  des- 
pots. Wholesale  murder  is  one  of  the  chief  features  in  re- 
ligious and  state  ceremonies;  but,  according  to  Captain 
Burton,  who  visited  D.  1864,  the  number  of  the  victims 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  Still,  as  many  as  500  human 
victims  are  sometimes  sacrificed  at  one  *  grand  custom;' 
the  present  king  immolated  that  number  at  the  death  of 
his  father.  Of  the  regular  army  of  15,000,  about  2,500  are 
Amazons  (devoted  to  celibacy),  who  are  the  most  effective 
soldiers,  but  exceedingly  ferocious.  The  revenue,  until  re- 
cent years,  depended  greatly  on  the  sale  of  slaves;  but  the 
vigilance  of  the  cruisers  employed  to  prevent  the  traffic 
has  greatly  reduced  this  source  of  income.  Hence  the 
monster  slave-hunts  formerly  periodical  are  now  rare.  In 
1876,  the  coast  of  D.  was  placed  under  a  strict  blockade  by 
Great  Britain,  on  account  of  an  outrage  on  a  British  sub- 
ject, for  which  the  king  of  D.  refused  satisfaction. — Pop. 
180,000.— Abomey  (q.v.),  or  Agbome,  is  the  capital.  See 
Forbes's  Dahomey  and  the  Dahomans;  Burton's  Mission  to 
Gelele,  King  of  Dahomey;  Skertchly's  Dahomey  as  It  is  (1874). 

DAHRA,  dd'rd:  district  of  Algeria,  formerly  inhabited 
by  the  Ouled-Riahs,  a  Kabyle  tribe.  It  has  acquired  a 
melancholy  celebrity  as  the  scene  of  a  frightful  massacre  by 
the  French,  1845,  June.  The  district  contains  immense 
caverns.  In  these  the  Ouled-Riahs,  hotly  pursued  by  the 
French  under  Col.  (afterward  Marshal)  Pelissier,  took  ref- 
uge. They  were  ordered  to  surrender  their  arms  and 
horses,  and  were  promised,  in  return,  life  and  liberty.  On 
their  refusal,  fascines  were  made  up,  kindled,  and  placed 

436 


DAILY-DAIR-EL-KAMAR. 

at  the  entrance  of  the  caves.  Thrice  Col.  Pelissier  sent  a 
flag  of  truce,  exhorting  the  imprisoned  Kabyles  to  accept 
his  terms,  but  in  vain — the  last  messenger  being  received 
with  a  discharge  of  musketry.  The  fire  was  therefore  again 
kindled  in  all  its  intensity,  and  gradually  the  cries  of  agony 
from  the  interior  of  the  caverns  ceased,  until  nothing  broke 
the  dead  silence  but  the  occasional  crackling  of  the  green 
wood  of  which  the  fascines  consisted.  When  the  caverns 
were  examined,  about  600  dead  bodies  were  found  scattered 
here  and  there;  but  it  was  calculated  that  in  all  (including 
those  who  afterward  died  and  those  who  could  not  be  got 
at)  about  800  had  been  suffocated  b}^  smoke,  or  goretl  to 
death  by  the  maddened  cattle  whom  they  had  brought 
with  them  into  their  fatal  asylum.  The  news  caused  a 
great  sensation  in  Paris.  Marshal  Soult,  minister  of  war, 
formally  condemned  the  deed;  but  Marshal  Bugeaud,  gov. 
of  Algeria,  affirmed  that  Pelissier  had  only  acted  under 
positive  orders. 

DAILY,  a.  daU:  see  under  Day. 

DAIMIEL,  dl-me-el' :  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Ciudad 
Real,  20  m.  e.n.e.  of  the  city  of  Ciudad  Real.  It  is  moder- 
ately well  built;  it  has  several  squares,  and  its  principal 
streets,  though  unpaved,  are  wide  and  comparatively  clean. 
Its  chief  buildings  are  the  churches  of  San  Pedro  and  Santa 
Maria— the  former  a  Doric,  and  the  latter  a  Gothic,  struc- 
ture— a  town-hall,  and  a  hospital.  D.  is  environed  by  fine 
public  walks  and  gardens,  and  has  manufactures  of  woolens, 
linen,  blonde  lace,  etc.    Pop.  10,000. 

DAIMIO,  di'mi-d:  official  title  of  the  ancient  feudal  lords 
or  princes  of  Japan.  They  had  almost  sovereign  power  in 
their  respective  provinces;  but  they  have  in  recent  years 
been  fully  reduced  under  the  authority  of  the  emperor.  See 
Japan. 

DAINTY,  a.  dchi'tl  [W.  dain,  fine,  delicate:  comp.  Gael. 
deanta,  perfectly  formed,  complete:  Bav.  diliitscli,  a  deli- 
cacy (see  Dandy) — lit.,  so  perfect  in  qualities  as  to  delight 
one  of  the  senses] :  pleasing  to  the  taste;  delicious;  delicate; 
effeminately  beautiful;  affectedly  particular  as  to  food; 
over-nice:  *N.  something  nice  or  pleasing  to  the  taste  or 
other  sense;  a  delicacy;  a  term  of  endearment.  Dain'ti- 
NESS,  n.  -nh,  nicety  in  taste;  the  being  very  fastidious  to 
please;  delicacy.  '  Dain  tily,  ad.  -liy  in  an  over-nice 
fastidious  manner.  iV^?^^.— Skeat  says  Dainty  is  from  OF. 
daintie,  agreeableness — fromL.  dignitatem,  dignity;  worth. 

DAIR-EL-KAMAR,  dlr  el-kdm'ar,  or  Deir-el-Kamr, 
ddr-el  Mm'r:  town  in  Syria,  cap.  of  the  Druses;  about  13 
m.  s.s.e.  of  Beyrout.  It  is  on  the  edge  of  a  deep  and  pictur- 
esque glen  of  Mount  Lebanon,  tlie  banks  of  which  and  the 
slopes  above  are  richly  clad  with  mulberries,  olives,  and 
vines,  cultivated  in  terraces  by  an  exceedingly  industrious 
population.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  glen  stand  the 
ruins  of  the  palace  Bteddin,  formerly  the  residence  of 
Emir  Beshir,  who,  for  more  than  half  a  century,  1788- 
1840,  ruled  over  the  Lebanon  with  a  strong  but  impartial 
band.    Pop.  of  D.  abt.  8,000. 

437 


DAIRY. 

DAIRY,  n.  dd'ri  [OE.  dey,  a  female  servant  whose  duty 
was  to  make  cheese  and  butter,  etc. ;  deyry,  the  place  for 
carrying  on  her  work:  Icel.  deigja;  Sw.  deja,  a  dairymaid: 
comp.  Gael,  dair-tliigli  —  dair-igh,  the  building  where 
cattle  were  protected  and  attended  to — from  dair,  the  breed- 
ing of.  cattle;  Ugh,  a  house;  the  old  word  dey  (above)  is 
probably  allied  to  dug,  a  teat,  and  to  Lat.  due-,  to  draw  or 
to  milk;  in  Polish,  doic  is  to  milk]:  primarily  the  place  in 
which  milk  is  kept  and  made  into  butter  and  cheese,  but  in 
its  wider  and  common  signification  including  all  that  per- 
tains to  the  production  and  management  of  milk  on  a  farm. 
Dairymaid,  n.  a  female  servant  engaged  in  the  management 
of  milk  and  its  products.  Dairyman,  n.  a  man  who  keeps 
cows  and  sells  milk.  Dairy-farm,  a  farm  which  depends 
alm.ost  wholly  upon  its  cattle,  and  their  milk.  Note. — 
Skeat  says,  the  older  sense  of  Dairy  is  kneader  of  dough, 
or  baker-woman — from  Icel.  deig;  Sw.  deg,  dough;  the  same 
maid  attending  the  bread-baking  and  the  milking. 

In  the  United  States  the  dairy  business  is  an  interest  of 
rapidly  increasing  magnitude.  It  is  estimated  by  the  de- 
partment of  agriculture  that  there  were,  1888,  Jan.  1,  nearly 
fifteen  million  milch  cows  on  farms.  Besides  these,  in 
towns  and  villages,  from  one  to  two  million  cows  are  con- 
stantly kept  for  the  production  of  milk.  At  the  extremely 
low  estimate  of  350  gallons  average  annual  yield  per  cow 
we  have  nearly  six  billion  gallons  of  milk  produced  in 
this  country  every  year.  Of  this  vast  quantity  a  little  more 
than  one-half  is  made  into  butter,  moi'e  than  one-third  is 
used  as  food,  and  nearly  half  a  billion  gallons  are  converted 
into  cheese.  The  annual  value  of  the  dairy  products  of 
the  country  far  exceeds  that  of  its  enormous  wheat  crop, 
and  in  1886  reached  the  grand  total  of  |380,000,000.  Other 
estimates  place  the  number  of  cows  as  high  as  twenty-one 
million  and  the  annual  value  of  their  products  at  nearly 
1500,000,000. 

Certain  regions  are  much  more  favorable  to  dairying 
than  others,  but  with  skilful  management  and  the  use  of 
improved  methods  the  business  can  be  successfully  con- 
ducted in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  section 
which,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  natural  advantages,  has 
been  called  the  *  dairy  belt '  of  the  United  States  lies 
between  the  40th  and  45th  parallels  of  latitude,  extending 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  and  possibly  as  far 
west  as  the  Pacific.  Of  this  immense  tract  about  one-third 
is  specially  adapted  to  dairy  purposes.  Among  the  require- 
ments of  a  fine  dairy  region  are  a  rich  soil  with  good  drain- 
age, sweet  and  nutritious  grass,  and  pure  w^ater  in  abun- 
dance. But  land  not  specially  adapted  to  the  purpose  can 
often  be  improved,  fine  varieties  of  grass  can  be  introduced, 
and  by  skilful  treatment  many  natural  defects  can  be  rem- 
edied. Improved  methods  of  keeping  milk  and  securing 
cream  have  greatly  reduced  the  risks  of  the  business,  en- 
larged the  area  in  which  dairying  can  readily  be  made  suc- 
cessful, and  by  causing  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the 
products  has  largely  increased  the  profits.  The  dairy  busi- 
ness is  conducted  not  only  as  a  separate  industry,  but  also 
m 


DAIRY. 

largely  in  connection  with  general  farming.  This  is  an 
advantageous  method,  as  the  materials  for  feeding  cows 
can  be  grown  by  the  farmer  more  economically  than  they 
can  be  purchased,  while  the  manure  can  be  profitably  used 
in  the  production  of  crops  for  maintaining  the  animals. 
Winter  dairying  can  be  very  easily  and  profitably  carried 
on  with  general  farming,  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  work 
required  in  the  dairy  can  be  done  when  little  else  can  be 
done  on  the  farm. 

The  breeds  of  cows  especially  valuable  for  dairy  purposes 
are  the  Holstein-Friesian,  Ayrshire,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey. 
But  there  are  others,  as  the  Dutch  Belted  cows,  the  Devon, 
Alderney,  Swiss,  and  some  families  of  Shorthorns,  which 
have  many  admirers  and  by  some  are  considered  superior 
to  those  generally  regarded  as  the  pure  dairy  breeds. 
Among  the  so-called  *  natives,' descended  from  an  excel- 
lent class  of  cows  imported  from  Europe  early  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  country,  there  are  large  numbers  of  cows  which 
have  been  carefully  bred  for  their  milkiog  qualities  and 
are  profitable  for  the  dairy.  Classed  with  the  native  stock 
are  many  thousands  of  grades  of  the  improved  breeds  which 
are  excellent  milkers  and  which  are  nearly  as  sure  as  the 
thorough-breds  to  transmit  their  good  qualities  to  their  off- 
spring. In  point  of  numbers  the  native  stock  overwhelm- 
ingly predominates.  Careful  estimates  based  on  the  regis- 
tration of  the  principal  breeds  indicate  that  the  whole 
number  of  pure-bred  cattle  in  the  country  is  only  about 
two  hundred  thousand.  Of  these  the  herd-books  show  that 
nearly  one-third  are  bulls.  Of  the  improved  breeds  the 
Holstein-Friesian  greatly  exceeds  all  others  in  the  quantity 
of  milk  produced  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  farms  where 
cows  are  valued  not  merely  for  their  milk  but  also  for  their 
capacity  for  making  beef  when  their  usefulness  as  milkers 
has  ceased.  The  Ayrshires  are  excellent  milkers  and  are 
valuable  to  cross  with  native  stock.  The  milk  of  these 
breeds  is  superior  for  the  production  of  cheese.  The  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  cows  are  noted  for  the  high  quality  rather 
than  the  large  quantity  of  their  milk  and  are  unexcelled 
for  the  production  of  butter  as  regards  both  quantity  and 
quality. 

The  yield  of  milk  varies  greatly  with  the  different  breeds 
and  with  animals  of  the  same  breed.  It  is  claimed  that 
there  are  herds  of  Holstein-Friesian  cows  which  give  an 
average  yield  of  18,000  lbs.  of  milk  yearly.  Many  Ayr- 
shire herds  give  a  yearly  average  of  5,000  to  8,000  lbs.  per 
cow.  Some  of  the  best  native  cows  yield  from  4,000  to 
5,000  lbs.  yearly,  but  such  instances  are  extremely  rare. 
There  are  many  herds  in  the  fine  dairy  regions  of  New 
York  which,  according  to  the  cheese-factory  reports,  yield 
little  more  than  3,500  lbs.  of  milk  per  cow  in  a  year,  while 
in  less  favorable  sections  a  much  smaller  average  yield  is 
obtained.  Such  herds  are  unprofitable.  The  animals  of 
which  they  are  composed  should  be  carefully  tested,  the 
poorer  ones  converted  into  beef  at  the  earliest  opportunity, 
and  their  places  supplied  with  more  productive  cows.  A 
much  larger  proportion  of  unprofitable  cows  is  found 


DAIRY. 

among  the  native  stock  than  among  the  pure  breeds,  but 
there  are  occasional  instances  among  the  latter  of  wide 
departure  from  the  ordinary  type.  It  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  occurs  that  extremely  poor.milkers  are  found  in  the 
very  best  dairy  breeds. 

Success  in  the  dairy  business  largely  depends  upon  the 
selection  of  the  cows.  Even  with  the  most  perfect  appli- 
ances and  the  best  possible  management  a  dairy  in  which 
a  large  proportion  of  the  cows  are  poor  milkers  cannot  be 
made  a  hnancial  success.  The  cost  of  maiotaining  a  cow 
which  yields  only  3,000  lbs.  of  milk  annually  is  nearly  and 
in  some  cases  quite  equal  to  that  for  a  cow  giving  from 
5,000  to  6,000  lbs.,  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  the  animals 
is  the  same.  Yet  in  the  older  sections  of  the  country, 
where  the  dairy  business  has  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment, it  is  estimated  by  careful  observers  that  at  least  one- 
third  of  the  cows  do  no  more  than  pay  the  actual  expense 
of  keeping  them.  In  less  favorable  locations  the  propor- 
tion of  unprofitable  cows  is  considerably  larger.  To  the 
low  productive  capacity  of  a  large  part  of  the  slock  of  dairy 
farmers  may  be  attributed  a  large  share  of  the  losses  of 
which  many  of  them  complain.  The  remedy  lies  in  in- 
creasing the  average  yield  of  their  cows.  While  an  imme- 
diate change  in  the  character  of  their  stock  cannot  be  made 
without  great  expense,  a  gradual,  but  rapid,  improvement 
may  easily  be  effected.  The  weeding  out  of  the  poorer 
cows,  whether  thorough-breds,  grades,  or  natives,  and  the 
rearing  of  the  most  promising  calves  from  the  best  milking 
stock,  together  with  higher  feeding  and  better  care  of  the 
animals  which  are  retained,  will  speedily  and  largely  in- 
crease the  yield  and  greatly  improve  the  quality  of  the 
milk. 

If  superior  cow^s  are  to  be  secured  a  large  proportion  of 
them  must  be  raised  on  the  farm.  The  best  cows  are 
seldom  sold,  and  when  they  are  in  the  market  the  price  is 
usually  so  high  that  the  average  farmer  or  dairyman  cannot 
purchase  them.  But  by  taking  his  best  cows  to  a  thorough- 
bred bullg  of  the  breed  w^hich  seems  best  adapted  to  his 
special  purpose,  raising  the  heifer  calves,  feeding  them 
liberally  and  caring  for  them  in  the  best  manner,  the  owner 
of  a  herd  can  in  a  few  years  obtain  a  fine  and  profitable 
lot  of  cows.  But  a  rigid  selection  should  be  made  and 
only  the  best  of  the  heifers  should  be  retained.  The  in- 
ferior ones  should  be  converted  into  beef  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  their  unfitness  for  the  dairy  has  been  demon- 
strated. 

While  good  cows  of  different  breeds  will  lack  resem- 
blance and  will  present  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the 
particular  race  to  which  they  belong,  there  are  some  peculi- 
arities of  form  and  feature  common  to  all  good  milkers 
and  indicating  with  considerable  certainty  their  value  for 
milk  production.  The  principal  of  these  points  are  a  small 
head,  dishing  face,  small  and  tapering  horns,  mild  bright 
eyes,  small  thin  neck,  and  light  fore-quarters.  The  chest 
and  hips  should  be  broad  and  the  abdomen  large,  indicat- 
ing well  developed  heart  and  lungs  and  vigorous  digestive 

440 


DAIRY. 

organs;  the  back  long  and  straight;  the  skin  soft,  loose 
and,  particularly  on  the  udder  and  the  inside  of  the  ears, 
of  a  yellow  tinge;  the  tail  small,  and  the  hair  soft  and  tine. 
The  udder  should  be  large;  the  teats  set  wide  apart,  and 
both  the  winding  veins  around  the  udder  and  the  *  milk 
veins '  passing  from  the  udder  forward  and  into  the  ab- 
domen (which  indicate  the  quantity  of  blood  which  circu- 
lates in  the  milk  glands  and  from  which  the  milk  is  se- 
creted), should  be  very  prominent.  The  larger  the  number 
of  these  points  and  the  more  clearly  they  are  marked  the 
greater  the  probability  that  the  cow  will  be  an  excellent 
milker.  The  milking  qualities  are  very  likely  to  be  trans- 
mitted, and  the  record  of  ancestry  should  always  be  con- 
sidered. By  many  dairymen  the  form  and  extent  of  the 
escutcheon,  or  *  milk  mirror '  is  regarded  as  much  the 
most  accurate  and  important  of  all  the  indications  of  the 
milking  qualities,  though  many  others  place  but  little  re- 
liance upon  its  appearance.  The  discovery  of  this  method 
of  judging  the  value  of  cows  for  the  dairy  was  made  by  a 
French  herdsman  named  Francis  Guenon.  He  observed 
that  on  the  udder,  thighs,  and  perineum  (the  space  ex- 
tending upward  from  the  udder),  the  hair  grows  in  a 
different  direction  from  that  on  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 
he  became  convinced  that  the  size  and  form  of  this  space, 
which  he  named  the  escutcheon,  together  with  the  quality 
of  the  skin  and  hair  growing  thereon,  indicated  with 
great  precision  the  value  of  the  cow  for  milking  pur- 
poses. Guenon  developed  a  very  elaborate  system  which 
several  years  later  he  revised  and  simplified,  though  it 
remains  quite  complicated.  The  escutcheon  is  separated 
into  ten  different  classes,  each  of  which  is  divided  into  six 
orders,  making  60  different  forms  of  more  or  less  favorable 
appearance.  In  addition  to  these,  10  *  bastard '  or  imper- 
fect styles  are  described  It  is  claimed  that  the  size  and 
form  of  the  escutcheon  indicate  the  quantity  of  milk  which 
the  cow  will  yield  and  the  length  of  time  in  which  she  will 
give  a  fair  quantity  of  milk  after  calving,  while  the  quality 
of  the  product  is  shown  by  the  color  and  softness  of  the 
skin  and  the  condition  of  the  hair  on  the  'mirror.'  The 
system  is  applicable  not  only  to  cows  but  also  to  bulls  and 
calves.  In  applying  this,  or  any  kindred  system,  the  fact 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  extent  and  form  of  the 
escutcheon  is  necessarily  modified  by  the  size  and  peculiar- 
ities of  the  breed  to  which  the  animal  belongs.  A  Jersey 
cow  of  the  highest  class  being  a  much  smaller  and  very 
differently  formed  creature  will  have  a  much  smaller 
escutcheon  than  a  Holstein  Friesian  or  a  Shorthorn  of  only 
moderate  milking  capacity.  A¥hile  it  is  probable  that  the 
indications  of  the  escutcheon  are  not  infallible,  they  may,  in 
connection  with  the  other  points  which  have  been  noted, 
prove  of  considerable  assistance  in  estimating  the  milking 
qualities  of  cows  concerning  which  little  or  nothing  is  def- 
initely known. 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  cow  is  about  285  days, 
varying,  however,  from  240  to  301  days.  A  male  calf  is 
usually  carried  a  few  days  longer  than  a  female,  and  an  old 

441 


DAIRY. 

cow  goes  a  little  longer  with  calf  tliao  a  heifer.  In  the  case 
of  Jerseys,  the  breeding  periods  often  begin  when  the  calf  is 
only  seven  or  eight  months  old,  but  in  the  larger  and  less  pre- 
cocious breeds  they  do  not  begin  till  the  animal  has  reached 
the  age  of  12  or  14  months.  Of  late  the  tendency  has  been 
strongly  toward  early  breeding;  and  instead  of  waiting,  as 
was  formerly  the  custom,  until  the  animal  is  three  years 
old  before  she  drops  her  first  calf  it  is  not  unusual  for  the 
best  dairymen  to  have  their  heifers  calve  when  two  years 
of  age.  A  period  of  about  nine  months  is  then  allowed  to. 
pass  before  breeding  again,  thus  bringing  the  second  calf | 
when  the  cow  is  three-and-a-half  years  old.  This  plan 
makes  the  heifer  a  source  of  income  at  an  early  age,  and, 
what  is  far  more  important,  causes  a  fuller  development  of 
the  milk-producing  tendency  and  greatly  shortens  the 
period  in  which  she  will  go  dry  between  the  times  of  calv- 
ing. The  cow  usually  increases  in  value  until  she  has  had 
her  third  calf,  and  remains  at  her  best  for  four  or  five  years. 
Many  cows  which  are  well  fed  and  cared  for  are  very  pro- 
ductive till  the  age  of  15  or  18  years,  but  very  old  cows 
are  not  usually  profitable  as  their  milk  is  of  poorer  quality 
than  that  of  younger  ones  and  a  much  larger  amount  of 
food  is  required  to  produce  a  given  quantity. 

The  calf  should  be  removed  from  the  cow  very  soon  after 
it  is  dropped,  tied  with  a  strap  around  its  neck  in  a  com- 
fortable pen  or  stable,  wiped  dry,  and  in  a  short  time  fed 
with  milk  drawn  from  its  dam.  For  a  few  days  it  should 
be  fed  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  fresh,  warm  milk. 
During  this  time  it  can  be  readily  taught  to  drink  from  a 
pail  by  allowing  it  to  suck  two  or  three  fingers  which 
should  be  immersed  in  the  milk  and  gradually  withdrawn 
when  it  begins  to  take  its  food  freely.  In  four  days  the 
milk  from  the  cow  will  be  suitable  for  use  in  the  dairy.  If 
the  calf  is  to  be  turned  into  veal  it  will  require  a  large 
proportion  of  the  milk  of  its  dam  until  it  is  fattened,  a 
period  of  from  four  to  six  weeks.  Many  dairymen  allow 
the  calf  to  suck  the  cow  during  this  time,  but  it  is  better 
for  the  cow  that  she  should  not  see  the  calf  after  they  have 
been  separated.  The  calf  should  be  fed  with  warm  milk 
morning  and  night.  If  the  calf  is  to  be  raised  it  should  be 
given  new  milk  for  four  or  five  days  when  half  the  ration 
may  be  skimmed  milk  which  should  be  mixed  with  that 
fresh  from  the  cow,  and  the  whole  warmed  to  the  tem- 
perature of  new  milk.  When  four  or  five  weeks  old  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  oatmeal  or  oil  meal  may  be  given  each  day. 
The  quantity  should  be  gradually  increased  as  the  calf 
grows  larger,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  over-feed. 
When  two  or  three  months  old  the  calf  will  drink  water, 
and  should  thenceforth  be  supplied  with  it  regularly.  If 
the  weather  is  warm  a  small  pasture  near  the  barn  should 
be  provided.  If  cold,  the  calf  should  have  a  comfortable 
stable  and  be  given  a  moderate  quantity  of  fine  hay.  Milk 
should  be  fed  for  six  or  eight  months,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  time  the  calf  should  be  put  in  the  stable  with  the 
cows.  She  should  have  an  abundance  of  good  food,  but 
an  efl'ort  should  be  made  to  promote  growth  rather  than 

442 


DAIRY. 

fattening.  She  should  be  handled  frequently,  taught  to 
follow  with  a  rope  around  the  horns,  and  always  be  kindly 
treated. 

While  the  selection  of  good  cows  of  a  suitable  breed  for 
the  special  line  of  dairying  pursued  (the  production  of 
milk,  butter,  or  cheese),  is  a  matter  of  very  great  import- 
ance, it  is  equally  necessary  that  they  should  be  well  cared 
for,  and  receive  a  liberal  quantity  of  food  of  the  best 
quality.  The  improved  breeds  have  been  obtained  by  the 
skilful  selection  of  animals  for  breeding,  re-enforced  by 
extra  care  and  liberal  feeding.  It  is  only  by  continued  at- 
tention to  these  points  that  the  high  standard  w^hich  has 
been  reached  can  be  maintained.  The  neglect  of  either 
will  result  in  rapid  deterioration.  As  milk,  like  all  other 
animal  products,  is  derived  from  the  food,  it  follows  that 
the  quantity  and  quality  secreted  will  be  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  food  with  which  the  cow  is  supplied.  A 
certain  quantity  of  food  is  required  to  repair  the  waste  of 
the  system  and  maintain  the  natural  heat.  If  milk  is 
secreted  it  must  be  derived  from  food  which  is  supplied 
in  excess  of  these  requirements,  or,  if  this  is  wanting,  from 
the  fat  which  has  previously  been  stored  in  the  body.  In 
the  latter  case  the  covv^  loses  flesh  and  yields  but  little  milk. 
But  if  liberally  supplied  with  suitable  food  the  cow  has 
more  material  than  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  animal 
functions,  and  converts  the  remainder  into  either  milk  or 
fat.  Cows  with  a  strong  tendency  to  fatten  should  be 
turned  over  to  the  butcher  as  they  are  rarely  good  milkers. 
If  milk  is  to  be  converted  into  butter  the  cows  should  be 
liberally  fed  with  good  hay,  and  receive  in  addition  a  few 
quarts  of  Indian  meal  or  wheat  bran,  or,  better,  a  mixture 
of  the  two.  Cotton-seed  meal,  when  carefully  fed,  is  also 
of  great  value,  but  if  too  freely  used  it  injures  the  cows 
and  seriously  impairs  the  quality  of  the  butter.  On  the 
latter  account  its  use  is  prohibited  by  many  creameries 
which  have  high  reputation  for  the  quality  of  their  prod- 
ucts. Linseed-oil  meal  is  also  valuable  if  given  in  only 
small  quantities,  but  is  open  to  the  objections  made  to 
cotton  seed  meal,  besides  being,  in  proportion  to  its  actual 
worth  for  the  production  of  milk,  somewhat  more  expen- 
sive. If  the  milk  is  to  be  made  into  cheese,  the  feeding  of 
clover,  bean  or  pea  meal,  and  other  substances  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  nitrogen,  will  give  better  results. 
But  such  materials  must  be  given  in  only  moderate 
quantities,  as  an  excess  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food 
is  liable  to  cause  disease.  Indian  corn  is  valuable  to  feed 
green  during  the  mid-summer  months  when  the  pasturage 
is  deficient,  and  also  to  put  into  the  silo  for  winter  use. 
(See  Ensilage.)  Certain  roots,  as  carrots  and  mangolds, 
also  are  very  useful  in  winter.  Turnips,  however,  are 
likely  to  impart  a  strong  and  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  milk 
and  butter,  and  if  fed  at  all  should  be  in  very  small  quan- 
tities. As  milk  is  87  per  cent,  water,  it  is  evident  that 
cows  should  be  supplied  Avith  pure  water  in  abundance. 
A  limited  quantity  of  water,  even  if  the  quality  is  the  best, 
will  certainly  cause  a  small  yield  of  milk,  while  impure 
443 


DAIRY. 

water  not  only  taints  the  milk,  but  is  a  prolific  source  of 
disease.  Cows  require  protection  from  severe  hcr.t  in 
summer  and  from  excessive  cold  in  winter.  Shady  pr-s- 
tures  should  be  furnished  during  the  former  season,  and 
warm  but  well  ventilated  barns  in  the  cold  weather.  The 
stables  should  be  kept  clean  and  be  made  as  comfortable  as 
possible. 

Milking  should  be  done  twice  daily,  by  the  same  per- 
sons, and  as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  hours.  A  change 
of  milkers  or  irregularity  in  the  time  of  milking  will 
diminish  the  yield.  A  large  number  of  milking  machines 
have  been  devised,  but  none  of  them  have  proved  success- 
ful, while  some  have  seriously  injured  the  cows  upon 
which  they  have  been  used.  In  cases  of  severe  soreness 
of  the  teats  the  use  of  silver  tubes  until  the  sores  are  healed 
is  beneficial,  but  their  regular  use  is  not  to  be  commended. 
The  milk  should  be  drawn  by  hand,  gently,  but  as  rapidly 
as  possible  aod  the  milker  should  not  stop  until  the  udder 
has  been  entirely  emptied.  The  greatest  care  as  to  clean- 
liness should  be  observed  in  drawing  the  milk.  As  it 
quickly  absorbs  bad  odors  it  should  be  at  once  removed 
from  the  stable  and  carefully  passed  through  a  wire 
strainer  and  at  least  two  thicknesses  of  dairy-cloth. 

If  the  milk  is  to  be  set  in  open  pans  a  cool  and  conveni- 
ent milk  room  should  be  provided.  An  abundance  of  pure 
water  and  conveniences  for  regulating  the  temperature  are 
indispensable.  Another  requisite  when  the  milk  is  not  at 
once  removed  from  the  farm  is  the  use  of  ice  in  summer. 
By  this  means  a  larger  quantity  of  cream  can  be  obtained, 
and  butter  can  be  made  in  mid-summer  of  as  good  quality 
as  in  the  most  favorable  season  of  the  year.  A  small 
building  for  the  storage  of  ice  should  be  located  near  the 
milk  room.  (See  Ice  House.)  When  the  milk  is  strained  in 
open  and  shallow  pans  it  is  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed 
until  the  cream  has  separated  and  risen  to  the  top,  the  time 
required  depending  upon  the  temperature  and  being  much 
longer  in  winter  than  in  summer.  When  the  separation  is 
complete  or,  on  account  of  the  souring  of  the  milk,  has 
ceased,  the  cream  is  removed  with  a  perforated  skimmer 
and  placed  in  earthen  jars.  Improved  methods  are  rapidly 
taking  the  place  of  this  way  of  securing  the  cream.  These 
methods  vary  in  some  minor  particulars  but  use  either  the 
principle  of  deep  setting,  or  rapid  cooling  of  the  milk,  or 
both  combined.  One  of  the  leading  systems  is  to  strain  the 
milk  into  cans  19  inches  deep  and  9  inches  in  diameter,  and 
submerge  them  in  water,  which,  by  means  of  ice  in  sum- 
mer, is  constantly  kept  at  a  low  and  nearly  uniform  tem- 
perature. The  tank  in  which  the  water  is  placed  is  lined 
with  zinc,  and  is  made  of  the  proper  size  to  hold  the  num- 
ber of  cans  reqired.  The  covers  of  the  cans  do  not  shut 
closely,  but  have  flaring  edges  which  project  about  two 
inches  below  the  top.  When  the  can  is  submerged 
the  air  under  the  cover  is  condensed,  and  prevents  water 
from  reaching  the  milk  while  it  allows  the  rapid  absorp- 
tion by  the  colder  water  of  any  odors  which  the  milk  may 
contain.    Ice  is  put  in  the  tank  twice  a  day  in  summer, 

444 


DAIHY. 

and  less  often  in  cooler  weather.  The  water  needs  to  be 
occasionally  changed.  The  temperature  should  be  kept  at 
about  45  degrees  in  warm  weather,  and  40  degrees,  or  a 
little  below,  in  winter.  This  will  insure  the  separation  of 
the  cream  from  the  milk  in  12  hours.  If  the  temperature 
is  much  higher  a  longer  period  is  required.  By  this 
system  impurities  from  the  air  are  excluded,  the  complete 
separation  of  the  cream  is  effected,  and  both  cream  and 
milk  are  perfectly  sweet  when  removed  from  the  tank. 
The  skimming  is  done  by  means  of  a  faucet  at  the  bottom 
of  the  can  through  which  the  milk  is  drawn.  Somewhat 
similar  systems  which  do  not  require  the  use  of  ice  take  a 
longer  time  for  separating  the  cream,  and  need  a  larger 
number  of  cans  for  a  given  quantity  of  milk.  By  what  is 
known  as  the  centrifugal  system  the  cream  is  separated  from 
the  sweet  milk  by  mechanical  action.  The  milk  is  placed 
in  a  cylinder  which  is  caused  to  revolve  about  1,200  times 
a  minute.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this  method  the  most  com- 
plete separation  can  be  effected,  and  that  the  cream  is  of 
better  quality  and  can  be  more  readily  converted  into 
butter  than  that  obtained  in  any  other  manner.  The 
quantity  of  cream  in  a  given  quantity  of  milk  varies  greatly 
with  different  cows,  also  with  the  milk  of  the  same  cow  at 
different  times.  The  latter  variation  is  very  perplexing  to 
the  dairyman  and  occurs  often  without  apparent  cause. 

The  plan  of  associated  dairying  devised  in  1850  by  Jesse 
Williams,  who  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  N.  Y.,  has 
revolutionized  the  methods  of  dairy  management  in  large 
portions  of  the  country.  The  establishment  of  cheese 
factories  and  creameries  has  given  a  powerful  impetus  to  the 
business,  eft'ected  a  great  saving  of  labor,  diminished  the 
liability  of  loss  and  secured  a  greater  degree  of  uniformity 
in  the  product  than  was  possible  under  the  old  methods. 
Where  cheese  is  made,  the  milk  is  taken  to  the  factory 
by  the  producer  in  large  cans,  once  a  day  in  winter  and 
twice  each  day  in  summer.  When  butter  is  made,  the 
factory  employs  a  man  to  collect  the  cream.  Each  patron 
sets  the  milk  in  the  same  style  of  cans  with  gauges  pre- 
cisely alike.  The  cream  gatherer  calls  each  day,  draws 
off  the  milk,  marks  the  number  of  spaces  or  inches  of 
cream  indicated  by  the  gauge  in  a  book  which  he  carries, 
and  also  on  a  card  hung  on  the  wall  of  the  milk  room,  and 
places  the  cream  in  large  cans  which  he  delivers  at  the  fac- 
tory when  his  round  is  finished,  together  with  the  figures 
showing  the  quantity  obtained  from  each  patron.  Both 
cheese  and  butter  factories  usually  pay  their  patrons  once 
a  month.  When  the  milk  is  sold  it  is  put  into  large  cans, 
partially  cooled,  and  taken  to  the  shipping  station  every 
evening. 

The  profits  of  dairying  vary  greatly  with  the  location, 
the  condition  of  the  land  and  the  market,  the  facilities  for 
carrying  it  on,  and  the  degree  of  skill  with  which  the  busi- 
ness is  conducted.  When  the  milk  is  taken  from  the  farm 
there  is  a  constant  and  considerable  loss  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphates,  and  consequently  a  rapid  and  continuous 
diminution  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil  which  can  only  be 

445 


DAIS— DAISY. 

prevented  or  compensated  by  the  application  oi  manures 
or  commercial  fertilizers.  When  only  the  butter  is  sold 
and  the  skimmed  milk  is  fed  to  the  farm  stock  the  loss  to 
the  land  consists  mainly  of  carbon,  which  can  be  replaced 
at  slight  expense.  Whatever  branch  is  pursued  the  dairy 
business  requires  a  large  amount  of  labor  and  close  and 
constant  attention.  But  the  demand  for  dairy  products  of 
a  high  grade  has,  for  many  years,  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  supply,  and  will  d*^oubtless  continue  to  do  so.  With 
a  great  and  constantly  enlarging  foreign  demand,  and  a 
rapidly  extending  domestic  market  for  its  products,  the 
dairy  business  must  continue  to  be  aprotitable  branch  of  ag- 
riculture, and  a  source  of  great  and  permanent  prosperity 
to  the  country  at  large. 

DAIS,  n.  claw  [F.  dais  or  daiz,  a  canopy  over  the  head 
of  a  throne,  the  whole  seat — from  OF.  dots,  more  rarely  dez 
or  detz:  in  OF. ,  dais  meant  a  table — from  L  discus,  a  round 
plate:  comp.  Gael,  dais,  a  heap,  a  mow  of  hay  or  corn]: 
term  used  with  considerable  latitude  by  mediaeval  writers. 
Its  most  usual  significations  are  the  folloAving:  1.  A  canopy 
over  an  altar,  shrine,  font,  throne,  stall,  chair,  statue,  or 
the  like.  Tbe  term  was  applied  to  the  canopy  without 
regard  to  the  materials  of  which  it  was  composed,  which 
might  be  cloth,  wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  substance. 
2.  The  chief  seat  at  the  high  table  in  a  hall,  with  the 
canopy  which  covered  it,  from  which  probably  the  word 
in  all  its  significations  was  introduced,  its  French  meaning 
being  a  canopy.  3.  The  high  table  itself.  4.  The  raised 
portion  of  the  floor,  or  estrade,  on  which  the  high  table 
stood,  and  by  which  the  upper  was  divided  from  the  lower 
portion  of  the  hall;  and  5.  A  cloth  of  state  for  covering  a 
throne  or  table. 

DAISY,  n.  dd-zi  [a  corruption  of  day's  eye:  AS.  dcegesege  a 
daisy,  (Bellis)]:  perennial  plant,  common  in  Europe.  An  em- 
blem of  fidelity  in  days  of  chival  ry,  and  its  beauties  celebraced 
by  Chaucer,  Burns,  and  other  poets;  grown  in  gardens  in 
U.  S. ;  flowers  white,  with  narrow  petals  tipped  with  deli- 
cate crimson.  There  are  many  varieties,  of  which  '  hen 
and  chickens,'  in  which  several  small  flowers  surround  the 
main  head,  is  the  most  peculiar.  The  plant  is  readily  prop- 
agated by  parting  the  roots.  The  western  wild  daisy,  B. 
integrifolia,  is  found  in  the  south-western  states.  Ox-eye 
ddA^y ,c7irysanthemum  leucanthemum,  originalh^  from  Europe, 
has  been  widely  disseminated  e.  of  the  Mississippi,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing  westward.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  stems 
one  to  two  ft.  high,  each  bearing  a  single  flower  at  its  top. 
(Jften  there  are  several  stems  from  one  root.  Flowers  an 
inch  or  more  in  diameter,  white,  with  a  yellow  disk  in  the 
centre.  It  spreads  rapidly,  often  overrunning  mowings 
and  pastures,  and  is  ditficult  to  eradicate.  It  can  be  exter- 
miuated  by  plowing  and  clean  cultivation,  followed  by 
liberal  manuring  and  heavy  seeding  with  grass  and  clover. 
Close  grazing  by  sheep  will  keep  it  down  in  pastures.  In 
many  eastern  cities  immense  quantities  of  the  flowers  are 
used  in  summer  for  bouquets  and  decorations.    They  are 

446 


DAISY— DAKOIT. 

grown  also  under  glass  and  sold  by  florists  during  the 
winter.  See  Chrysanthemum.  Dai  sied,  a.  -zed,  full  of 
or  adorned  with  daisies. 

DAI  SY,  Michaelmas:  see  Aster. 

DAISY-MAT:  a  wool  mat  made  in  a  wooden  frame  with 
round  fluffy  halls  resembling  daisies. 

DAK,  n.  dak,  or  Dawk,  n.  dawk  [Hind.  ddk'\:  a  mode 
of  travelling  by  post  in  the  East:  see  Dawk. 

DAKOIT,  or  Dacoit,  n.  ddk'oyt  [Beng.  dakhe,  a  robber]: 
in  the  E.  Indies,  one  of  a  class  of  highway  robbers  in  n. 
India  who  act  in  gangs:  formerly  the  native  sovereigns 
often  employcL  them  in  war.  They  did  not  scruple  at 
murder  for  the  sake  of  plunder.  Much  has  been  done  by 
govt,  in  British  India  to  break  up  these  bands;  but  in  Ben> 
gal  and  Burmah  some  still  remain.  Dakoi'ty,  n.  -koy'i\ 
the  act  or  practice  of  gang  robbery. 

447 


DAKOTA. 

DAKOTA,  da-ko'ta:  one  of  the  territories  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  n.  by  British  America,  e.  by  Minnesota 
and  Iowa,  s.  by  Nebraska,  and  w.  by  Wyoming  and  Mon- 
tana territories;  between  lat.  42°  30'  and  49°  n.  and  long. 
96°  20'  and  104°  w.;  average  length  n.  and  s.  450  m.,  aver- 
age width  e.  and  w.  350  m.;  area  149,100  sq.  m.;  acres 
95,424,000;  counties  136.  Of  its  total  acreage,  26,847,105 
acres  are  within  Indian  reservations,  about  7,000,000  were 
granted  by  the  federal  govt,  to  aid  in  the  construction  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  railroad,  3,000,000  are  set  aside  for 
the  support  and  development  of  its  educational  system, 
35,937,930  were  disposed  of  under  the  general  land  laws 
up  to  1887,  June  30,  leaving  22,638,955  open  to  settlement 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year,  1887-8.  The  Sioux  In- 
dian reservation  alone  occupies  over  one-fourth  the  entire 
area,  or  22,010,043  acres,  on  which  there  are  (1888)  23,093 
Indians.  Within  this  tract  are  the  Crow^  and  Winnebago 
reservations,  which  were  thrown  open  to  settlers  during 
Pres.  Arthur's  administration  and  closed  by  Pres.  Cleve- 
land's revocation  of  the  order,  1887.  In  1888,  May,  Pres. 
Cleveland  signed  a  bill,  which  had  to  receive  the  signatures 
of  three-fourths  of  the  Indians  interested  to  become  a  law, 
providing  for  the  opening  to  settlement  by  the  whites  of  a 
portion  of  the  whole  reservation  lying  between  the  Chey- 
enne and  White  rivers,  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  tract,  and 
also  the  w.  part  of  the  remaining  half  in  the  n.  In  all,  the  part 
thrown  open  would  contain  nearly  11,000,000  acres,  almost 
half  the  Sioux  tract,  the  greater  portion  of  it  susceptible  of 
cultivation.  The  bill  guaranteed  liberal  compensation  in 
money  and  other  lauds  to  the  Indians,  and  was  regarded 
as  a  necessity  for  the  further  development  of  the  territory 
as  well  as  that  entire  section  of  country,  because  the  reser- 
vation, the  largest  in  the  United  States  except  the  Indian 
terr.,  formed  a  barrier  against  the  enlargement  of  the  agri- 
cultural, mining,  and  railroad  interests.  In  Aug.  a  draft 
of  the  proposed  treaty  was  presented  the  Sioux  in  council 
assembled,  and  after  debating  it  several  days  they  refused 
to  sign  it. 

Topograpliy , — D.  has  no  mountain-ranges,  and  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  Black  Hills  summits  and  a  few 
scattered  buttes,  none  of  which  exceed  7,000  ft.  in  height, 
is  a  vast  undulating  prairie.  A  plateau  of  an  average  ele- 
vation of  1,420  ft.  above  sea-level  and  from  15  to  20  m. 
wide  extends  from  the  s.  along  the  e.  border  a  distance  of 
200  m.,  and  similar  table-lands,  though  of  less  elevation, 
occupy  the  middle  and  northern  portion.  In  the  s.w.  are 
the  Black  Hills  (q.v.)  and  the  mauvaises  terres,  or  bad  lands. 
The  natural  water-supply  is  large  and  well  distributed. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Missouri,  which  is  navigable  through 
its  entire  course  in  D.,  and  traverses  the  territory  from  the 
n.w.  to  the  s.e.  corners.  Its  largest  tributary  is  the  Yellow- 
stone, which,  flowing  through  Slontana,  joins  the  Missouri 
on  the  border  of  the  territory  in  lat.  48°.  The  Big  Chey- 
enne flows  e.  to  the  Missouri  in  s.  D.  In  the  e.  portion  the 
most  important  tributaries  are  the  James,  formerly  known 
as  the  D.  and  now  colloquially  termed  the  'Jim,'  the  Ycr- 

44b 


DAKOTA. 

milion  and  the  Big  Sioux  rivers;  the  two  last  have  a  length 
of  over  150  m.  each.  The  James  rises  in  Wells  co.  bet. 
parallels  47  and  48,  empties  into  the  Missouri  at  Yankton, 
is  reputed  the  longest  non-navigable  river  in  the  vs^orld,  and, 
though  it  traverses  a  section  measuring  from  its  source  to 
its  mouth  400  m.  on  a  straight  line,  is  so  crooked  that  it 
has  an  actual  flow  of  nearly  1,000  m.,  and  in  some  places 
has  curves  so  sharp  as  nearly  to  unite.  The  Missouri  has 
in  all  about  30  branches  on  the  e.  and  15  on  the  w.  The 
second  river  in  importance  is  the  Red  River  of  the  North, 
which  forms  the  e.  boundary  for  250  m.,  flows  n.  into 
British  America,  and  is  navigated  by  steamers  nearly  200 
m.  s.  in  D.  It  has  8  tributaries  on  the  w.,  varying  in  length 
from  40  to  100  m.  each.  There  are  also  several  hundred 
lakes,  of  which  the  Albert,  Big  Stone,  Long,  Minnewakan 
or  Devil's.  Mcintosh,  Poinsett,  Thompson,  Traverse,  and 
Wood  are  largest  and  most  prominent.  Lake  Minnewakan 
in  the  n.  is  40  m.  long  and  12  m.  in  maximum  breadth, 
and  has  in  its  vicinity  valuable  deposits  of  salt.  It  is  also 
the  centre  of  the  best  game  region  of  the  territory. 

Geology. — Gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron  abound  in  the 
Black  Hills  region  with  traces  of  copper;  bituminous  and 
lignite  coals  are  found  on  the  Little  Missouri  river;  salt, 
limestone,  and  hydraulic  lime  are  abundant  in  the  Red 
River  district;  natural  gas  has  been  developed  at  Blunt, 
Jamestown,  and  Fargo;  and  remarkable  deposits  of  quartz- 
ite  or  granite  of  jasper  have  been  discovered  at  Sioux 
Falls,  Dell  Rapids,  and  other  points  on  the  Sioux  river. 
Beside,  these  there  is  petroleum  in  the  Black  Hills, 
slate  and  stone  quarries  on  most  of  the  larger  streams,  and 
brick,  clay,  and  white  marl  on  the  Sioux.  The  Black 
Hills  exhibit  metamorphosed  azoic  rock,  lower  Silurian, 
Devonian,  Carboniferous,  Permian,  Jurassic,  and  cretace- 
ous formations. 

Climate. — The  temperature  ranges  from  18°  below  zero  to 
103^°  P.;  July  and  Aug.  are  the  warmest  months,  and 
Dec,  Jan.,  and  Feb.  the  coldest;  in  the  n.  the  winters  are 
severe  though  quite  enjoyable  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere;  in  the  s.  the  climate  is  mild,  with  hot  days  in 
summer  and  cold  nights;  the  snow-fall  ranges  from  5^  to 
7f  inches;  the  rainfall  is  slight  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  Atlantic  states, varies  in  different  locations,  but  averages 
20  inches  per  annum  for  the  entire  territory.  The  general 
elevation— from  1,000  to  2,509  ft.  above  sea-level — insures,  a 
clear  atmosphere  and  immunity  from  malarial  and  pul- 
monary disorders. 

Agriculture. — Excepting  the  Black  Hills  region,  D.  is 
essentially  a  cereal  country.  The  soil  is  a  rich  black  loam 
in  which  all  kinds  of  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables  grown 
in  the  middle  states  yield  abundantly.  The  plains  are 
covered  with  nutritious  grasses  which  afford  unfailing 
pasturage  the  year  round,  and  the  abundance  of  water 
with  the  equable  climate  combine  to  render  many  sections 
imusually  advantageous  for  stock  farms  and  wool-growing. 
The  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  famous  the  world 
over  for  its  marvellous  productions  of  wheat,  besides  corn, 

443 


DAKOTA. 

rye,  oats,  and  hay,  embraces  an  area  of  over  22,000,000 
acres,  being  222  m.  long  by  156  m.  wide,  and  extending 
about  an  equal  distance  e.  into  Minnesota,  w.  into  D.,  s.  lo 
a  point  near  the  centre  of  the  boundary  line  between  that 
state  and  the  territory,  and  n.  as  far  as  Winnipeg,  cap.  of 
Manitoba,  British  America.  In  her  portion  of  this  enor- 
mous farm,  D.  raised  8,892,000  bushels  of  wheat  alone  in 
1881.  The  special  territorial  census  (1885)  reported  the  num- 
ber of  farmers  in  D.  at  78,362;  acres  in  farms  16,842,412; 
average  size  of  farms  205  acres;  average  value  $1,911,40; 
wages  paid  during  the  year  $5,949,082.  The  crops  re- 
ported were:  corn  15,845,000  bushels;  wheat  27,918,000;  oats 
18,229,000;  buckwheat  51,466;  rye  196,750;  potatoes  2,700,- 
000;  and  hay  1,875,000  tons;  of  other  farm  products:  milk 
1,860,858  gallons;  cheese  116,557  pounds;  eggs  5,852,426 
dozen.  In  1887,  the  corn  crop  rose  to  27,000,000  bushels, 
and  the  wheat  to  60,000,000 — fully  one-seventh  of  the  entire 
wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  in  that  year,  grown  on 
8,899,889  acres.  To  handle  this  vast  production  there  were 
in  n.  D.  206  elevators  and  54  warehouses  w^ith  aggregate 
capacity  of  9,012,000  bushels,  and  in  s.  D.  188  elevators, 
252  warehouses,  capacity  4,881,600  bushels;  a  total  of  844 
elevators  and  806  warehouses  with  aggregate  capacity  of 
18,848,000  bushels. 

Live  Stock. — Cattle-breeding  and  wool-growing,  which, 
promise  to  become  notable  industries  in  D,  in  the  near 
future,  have  not  yet  attained  the  prominence  of  other  busi- 
ness enterprises.  As  near  as  could  be  ascertained  there 
were  (1885)  206,888  horses  valued  at  $16,069,187;  629,145 
cattle,  $14,750,060;  181,845  milch-cows,  $5,610,814;  305,- 
980  swine,  $1,773,849;  other  live  stock,  $2,325,087— total 
value  $40,528,897.  In  1886,  this  value  rose  to  $42,828,888, 
an  increase  of  $86,865,065  in  seven  years. 

Manufactures  and  Industries. — In  1880,  there  were  251 
manufacturing  establishments  in  D.,  employing  a  capital 
of  $771,428,  and  yielding  products  valued  at  $2,378,970; 
the  gold  and  silver  mines  had  a  product  worth  $8,200,000; 
and  26,000  tons  of  coal  were  mined.  In  1885,  exclusive  of 
gold  and  silver  mining,  there  were  257  establishments,  em- 
ploying a  capital  of  $16,677,587,  paying  in  wages  $1,408,- 
886,  and  yielding  products  valued  at  $6,598,218.  The 
most  important  establishments  were:  tiour  and  grist  mills 
85,  cap.  $2,189,400,  wages  $281,484,  product  $8,182,864; 
saw-mills  33,  cap.  $85,800,  wages  $58,910,  product  $179,- 
082;  brick-works  28,  cap.  $145,250,  wages  $88,628,  prod 
uct  $195,075;  breweries  17,  cap.  $528,150,  wages  $71,992, 
product  $392,095;  creameries  16,  cap.  $63,737,  wages  $33,- 
190,  product  $829,157;  railroad-car  shops  6,  cap.  $625,000, 
wages  $251,272,  product  $315,000;  beef  and  pork  packing 
6,  cap.  $449,000,  wages  $94,420,  product  $772,200.  There 
were  also  18  gold  and  1  copper  mining  and  stamping- 
establishments  with  aggregate  capital  of  $11,972,000,  and 
paying  in  wages  $228,250.  In  1886,  four  mines  in  the 
Black  Hills  yielded  a  product  in  gold  and  silver  valued  at 
$3,125,000,  and  all  combined  a  product  of  $5,000,000. 

Bailroads,—'Y\iQ  1885  census  showed  a  railroad  mileage 


DAKOTA. 

in  operation  of  2,877;  main  roads,  the  ISTortliern  Pacilic 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and  Chicago,  Milwaul^ee  and 
St.  Paul.  At  the  beginning  of  1887,  there  were  8,491  m. 
in  operation,  and  700  m.  of  new  road  were  constructed  dur- 
ing that  year,  giving  a  total  of  about  4,200  m.  on  1888,  Jan. 
1.  The  Northern  Pacific  raih'oad  built  a  branch  from 
Grand  Forks  to  Pembina  95  m.  long;  the  St.  Paul  Minne- 
apolis and  Manitoba  one  150  m.  long  w.  from  Minot;  and 
the  Chicago  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  one  from  Bristol  to 
Lake  Preston  75  m.  long.  Besides  these  the  territory  is 
well  supplied  with  local  roads.  The  recent  operations  of 
the  three  principal  railroads  had  the  almost  immediate 
effect  of  opening  the  rich  agricultural  and  stock  lands  of 
the  Mouse  river  region  to  settlement. 

Religion. — In  1887,  there  were  nearly  500  churches,  and 
preaching  stations  of  all  donominations.  The  Rom.  Cath. 
Church,  of  which  D.  is  a  vicariate  apostolic,  reported  pop. 
80,000,  clergy  90,  churches  130,  stations  100,  schools  24 
with  2, 000  pupils,  industrial  schools  for  boys  6,  for  girls 
4,  convents  5,  academies  4.  The  Congl.  churches  num- 
bered 140,  clergy  81,  members  4,461,  Sunday-school  offi- 
cers, teachers,  and  pupils  7,682,  gen.  assocs.  2,  and  dis- 
trict assocs.  6.  Prot.  Episc.  parishes  and  missions  117, 
clergy  46,  communicants  2,311,  missionary  districts  2. 
Bapt.  assocs.  5,  clergy  68,  churches  94,  members  3,096, 
Sunday-schools  64,  pupils  2,876.  Presb.  clergy  70, 
churches  100,  members  3,336,  Sunday  schools  92,  pupils 
4,163.  The  Congl.  churches  had  a  college  at  Yankton,  the 
Presb.  a  univ.  at  Pierre,  the  Meth.  Episc.  a  univ.  at  Mitch- 
ell, the  Prot.  Episc.  two  schools  for  boys,  one  for  girls, 
one  for  boys  and  girls,  and  All  Saints'  School  for  young 
ladies  and  small  boys,  and  the  Bapt.  a  collegiate  institute 
at  Sioux  Falls. 

Education. — The  reports  of  the  census  year  (1885)  showed 
number  of  persons  between  the  ages  of  7  and  20  years 
in  n.  D.  26,760,  s.  D.  60,803;  total  87,563:  pupils  enrolled 
in  public  schools  n.  D.  19,725,  s.  D.  49,350;  percentage  of 
attendance  of  those  enrolled,  63:  teachers  n.  D.  1,146,  s. 
D.  2,999;  total  4,145:  scholars  n.  D.  895,  s.  D.  2,384;  total 
3,279.  In  1887,  53  per  cent,  of  the  largely  increased  school 
population  were  in  regular  attendance.  A  law  of  the  legis- 
lature of  that  year  vested  the  entire  supervision  and  control 
of  the  public  educational  institutions  in  a  territorial  board 
of  education  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  gov.  The 
taxation  for  the  support  of  the  school  system  is  at  present 
of  a  four-fold  character,  county  collectors  levy  a  tax  of  $1 
upon  each  elector,  and  an  additional  tax  of  2  mills  on  each 
dollar  of  taxable  property  in  the  co. ;  township  boards  levy 
a  tax  not  exceeding  3  per  cent,  on  the  taxable  property 
in  the  township;  and  residents  of  a  sub-district  assume  an 
additional  tax  upon  their  property  for  the  support  of  a 
school  in  their  particular  district.  The  fund  collected  by 
the  county  collector  is  divided  among  the  townships  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age,  and  the 
township  and  sub-district  funds  provide  wholly  or  in  part 
for  school  facilities  additional  to  what  the  territory  or  co. 


JDAKOTA. 

is  able  to  supply.  Abundant  provision  has  been  made  by 
the  govt,  for  all  interests  of  education;  the  Indians  at  the 
agencies  receive  thorough  instruction;  and  the  school  law 
requires  that  one  common  school  shall  be  kept  open  in  each 
district  at  least  three  months  in  the  year.  The  majority  of 
the  higher  grade  institutions  are  under  the  management  of 
religious  denominations;  but  the  territory  is  providing 
such  superior  institutions  with  commendable  celerity,  and 
has  a  Univ.  of  Dakota  at  Vermilion,  a  Univ  of  North  Da- 
kota at  Grand  Forks,  a  school  of  mines  at  Rapid  City,  an 
agricultural  college  at  Brookings,  and  normal  schools  at 
Madison  and  Spear  Fish.  The  denominational  and  private 
institutions  are  Pierre  Univ.,  Yankton  College,  Dakota 
Univ.,  Sioux  Falls  Univ.,  All  Saints,  School,  Jamestown 
College,  Tower  Univ.,  Groton  College,  Redmond  College, 
and  Augustinia  College;  and  they  have  an  aggregate  attend- 
ance of  over  600  students.  There  are  eight  public  libraries 
in  D.,  one  of  which  in  Yankton  was  the  gift  of  Congress. 

Public  Charities: — Almost  all  the  bonded  indebtedness  of 
D.  has  been  created  by  the  erection  of  public,  educational, 
and  charitable  institutions.  The  latter  includes  penitentia- 
ries at  Bismark  and  Sioux  Falls,  a  reform  school  at  Plank- 
ington,  a  deaf-mute  school  at  Sioux  Falls,  and  insane  asy- 
lum and  hospitals  at  Yankton  and  Jamestown. 

Finances  and  Banking. — The  territorial  debt  1885  aggre- 
gated $568,700,  and  the  valuation  of  real  and  personal 
property  $106,499,549.  At  the  close  of  1887,  the  indebted- 
ness amounted  to  $1,098,800;  the  valuation  was  (1886) 
$182,542,703,  (1887)  $157,084,865.  There  were  (1885)  35 
national  and  160  private  banks,  having  a  capital  of  $4,514,- 
000,  and  a  surplus  of  $592,359. 

History. — The  territory  is  named  after  a  family  of  Indian 
tribes,  and  is  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  tract  bought  by  the 
United  States  from  France  1808.  The  first  national  improve- 
ment of  the  section  was  the  organization  of  Minnesota  terri- 
tor}^  1849.  A  second  part  was  appropriated  to  Nebraska  terri- 
tory, 1854,  and  from  this  part  D.  territory  was  organized, 
1861,  with  an  area  extending  from  Minnesota  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  lat.  42°  28'  to  49°  n.  Two  years  later, 
all  the  portion  of  D.  w.  of  long.  27  was  utilized  in  form- 
ing Idaho  territory.  In  1864,  Montana  was  organized  out 
of  the  n.  part  of  e.  Idaho,  and  D.  was  given  the  s.  tract, 
comprising  over  91,000  sq.  m. ;  but  it  held  the  large  increase 
of  territory  only  four  years,  because  the  act  of  congress 
authorizing  the  formation  of  Wyoming  territory  provided 
that  it  should  be  given  all  but  2,000  sq.  m.  of  the  tract  trans- 
ferred to  D.  1864.  The  cap.  of  D.  was  established  at  Yank- 
ton, where  the  first  legislature  assembled  1862,  Mar.  17; 
in  1883,  the  capital  was  transferred  to  Bismarck.  Though 
a  few  settlements  by  the  whites  were  made  1859,  emi- 
gration to  D.  was  checked  by  the  Indian  wars  1862-3, 
and  subsequent  isolated  uprisings,  and  in  1870  the  pop. 
aggregated  only  14,181.  The  discovery  of  gold  and  silver 
in  the  Black  Hills  led  to  an  early  settlement  of  that  region; 
but  the  great  prairie  lands  of  the  n.  did  not  attract  capital 
and  agricultural  skill  till  1875.  A  number  of  capitalists, 
m 


DAKOTA. 

large  holders  of  the  bonds  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad 
(taken  at  par,  but  then  worth  only  1 0  cents  on  the  dollar), 
determined  to  save  as  much  as  possible,  and  exchanged  these 
bonds  for  a  great  block  of  the  company's  lands.  In  1875, 
Mar.,  Oliver  Dalrymple,  an  experienced  farmer  of  Minn., 
examined  this  treeless  expanse,  became  convinced  of  its  ex- 
treme value  for  wheat-growing,  and  made  a  contract  with 
the  owners  to  test  the  merits  of  the  soil.  He  plowed 
1,280  acres,  and  his  first  harvest  (1876)  yielded  32,000  bush- 
els of  the  choicest  grain.  As  soon  as  the  results  of  Mr. 
Dalrymple's  experiment  became  know^n,  capital  began  seek- 
ing the  depreciated  railroad  bonds  and  exchanging  them 
for  land,  and  labor  fiocked  from  adjoining  states  to  pre- 
empt govt.  land.  In  1879,  May,  June,  and  July,  the  sales 
of  govt,  land  amounted  to  nearly  700,000  acres,  and  during- 
that  year  1,500,000  acres  were  taken  on  homestead,  pre- 
emption, and  tree  claims.  In  1880,  the  pop.  had  increased 
to  135,177.  Since  the  first  furrow  was  turned  in  the  Red 
Eiver  valley,  there  has  been  no  failure  of  crops  from 
drought,  excessive  rains,  blight,  mildew,  rust,  or  other  cli- 
matic influences.  Mr.  Dalrymple's  experimental  farm  in- 
crease by  rapid  additions  from  1,280  acres  to  over  75,000, 
and  this  great  area  is  divided  and  subdivided  till  it  repre- 
sents farms  of  an  average  of  250  acres  each.  His  assistants 
are  divided  into  managers,  supts.,  and  foremen;  almost  the 
entire  work,  the  plowing,  harrowing,  sowing,  reaping, 
and  threshing,  is  done  by  machinery;  and  from  beginning 
to  end  the  season 's  operations  are  as  regular  as  clock-work. 
Beside  this  noted  instance  of  advanced,  scientific  grain - 
growing,  there  are  the  Grondin,  Alton,  Cass,  Cheeney, 
and  Smith-Dodge  farms,  nearly  equalling  Dalrymple's  in 
size,  and  managed  on  the  same  comprehensive  scale. 

Claims  for  Statehood. — The  question  of  the  admission  of 
the  territory  into  the  Union  as  a  state  has  been  before  the 
people  of  D.,  the  general  public,  and  congress  in  several 
forms,  since  the  census  of  1880  demonstrated  that  it  had 
more  than  the  requisite  number  of  permanent  inhabitants. 
The  first  important  movement  was  1882,  Jan.  5,  when  a 
convention  was  held  at  Fargo,  at  which  every  co.  but  two 
of  n.  D.  had  representatives.  Resolutions  were  adopted 
expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  delegates,  first,  that  the  ter- 
ritory should  be  immediately  divided  in  order  that  the 
transaction  of  public  business  might  be  rendered  less  bur- 
densome, the  46th  parallel  of  lat.  being  suggested  as  a  nat- 
ural dividing  line;  and  secondly,  by  that  the  s.e.  portion  of 
the  domain  should  be  erected  into  a  state.  In  support  of 
the  first  proposition  it  was  aflirmed  that  the  U.  S.  district 
judge  at  Fargo  was  compelled  to  travel  3,200  m.  every  year 
to  attend  the  regular  sessions  of  the  supreme  court  at  Yank- 
ton; that  the  U.  S.  marshal  and  the  U.  S.  district-atty.  had 
to  attend  two  sessions  of  the  district  court  each  year;  that 
prisoners,  insane  patients,  and  other  public  wards  had  to 
be  transported  long  distances,  and  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  territory,  to  reach  the  public  institutions;  and  that 
the  two  sections  had  no  interests  in  common.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  accommodate  public  business  and  provide 

453 


DAKOTA. 

greater  incentives  to  agricultural,  industrial,  and  manufac- 
turing labor,  it  was  voted  expedient  to  have  two  territories 
and  one  state  organized  from  the  existing  domain,  the  n. 
portion  to  be  known  as  the  Territory  of  Pembina,  and  the 
s.  as  the  Territory  of  Lincoln.  In  the  mean  time  bills  had 
been  introduced  into  congress  providing  for  the  admission 
of  a  portion  of  the  territory,  and  had  been  referred  to  the 
proper  committees.  In  Feb.,  the  house  committee  on  terri- 
tories reported  a  bill  providing  for  the  admission  as  a  state 
under  the  name  of  the  state  of  D.  of  the  portion  included 
within  these  boundaries  :  beginning  at  a  point  on  the  w.  line 
of  the  state  of  Minn.,  where  the  46th  parallel  of  n.  lat.  inter- 
sects the  same;  thence  s.  along  the  w.  boundary  lines  of  the 
states  of  Minn,  and  la.  to  the  point  of  intersection  with  the 
n.  boundary  line  of  the  state  of  Neb. ;  thence  w.  along  the 
n.  boundary  line  of  Neb.  to  the  27th  parallel  of  w.  long.; 
thence  n.  to  the  46  parallel  n.  lat.;  and  then  e.  to  the  place 
of  beginning.  The  e.  part  of  the  s.  half  of  the  territory 
was  designated  as  the  area  of  the  proposed  state.  No  de- 
cisive action  was  taken  on  this  bill.  During  the  winter 
1881-2,  the  territorial  legislature  enacted  a  law  providing  for 
a  constitutional  convention  to  frame  a  constitution  and 
state  govt  for  the  whole  part  s.  of  the  46tli  parallel, but  the 
gov.  neither  signed  nor  returned  the  bill.  A  convention 
was  then  publicly  called  to  consider  the  question,  and  in 
accordance  with  its  recommendation  a  convention  was  held 
1883,  Sep.  4-9  at  Sioux  Falls,  which  framed  a  constitution 
and  assigned  to  the  new  state  that  part  only  of  the  s.  half 
lying  e.  of  the  27th  parallel  w.  long.  On  Sep.  12,  delegates 
from  the  n.  section  met  in  convention  at  Fargo  and  pro- 
tested against  the  action  of  the  Sioux  Falls  body;  but  at  the 
election  in  Nov.  the  constitution  was  ratified  by  a  majority 
of  5,552.  In  1884,  Dec,  a  bill  providing  for  the  erection  of 
the  s.  half  into  a  state  under  the  name  of  D.  and  the  contin- 
uance of  the  n.  half  as  a  territory  under  the  name  of  Lincoln 
passed  the  U.  S.  senate,  but  reached  no  decision  in  the  house. 
The  question  as  to  whether  it  would  be  best  to  have  the  terri- 
tory admitted  into  the  Union  as  two  states  or  as  one  was  sub- 
mitted to  popular  vote  1887,  Nov.,  and  a  majority  of  the 
voters  favored  a  division  on  the  7th  standard  parallel  or  the 
46th  parallel  of  lat.  Up  to  1888,  Aug.,  no  enabling  act  was 
passed  by  congress  authorizing  a  convention  to  draft  a  con 
stitution  and  form  a  state  govt.,  yet,  in  their  anxiety  for 
statehood,  the  citizens  of  the  portion  directly  interested  had 
taken  both  steps  in  advance.  A  local  controversy  between 
the  sections  over  the  issue  of  some  co.  bonds  was  pending 
several  years,  and,  it  was  believed,  had  much  to  do  with  re- 
tarding the  state  movement  among  the  inhabitants;  while 
the  delay  of  action  by  congress  has  been  freely  attributed  to 
poetical  reasons. 

Government. — The  govt,  is  that  provided  by  congress  for 
all  the  territories,  with  the  exception  that,  on  account  of 
the  large  area,  it  alone  of  all  the  territories  has  six  justices 
of  the  supreme  court,  appointed  by  the  president.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  governors,  with  the  terms  for  which 
they  were  appointed;  William  Jayne  1861-63,  Newton  Ed- 

454 


DAKOTA  RIVER-DALBERG. 

monds  186^-66,  Andrew  J.  Faulk  1866-69,  John  A.  Bur- 
bank  1869-73,  John  L.  Pennington  1873-78,  William  A. 
Howard  1878-80,  Nehemiah  G.  Ordway  1880-84,  Gilbert  A. 
Pierce  1884-86,  Louis  K.  Church  1886-90.  There  are 
10  U.  S.  land  oltices,  10  Indian  agents,  1  collector  and  4 
deputy  collectors  of  internal  revenue  in  D.  The  legislature 
of  1887-88  stood  ;  council,  20  republicans,  4  democrats ; 
house,  37  republicans,  7  democrats,  3  farmers'  alliance,  1 
independent.  At  the  election  for  delegate  in  congress  1886 
the  total  vote  was  104,811,  of  which  the  republican  candi- 
date received  66,932,  and  the  democratic  37,879;  majority 
of  successful  candidate  29,053. 

Population.— {m^))  14,181;  (1880)135,177,  of  which  133, 
147  were  white,  1,391  civilized  Indians,  and  238  Chinese; 
besides  which  were  27, 16S  tribal  Indians;  (1885)  s.  D.  263,- 
411,  n.  D.  152,199;  total  415,610,  of  which  236,045  were 
males,  179,565  females,  150,990  foreign-born,  58, 530  natives 
of  D.,  and  206,090  natives  of  other  states  and  territories; 
(1887  est.)  600,000  besides  the  tribal  Indians. 

DAKOTA  (or  James)  River:  water-course  of  Dakota, 
emptying  into  the  Missouri  below  Yankton,  after  a  course 
of  abt.  600  m. 

DAKOTAS,  or  Sioux:  see  Sioux:  Indians. 

DALAI-LAMA:  see  Lamaism. 

DALAMOW,  ddl'a-mow:  city  of  Oude,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ganges;  68  m.  above  Allahabad;  lat.  26°  4'  n.,  long. 
ST"  7'  e.  D.  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  holy  place  in  con- 
nection with  its  sacred  river,  having  two  antique  temples  of 
Siva  on  the  margin  of  the  stream,  and  an  ancient  ghat  or 
stair  for  aiding  the  ritual  ablutions  of  the  pilgrims.  Pop. 
abt.  6,000,  of  which  only  250  are  said  to  be  Mohamme- 
dans. 

DALARADIA:  ancient  name  of  a  territory  in  Ireland 
which  comprehended  what  is  now  the  s.  half  of  the  county 
Antrim,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  county  Down.  It  was 
sometimes  called  Gric  na  Griiithne,  '  the  region  of  the  Picts,' 
from  the  Irish,  name  of  its  inhabitants,  otherwise  called  the 
Dal  Araidhe,  '  the  race  of  Fiacha  Araidhe,'  a  chief  or  prince 
of  Ulster,  said  to  have  lived  about  a.d.  236.  The  name  con- 
tinued in  use  till  the  end  of  the  12th  c.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Dalriada  (q.v.). 

DALBERG,  dal'herch,  Karl  Theodor,  Baron  von, 
Chamberlain  of  Worms  and  Archbishop  of  Regensburg: 
1744,  Feb.  8—1817,  Feb.  10;  b.  Hernsheim..  He  studied  in 
Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  and,  after  some  time  passed  in 
travel,  devoted  himself  to  the  priesthood.  At  Erfurt,  of 
which  he  was  appointed  gov.  1772,  he  was  active  and  gen- 
erous as  a  patron  of  literature  and  art,  and  also  contributed 
greatl}^  to  the  social  and  commercial  welfare  of  the  little 
state.  After  holding  several  high  offices  in  the  church,  D. 
was  sent  to  Paris  (1804),  to  assist  in  adjusting  several  eccle- 
siastical affairs  with  Napoleon  and  Pope  Pius  YII.  He  died 
at  Re.<xensburg.  D.  was  as  highly  respected  as  a  ruler  and 
a  scholar  as  for  his  private  character.    During  his  whole 


DALBERGIA— DALGARNO. 

life,  he  cultivated  the  friendship  of  those  eminent  in  litera- 
ture and  art,  such  as  Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland,  etc.  His 
writings — marked  by  sound  learning  and  eloquence  of  style 
— include  a  treatise  On  the  Influence  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences 
on  Social  Order  (1793)  and  Pericles,  or  the  Influence  of  the 
Fine  Arts  on  the  Public  Welfare  (1806).  These  were  his 
favorite  objects  of  study;  but  natural  history,  chemistry, 
botany  mineralogy,  and  agriculture  also  engaged  his  atten- 
tion. 

The  Dalberg  (formerly  Dalburg)  family,  of  which 
Baron  Karl  Theodor  was  the  most  conspicuous  member,  was 
an  ancient  and  noble  German  family,  of  which  several  mem- 
bers held,  by  hereditary  right  derived  from  the  oldest  times 
of  the  middle  ages,  the  office  of  chamberlain  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Worms.  So  great  was  the  renown  of  the  D. 
family,  that  at  every  coronation  of  a  German  emperor  the 
royal  herald  exclaimed:  '  Is  there  no  Dalberg  here?'  where- 
upon the  representative  of  the  family  kneeled,  and  received 
from  the  new  emperor  the  dignity  of  '  first  knight  of  the 
empire.'  Several  members  of  this  family  have  been  cele- 
brated as  patrons  of  literature  and  art. 

DALBERGIA,  dal-herg'i-a:  genus  of  trees  and  climbing 
shrubs  of  the  nat.  ord.  Legnminosiv,  sub  order  PapilionaceoBy 
having  a  stalked  membraneous  pod,  which  is  flat,  tapers  to 
both  ends,  and  contains  1-8  flat  seeds.  The  leaves  are  pin- 
nate, with  a  terminal  leaflet.  All  the  species  are  natives  of 
warm  climates.  Some  are  valuable  timber-trees,  particular- 
ly the  Sissoo  of  Bengal  {D.  Sissoo),  much  prized,  and  more 
extensively  used  in  the  n.  of  India  than  any  other  timber-tree 
except  the  Sal  (q.v.).  D.  monetaria,  native  of  Surinam, 
yields  a  resin  very  similar  to  Dragon's  Blood. 

DALE,  n.  dnl,  or  Dell,  n.  del  [Icel.  dalr,  a  dale,  a 
valley:  W.  twll,  a  hole,  a  pit:  Dan.  dal;  Goth,  dal;  Ger. 
thai,  a  valley]:  a  hollow  where  water  collects  and  runs; 
the  low  ground  between  hills;  a  vale  or  valley.  Dales'- 
MAN,  n.  one  w^ho  resides  in  a  district  of  hills  and  dales. 

DALECARLIA,  dd-ld-kar'le-d,  or  Dalarne,  dd'lar-ne 

valley-country '):  old  province  of  Sweden,  now  forming 
the  liin  or  county  of  Fahlun  or  Falun  (q.v.).  The  Dalecar- 
lians  are  celebrated  for  the  part  they  took  under  Gustavus 
Vasa  in  freeing  their  country  from  the  yoke  of  Christian  II. 
of  Denmark. 

DALGARNO,  dal-gar'no,  George:  abt.  1626-1687,  Aug. 
28;  b.  Aberdeen:  author.  He  studied  at  Marischal  College, 
afterward  kept  a  school  in  Oxford  30  years,  w^here  he  died. 
He  is  notable  for  two  works— the  Ars  Signorum,  Yulgo  Char- 
acter Universalis  et  Lingua  Philoso'phica  (Lond.  1661),  and 
Didascalocophus,  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man's  Tutor  (Oxf. 
1680).  The  former  is  a  very  ingenious  attempt  to  represent 
and  classify  ideas  by  specific  arbitrary  characters  irrespective 
of  words.  It  contains  the  germs  of  Bishop  Wilkins's  subse- 
quent speculations  on  a  '  real  character  and  a  philosophical 
language.'  Leibnitz  has  repeatedly  alluded  to  it  in  compli- 
mentary terms.  The  latter  work  has  for  its  design  *  to  bring 
thc.way  of  teaching  a  deaf  man  to  read  and  w^ite  as  near 


DALHOUSIE. 
as  possible  to  that  of  teaching  young  ones  to  speak  and  under- 
stand their  mother- tongue. '  D.  has  the  great  merit  of  having 
anticipated,  by  more  than  130  years,  some  of  the  most  pro- 
found conclusions  of  the  present  age  respecting  the  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

DALHOUSIE.  ddlMze,  Marquis  of,  James  Andkew 
Broun-Ramsay,  Governor-general  of  India:  1812,  Apr.  23— 
1860,  Dec.  19;  b.  at  Dalhousie  Castle,  Midlothian;  third  son 
of  the  ninth  Earl  of  D.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and 
graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1836,  he  married 
the  eldest  daughter  of  the  eighth  Marquis  of  Tweed  dale;  in 
1837,  was  elected  for  Haddingtonshire,  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  1838,  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  D.,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  upper  house  In  1843,  he  was  appointed,by 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  vice-pres.  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  in 
1845  succeeded  Mr.  Gladstone  as  pres.  of  the  board.  The 
'  railway  mania  '  threw  an  immense  amount  of  labor  and  re- 
sponsibility upon  his  department;  and  his  energy,  industry, 
and  administrative  ability,  and  his  readiness  and  fluency  in 
parliament,  marked  him  out  for  the  highest  oflices  in  the  state. 
When  Sir  Robert  Peel  resigned  office  1846,  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell, who  succeeded  him,  paid  the  Earl  of  D.  the  rare  com- 
pliment of  asking  him  to  remain  at  the  board  of  trade,  in 
order  to  carry  out  the  regulations  that  he  had  fi'amed  for 
railway  legislation  and  intercommunication.  In  1847,  he 
was  appointed  gov. gen  of  India,  successor  to  Lord  Hard- 
inge,  and  arrived  in  Calcutta  1848,  Jan.  12,— the  youngest 
gov. gen  ever  sent  to  that  country.  His  Indian  administra- 
tion was  not  less  splendid  and  successful  in  acquisition  of 
territory  than  in  development  of  the  resources  of  the  coun- 
try and  improving  the  administration.  Pegu  and  the  Pun- 
jab were  conquered;  Nagpore,  Oude.  Sattara,  Jhansi,  and 
Berar  were  annexed — altogether,  four  great  kingdoms,  be- 
sides a  number  of  minor  principalities,  were  added  to  the 
dominions  of  the  queen  under  his  gov. generalship.  Rail- 
ways on  a  colossal  scale  were  planned,  and  partly  com- 
menced; 4,000  m.  of  electric  telegraph  were  spread  over  In- 
dia; 2,000  m.  of  road  between  Calcutta  and  Peshawur  were 
bridged  and  metalled;  the  Ganges  canal,  the  largest  of  the 
kind  in  the  world, was  opened;  the  Punjab  canal  waspndcr- 
taken;  important  works  of  irrigation  all  over  India  were 
planned  and  executed,  and  the  official  department  of  public 
works  was  re-organized.  Among  the  incidents  of  his  benefi- 
cent administration  were  the  permission  to  Hindu  widows 
to  marry  again;  relief  to  persons  of  all  sects  from  the  risk 
of  forfeiting  property  by  a  change  of  religion;  the  improve- 
ment of  education  and  of  prison-discipline;  the?organization 
of  the  legislative  council;  the  improved  trainingof  the  civil 
service,  covenanted  and  uncovenanted:  and  ihe  reform  in 
the  postal  service  of  India,  whereby  a  letter  from  Peshawur 
to  Cape  Comoriu,  or  from  Assam  to  Kurrachee,  is  now  con- 
veyed for  three  farthings,  one  sixteenth  of  the  old  charge. 
D.*s  constitution  had  never  been  strong,  and  it  gave  way 
under  the  incessant  labor  and  responsibility  of  his  high  po- 
sition. Meanwhile,  honors  had  been  showered  upon  him  by 
his  queen  and  country  with  no  sparing  hand;  in  1848,  he 


DALIAS— DALKISSORE. 

was  made  a  knight  of  the  Scottish  order  of  the  Thistle;  in 
1849,  he  received  the  marquisate,  the  thanks  of  both  houses 
of  parliament  and  of  the  E.  India  Company,  for  his  '  zeal 
and  ability  ';  in  1853,  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, he  was  nominated  by  the  then  prime  minister,  the  Earl 
of  Derby,  to  the  office  of  constable  of  her  majesty's  castle 
of  Dover,  and  lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  D.  sailed 
from  Calcutta  1856,  March,  and,  after  much  physical  suffer- 
ing, died  at  Dalhousie  Castle  in  his  48th  year,  leaving  a  name 
among  the  highest  in  the  roll  of  Indian  viceroys  for  states- 
manship, administrative  vig-or,  and  the  faculty  of  inspiring 
confidence. 

DALIAS,  dd'le-ds:  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Almeria, 
:,'0  m.  w.s.w.  of  the  city  of  Almeria,  about  4  m.  from  the 
}, mediterranean.  It  is  badly  and  irregularly  built,  and  is 
jjubject  to  earthquakes.  The  people  are  employed  chiefly 
in  mining,  smelting,  and  fishing.    Pop.  abt.  9,000. 

DALKEITH,  ddl-keth' :  burgh  of  barony,  6  m.  s.e.  of 
Edinburgh,  near  the  junction  of  the  North  and  South  Esk; 
a  station  of  the  North  British  railway.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  one  main  street.  It  has  one  of  the  largest  corn-markets 
in  Scotland;  has  a  large  and  commodious  market-hall, 
erected  1854;  manufactures  of  brushes,  woolens,  and  hats, 
besides  iron-foundries,  tanneries,  and  coal -works.  D. 
arose  round  an  ancient  castle,  loug  a  great  stronghold. 
The  regality  of  D.  was  successively  held  by  the  Grahams, 
the  Douglases,  the  Earls  of  Morton,  and  the  Earls  of  Buc- 
cleuch — the  latter  having  bought  it  from  the  Mortons  1642. 
During  the  minority  of  James  VI.,  D.  Castle  was  the  chief 
residence  of  the  regent  Morton;  hence  it  was  called  the 
Lion's  Den.  General  Monk  lived  in  it  during  his  govern- 
ment of  Scotland  under  Cromwell.  Dalkeith  Palace,  chief 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  and  Queensberry,  built 
about  1700  on  the  site  of  the  old  castle,  is  a  large  square 
structure  overhanging  the  North  Esk,  amid  fine  grounds, 
in  which  the  two  Esks  flow  and  unite.  There  are  about  a 
dozen  places  of  public  worship.  Besides  the  old  parish 
church,  there  is  another,  a  fine  cruciform  structure  in  the 
early  English  style,  built  (1840)  and  endowed  by  the  Duke 
of  Buccleuch.  An  Episcopal  chapel  stands  within  the 
palace  grounds.  D.  possesses  several  good  public  and  pri- 
vate schools.  The  Dalkeith  union  workhouse,  opened 
1849,  was  the  first  in  Scotland.    Pop.  (1881)  6,931. 

DALKISSORE,  ddl'kis-sdr:  river  of  Bengal  Proper,  join- 
ing the  Iloogly  from  the  right  at  Diamond  Harbor,  about 
oO  m.  below  Calcutta.  It  has  a  s.e.  course  of  about  170 
m.,  rising  in  lat.  23°  30'  n.,  and  long.  86°  34'  e.  In  its 
lower  section,  the  D.  assumes  the  name  of  the  Roopnerain. 
That  channel  of  the  Hoogly  which  receives  the  Roop- 
nerain has  of  late  years  become  silted  up  through  the 
same  cause  to  which  the  adjacent  delta  owes  its  existence. 
Moreover,  as  the  tide  sets  strongly  into  the  Roopnerain,  as 
offering  less  resistance  to  its  progress,  many  vessels  bound 
to  Calcutta  have  been  swept  up  the  shallow  estuary  and 
lost. 

468  • 


DALLAS. 

DALLAS,  did' as:  city,  cap.  of  D.  co.,  Texas,  on  the  6. 
bauk  of  the  Trinity  river,  3  m.  below  the  mouth  of  the 
West  Fork,  and  at  the  crossing  of  the  Houston  and  Texas 
Central  and  the  Texas  and  Pacific  railroads;  73  m.  s.  of 
Denison,  122  m.  w.  of  Longview,  186  m.  w.  of  Shreveport, 
La.,  265  n.n.w.  of  Houston,  315  m.  n.  of  Galveston.  It  is 
in  one  of  the  richest  wheat  and  cotton  sections  of  the 
country,  and  has  a  trade  exceeding  that  of  its  long-time 
rival,  Houston,  the  wholesale  and  retail  operations  in  gen- 
eral merchandise  averaging  $27,000,000  per  annum,  and 
the  trade  in  cotton,  grain,  and  other  productions  of  the 
surrounding  country  reaching  $5,000,000.  Its  industries 
embrace  6  Hour-mills,  the  largest  cotton-seed-oil  mill  in 
the  state,  3  iron  and  brass  foundries,  2  grain-elevators,  2 
planing-mills,  2  soap-factories,  an  artificial-ice  factory, 
works  for  the  manufacture  of  railroad  cars,  wagons,  car- 
riages, and  furniture,  baking-powder,  vinegar  and  cham- 
pagne-cider, barrel,  and  broom  factories.  The  buildings 
include  a  handsome  U.  S.  court-house  and  post-oflSce,  a 
CO.  court-house,  merchants'  exchange,  opera-house,  D. 
Medical  College,  D.  Female  College,  and  16  churches. 
The  city  owns  water-works  of  the  Holly  system,  has  large 
gas-works,  and  an  extensive  electric-light  plant,  several 
public  parks,  3  lines  of  street  railroad,  1  national,  3  private, 
and  3  savings  banks,  and  3  daily  and  6  weekly  news- 
papers. The  assessed  valuation  (1872)  was  $922,470;  (1882) 
$4,754,775;  pop.  (1880)  10,358;  (1882)  18,000;  (1883)  23,000. 

DALLAS,  ddl'as,  Alexander  James:  1759,  June  21 — 
1817,  Jan.  14;  b.  island  of  Jamaica:  statesman.  He  stud- 
ied law^  in  London;  settled  in  Philadelphia  1783;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  1785;  appointed  U.  S.  dist.atty.  1801; 
sec.  of  the  U.  S.  treasury  1814;  recommended  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  bank  during  the  financial  depression 
caused  by  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  negotiated  a  large 
loan  advantageously,  and  brought  the  value  of  the  U.  S. 
treasury  notes  to  par;  was  &ec.pro  tern,  of  war  1815;  retired 
from  public  life  1816;  and  resumed  his  law  practice  a  few 
weeks  before  death.  He  was  editor  for  some  time  of  the 
Columbian  Magazine,  and  published  Reports  of  Cases  in  the 
Courts  of  the  United  States  and  Pennsylvania,  4  vols.  8vo 
(1790);  Laws  of  Pennsylvania  from  1700  to  1801,  4  vols. 
8vo;  Exposition  of  the  Causes  and  Character  of  the  Late 
War  (1815);  besides  other  legal  and  financial  works. 

DALLAS,  George  Mifflin:  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist; 1792,  July  10 — 1864;  b.  Philadelphia;  son  of  Alexan- 
der J.  D.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  College,  where 
he  graduated  1810.  Soon  after  becoming  a  lawyer,  he  ac- 
companied Albert  Gallatin  in  his  special  embassy  to  St. 
Petersburg,  as  private  secretary.  On  his  return  he  re- 
sumed the  practice  of  the  law,  and  was  successively  deputy 
of  the  attorney-gen.  of  Philadelphia,  maj^or  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  dist. -attorney  of  Philadelphia,  an  ofiice  w^hich 
his  father  had  held.  In  1831,  he  represented  Pennsylvania 
in  the  U.  S.  senate,  but  after  two  years  retired,  and 
resumed  his  profession.   In  1837,  he  was  appointed  Ameri- 


DALLES— DALMATIA. 

can  minister  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  was  recalled  1839.  In 
18^4,  lie  was  elected  vice-pres.  of  the  United  States,  and 
held  this  office  till  1849.  In  1856,  he  succeeded  James 
Buchanan  as  American  minister  at  the  court  of  St.  James's. 
He  was  empowered  to  settle  the  Central  American  question; 
but  shortly  after  his  arrival,  a  dispute  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments, arising  out  of  the  dismissal  of  Mr.  Crampton, 
British  minister  at  Washington,  by  the  president,  threat- 
ened to  bring  the  diplomatic  mission  of  D.  to  a  premature 
termination.  He  remained,  however,  till  1861,  when  he 
was  succeeded  by  Charles  Francis  Adams.  In  person,  he 
was  tall,  and  of  venerable  aspect.  He  diligently  studied 
the  politics  and  institutions  of  the  mother-country,  and 
during  his  embassy  assiduously  attended  the  debates  in 
both  houses  of  parliament. 

DALLES,  ddlz:  romantic  and  perilous  rapids  on  the 
Columbia  river  in  Oregon,  forming  with  the  Chutes  above 
them,  and  the  Cascades  below  them,  an  almost  continuous 
interruption  between  the  tide-water  of  the  river  and  its 
long  reach — about  400  miles — of  comparatively  practicable 
navigation  toward  the  interior.  They  are  subdivided, 
reckoning  downward,  into  the  Little  D.  and  the  D.  Proper. 
On  the  latter,  the  basaltic  rocks,  which,  from  a  considera 
ble  distance  above,  bound  the  channel,  suddenly  confine 
the  stream  to  one-third  of  its  width,  with  a  perpendicular 
wall  on  either  side;  while  the  damming  up  of  the  plung- 
ing surges  aggravates  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  the 
descent. 

Dalles  City,  or  The  Dalles,  is  a  town,  the  co.  seat  of 
Wasco  CO.,  Oregon.  It  is  on  the  Columbia,  abt.  120  m.  e. 
of  Portland.    Pop.  (1880)  2,232. 

DALLIANCE :  see  under  Dally. 

DALLING  AND  BULWER,  Baron:  see  Bulwer,  Sir 
Henry  Lytton. 

DALLY,  v.  ddl'li  [Icel.  dvala,  to  delay:  Dut.  dwalen,  to 
err:  Ger.  dalen  or  dalilen,  to  chatter,  to  trifle:  Westph. 
dalen,  to  speak  or  act  childishly:  comp.  Gael,  dail,  delay]: 
to  lose  time  by  trifling;  to  fondle;  to  play  with  caressingly; 
to  put  off;  to  amuse  for  the  purpose  of  delay.  Dal'lying, 
imp.  Dal  lied,  pp.  -lid.  Dal'lier,  n.  -ll-er,  one  who. 
Dalliance,  n.  ddl'li-dns,  acts  of  toying  fondness  between 
males  and  females;  act  of  trifling;  a  lingering.  Dilly- 
dally, V.  to  waste  time  in  trifling. 

DALMATIA,  ddl-ma'sM-a:  narrow  strip  of  territory, 
extending  along  the  Adriatic  Sea;  bounded  on  the  n.  by 
Croatia,  on  the  e.  by  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Monte- 
gro;  lat.  42'  15'— 44*^  54'  n.,  long.  14°  30'— 19°  e.  It  forms, 
with  its  adjacent  islands,  the  most  s.  province  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  Area,  4,881  sq.  m;  pop.  (1880)  476,101. 
The  coast  of  D.  is  everywhere  steep  and  rocky,  and 
the  adjacent  islands,  divided  by  picturesque  straits  and 
channels,  are  of  like  character.  Numerous  bays  intersect- 
ing the  coast  form  excellent  havens  and  landing-places. 
Offsets  from  the  Dinaric  Alps  traverse  the  interior,  and 
attai^  in  Mount  Orien,  the  highest  culminating  point, 

460 


DALMATIA. 

6,332  ft.:  the  Yelebich  Mountains,  separating  D.  from 
Croatia,  and  which  belong  to  the  Julian  Alps,  have  a 
height  of  more  than  5,000  ft.  The  mountains  of  D.,  for 
the  most  part  limestone,  present  a  bleak  and  barren  aspect, 
with  many  romantic  chasms  and  fissures,  through  which 
dash  impetuous  mountain-streams.  The  chief  rivers — none 
of  importance — are  the  Zermagna,  Kerka,  Cettina,  and 
Nareuta,  the  second  and  third  of  which  are  broken  in 
several  places  by  beautiful  cascades  and  falls.  The  lakes 
are  numerous,  but,  with  the  exception  of  Lake  Vrana — 
separated  from  the  Adriatic  b}^  only  a  narrow  tongue  of 
land,  and  the  waters  of  which  are  brackish — they  are 
periodical,  drying  up  in  summer,  and  refilling  their  beds 
in  late  autumn.  A  large  part  of  the  whole  area  of  D.  is 
moor  and  morass,  yet  in  summer  there  is  often  scarcity  of 
water.  The  climate  is  in  general  warmer  than  that  of  any 
other  part  of  Austria,  the  African  sirocco  being  occasionally 
felt  on  its  shores.  The  minerals  are  limestone,  coal, 
gypsum,  etc.  Agriculture  is  backward.  About  one-ninth 
of  the  land  is  arable,  and  produces  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
maize,  rye,  and  potatoes.  Wine  and  olives  also  are  pro- 
duced. More  than  half  of  the  land  is  in  pasture,  and 
wood  occupies  about  a  fifth.  The  islands  are  not  very 
fertile,  but  supply  good  timber  for  ship-building.  Cattle- 
rearing,  seafaring,  and  the  fisheries  on  the  coast,  are  the 
chief  industries.  The  exports  are  principally  of  wine,  oil, 
brandy,  hides,  wool,  wax,  honey,  and  fruits.  D.  w^as  in 
1867  attached  to  the  AustrianhaU  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy,  though  the  Slavonian  inhabitants  would  have 
preferred  a  closer  union  with  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  Of 
the  whole  population  (476,101)  about  55,000  are  Italians, 
1,000  Albanians,  1,000  Germans,  500  Jews,  and  the  remain- 
der Southern  Slavonians — chietiy  Dalmatians  and  Morlaks. 
The  Dalmatians  are  a  fine  race  of  men — bold  and  brave  as 
seamen  and  soldiers,  with  great  love  of  independence — and 
formerly  were  the  main  support  of  the  military  power  of 
Venice.  But  they  are  deceitful  and  rapacious.  They 
speak  the  Illyrian- Servian  or  Herzegovinian  dialect;  but 
the  language  used  in  the  govt,  ofiices,  especially  in  Spalatro, 
is  the  Italian.  The  Morlaks — who  inhabit  the  interior,  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  the  Turkish  sanjak  of  Hersek 
— also  are  good  soldiers,  hospitable  and  faithful  to  their 
engagements,  lovers  of  independence,  but,  it  is  said,  ad- 
^  dieted  to  robbery  and  drunkenness.  is  divided  into  four 
*  circles— Zara,  Spalatro  (or  Spalato),  Ragusa,  and  Cattaro, 
These  are  also  the  names  of  the  chief  towns. 
'  In  ancient  times,  D.  was  a  considerable  kingdom,  and, 
after  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  was  first  subjugated  by 
the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire,  D.,  which  had  formed  the  most  s.  part 
of  the  province  Illyricum,  was  captured  by  the  Goths, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Avari  (490),  who  in  their 
turn  yielded  it  to  the  Slavonians  about  620.  The  state 
founded  by  the  Slavonians  continued  until  the  beginning 
of  the  11th  c,  when  King  Ladislaus  of  Hungary  incorpo- 
rated a  part  of  D.  with  Croatia,  while  the  other  part,  with 

4«1 


DALMATIAN-DALRIADA. 

the  title  of  Duchy,  placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  the 
Venetian  republic.  The  Turks  afterward  made  themselves 
masters  of  a  small  portion;  and  by  the  peace  of  Campo- 
Formio  (1797),  the  Venetian  part  of  D.,  with  Venice  itself, 
became  subject  to  Austrian  rule;  and  when  Austria,  1805, 
had  ceded  this  part  of  D.  to  Napoleon,  it  was  annexed  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy;  afterward  (1810)  to  Illyria.  Since 
1814,  D.  forms  part  of  Austria;  the  commune  of  Spizza 
being  added  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  1878. 

DxiLMATIAN,  a.  ddl-ma  shan:  of  or  pertaining  to  Dal 
matia;  N.  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  Dalmatia  (q.v.). 

DALMATIC,  n.  dnl  mdt'lk,  or  Dalmat'ica,  n.  -i-ka 
[said  to  be  a  dress  originally  worn  in  Dalmatia]'.  deacon's 
robe,  in  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church.  The  most  ancient  form 
of  the  D.  is  shown  in  the  annexed  cut,  after  an  early  Christ- 


ian painting  on  the  walls  of  catacombs  at  Rome.  It  was 
originally  of  linen,  but  it  is  now  generally  made  of  the  same 
heavy  silk  as  the  Planeta  (q.v.),  worn  by  the  priest. 

DALRI'ADA:  ancient  name  of  a  territory  in  Ireland, 
comprehending  what  is  now  called  '  the  Route,'  or  the  n. 
half  of  county  Antrim.  It  signifies  primarily,  '  the  race 
of  Riada';  secondarily,  '  the  country  of  the  race  of  Riada,' 
i.e.,  Cairbre  Righfada,  or  '  Cairbre  of  the  Long  Arm,' the 
son  of  a  chief  or  prince  of  the  Scots  in  Ireland,  a  warrior  of 
note.  He  lived  in  the  3d  c,  and  not  only  obtained  ascend- 
ency in  the  district  of  Ireland  which  was  called  after  him, 
but,  according  to  some  writers,  planted  a  colony  of  his  Scot- 
tish countrymen  on  the  shores  of  Argyleshire  in  Alba,  or 
Albany,  as  Scotland  was  then  called.  It  is  certain  that, 
about  506,  some  of  his  descendants,  led  by  Loarn,  Fergus, 
and  other  sons  of  Eire,  son  of  Muinrcamhar,  passed  over  to 
A^gylc^>hii\;J  where  they  settled  themselves  permaneutl)^ 
m 


DALRIADS-DALRYMPLE. 

and  founded  the  kiDgdom  of  '  Dali  iada  in  Albany/  or  '  the 
Scots  in  Britain.'  More  than  20  kings  of  this  state  are 
enumerated  before  Kenneth  MacAlpin,  who,  about  843, 
united  under  one  sceptre  the  Dah'iads,  or  Scots,  and  the 
Picts,  and  thus  became  the  first  king  of  Albany,  which 
about  two  centuries  afterward  began  to  be  known  as  Scotia 
or  Scotland. 

DALRIADS,  ddl'ri-adz,  or  Dalreudi'ni:  inhabitants 
of  Dalkiada  (q.v.). 

DALRY,  dal-rl' :  town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  on  the 
Garnock,  20  m  s.w.  of  Glasgow.  D.,  till  recently  a  small 
village,  has  increased  in  population  in  consequence  of  the 
establishment  of  iron-works  at  and  near  it.  It  has  also  a 
large  woolen  mill.  Pop.  (1851)  2,706;  (1861)  4,232;  (1871) 
5,214;  (1881)  5,010. 

DALRYMPLE,  dal'rimpl,  Alexander,  f.r.s.,  f.s.a.: 
1737,  July  24—1808,  June  19;  b.  at  New  Hailes,  the  seat  of 
his  father,  near  Edinburgh;  great-grandson  of  Viscount 
Stair,  and  younger  brother  of  Sir  David  D.  In  1752,  he 
obtained  an  appointment  in  the  E.  India  Company's  ser 
vice;  but  young  Dalrymple,  then  between  15  and  20  years 
of  age,  unluckily  for  his  own  prospects,  fell  upon  some 
papers  in  the  secretary's  office  relating  to  the  commerce  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  became  so  engrossed  with 
the  importance  of  the  subject  that,  after  a  period  of  bick- 
erings with  his  superiors,  he  relinquished  his  appointment; 
and  made  a  voyage  of  observation  among  the  eastern  isl- 
ands. At  Sooloo,  in  the  course  of  his  expedition,  he  con- 
cluded a  commercial  treaty  with  the  sultan,  but  on  his 
return  in  1762,  he  found  political  alfairs  entirely  changed, 
and  his  scheme  proved  a  failure.  In  1765,  he  returned  to 
Britain,  to  urge  its  importance  on  the  home-authorities, 
but  did  not  succeed.  In  1779,  he  was  appointed  hydrog- 
rapher  to  the  E.  India  Company,  and  shortly  after  re- 
ceived a  pension.  In  1795,  when  the  admiralty  resolved 
to  establish  a  similar  otfice,  it  was  conferred  on  D.,  who 
held  it  till  near  his  death  at  Marylebone,  London.  He 
wrote  a  vast  number  of  letters,  pamphlets,  etc.,  containing 
plans  for  promotion  of  British  commerce  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  political  dissertations,  accounts  of  geograph- 
ical expeditions,  etc.  His  library  was  rich  in  works  of 
navigation  and  geography,  all  of  which  were  purchased  by 
the  admiralty.  His  collection  of  poetry,  also  very  valu- 
able, was  deposited  in  the  library  at  New  Hailes,  as  a  fam- 
ily heirloom. 

DALRYMPLE,  Sir  David,  commonly  known  as  Lord 
Hailes:  Scottish  judge  and  antiquary:  1726,  Oct.  28—1792, 
Nov.  29;  b.  Edinburgh;  grandson  of  Sir  David  D.,  who 
was  youngest  and  reputedly  the  ablest  son  of  Viscount 
Stair.  He  was  educated  first  at  Eton,  afterward  at  Edin- 
burgh, finally  at  Leyden,  whence  he  returned  to  Scotland 
1746.  In  1748,  he  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  In  1766, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges  ol"  the  Court  of  Session, 
assuming  the  title  of  Lord  Hailes.  He  was  accurate,  dili- 
gent, impartial,  and  dignified.— Although  D,'s  official 
463     ^  ,  .  


DALRYMPLE. 

duties  were  very  arduous,  be  found  time  to  compose  nu- 
merous works  of  value:  among  them  are  A  Discourse  on 
the  Gotcrie  Conspiracy  (1757);  Memorials  and  Letters  relating 
to  the  History  of  Britain  in  the  Reign  of  James  I.  (1762),  a 
curious  and  interesting  volume;  The  Works  of  the  ever-mem- 
orable John  Hailes  of  Eton,  etc.  (1765);  Memorials  and  Letters 
relating  to  the  History  of  Britain  in  the  Reign  of  Charles  J. 
(1766);  Annals  of  Scotland  from  the  Accession  of  Malcolm  LLL., 
surnam^d  Canmore,  to  the  Accession  of  Robert  L.  (1776);  and 
Annals  of  Scotland  from  the  Accession  of  Robert  L,  surnamed 
tJie  Bruce,  to  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  (1779). 
Besides  these,  Dalrymple  wrote  works  on  legal  antiquities 
and  ancient  church  history,  edited  old  Scotch  poems,  and 
published  sketches  of  the  lives  of  various  notable  Scotch- 
men. 

DALRYMPLE,  James,  Viscount  Stair:  lawyer  and 
statesman;  1619,  May — 1695,  Nov.  25;  b.  Drummurchie, 
Ayrshire;  son  of  a  small  proprietor;  of  a  very  old  and  illus- 
trious Scottish  family,  named  from  the  lands  of  D. 
in  Ayrshire.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  Univ.,  and,  at 
an  early  age,  entered  the  army  raised  in  Scotland  to  repel 
the  religious  innovations  of  Charles  I.  But  the  bent  of  his 
mind  lay^toward  civil  and  literary  pursuits;  and,  in  1641, 
he  was  appointed  prof,  of  philosophy  at  Glasgow.  The 
use  which  he  made  of  philosophy,  however,  was  rather  to 
aid  him  in  basing  law — his  favorite  study — on  profound 
and  comprehensive  principles,  than  to  add  another  meta- 
physical system  to  those  already  in  existence.  In  1648, 
he  entered  as  an  advocate  at  the  Scotch  bar,  where  he  rap- 
idly acquired  distinction;  in  1649,  and  again  in  1650,  he 
was  appointed  sec.  to  the  commissioners  sent  to  Holland 
by  the  Scottish  parliament  to  treat  with  Charles  II. ;  and, 
in  1657,  was  induced  to  become  one  of  the  '  commission- 
ers for  the  administration  of  justice'  in  Scotland  under 
Cromwell's  government.  D.  was  a  conscientious,  but  ex- 
ceedingly moderate  and  enlightened,  royalist;  and  though 
appointed  one  of  the  new  Scotch  judges  after  the  Restora- 
tion, he  resigned  his  seat  1663,  because  he  could  not  take 
the  '  declaration '  oath,  which  denied  the  right  of  the  na- 
tion to  take  up  arms  against  the  king.  His  great  talents, 
however,  induced  the  monarch  to  accept  his  services  on 
his  own  terms.  D.  was  now  created  a  baronet.  In  1671, 
he  became  lord  pres.  of  the  court  of  session.  In  1681, 
when  the  infamous  '  test '  oath  was  under  consideration,  ^ 
D.,  with  the  dexterity  of  a  lawyer,  caused  John  Knox's 
Confession  of  Faith  to  be  introduced  as  a  part  of  the  test; 
but  as  this  confession  inculcated  resistance  to  tyranny  as  a 
duty,  the  one-half  of  the  test  contradicted  the  other.  D.'s 
private  conscience,  however,  was  more  fastidious  than  his 
public  one,  for  he  refused  to  take  the  very  oath  which,  by 
his  ingenuity,  he  had  virtually  deprived  of  its  despotic 
character,  and  in  consequence  had  to  resign  all  his  ap- 
pointments. Before  this,  he  had  published  Lnstitutions  of 
the  Law  of  Scotland,  still  the  grand  text-book  of  the  Scotch 
lawyer.  Dalrymple  went  to  Holland  1682,  to  escape  the 
persecution  to  which  he  was  subjected  at  home;  and  while 

464 


DALRYMPLE— DALTON. 

at  Leyden,  during  1684-87,  lie  published,  at  Edinburgh, 
liis  Becimms;  and  1686,  at  Leyden,  a  philosophic  work  in 
Latin,  Physiologia  Nov i  Experimentahs.  He  accompanied 
the  Prince  of  Orange  on  his  expedition  to  England.  When 
matters  were  prosperously  settled,  William  re- appointed 
him  lord  pres.  of  the  court  of  session,  and  elevated  him 
to  the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Viscount  Stair.  Viscount 
S.  had  nine  children,  live  sons  and  four  daughters. 

His  eldest  son,  John  D.,  Earl  of  Stair  (died  1707),  held 
office  under  James  II.,  and  also  under  William  III. 
While  sec.  of  state  for  Scotland,  he  incurred  great  odium 
for  his  share  in  the  barbarous  transaction  known  as  the 
*  Massacre  of  Glencoe. '  He  was  elevated  to  the  earldom 
1703. 

Sir  James  D.,  second  son  of  Viscount  Stair,  was  author 
of  Collections  concerning  Scottish  History  preceding  the  Death 
of  David  I.  (1705),  and  grandfather  of  Sir  John  D.  of  Crans- 
toun,  author  of  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  from 
the  Bissoluiion  of  the  last  Parliament  of  Charles  II.  until  the 
Sea-battle  of  La  Hogue. 

DALRYMPLE,  John,  second  Earl  of  Stair:  1673,  July 
20—1747;  b.  Edinburgh;  second  son  of  the  first  Earl  of 
Stair,  and  grandson  of  Viscount  Stair.  He  had  the  misfor- 
tune, while  young,  to  kill  his  elder  brother,  by  the  acci- 
dental discharge  of  a  pistol.  This  unhappy  circumstance 
induced  the  parents  to  educate  him  aw^ay  from  home,  un- 
der the  care  of  a  clergyman  in  Ayrshire.  D.  afterward 
went  to  Leyden,  where  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  one 
of  the  best  scholars  in  the  university.  He  completed  his 
curriculum  at  Edinburgh.  In  1701,  he  accepted  a  com- 
mission as  lieut.-col.  of  the  Scottish  regt.  of  foot-guards, 
and  gained  the  highest  distinction  in  Marlborough's  cam- 
paigns. When  the  accession  of  the  Tory  ministry,  1711, 
put  a  stop  to  the  brilliant  career  of  the  great  duke,  D.  re- 
tired from  the  army.  When  George  I.  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  D. — who  had  become  Earl  of  Stair  by  the  death  of 
his  father,  1707 — was  made  a  lord  of  the  bedchamber,  a 
privy-councilor,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of 
Scotland.  Next  year,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  France, 
in  w^hich  capacity  he  showed  the  highest  ability,  and  was 
of  the  greatest  service  in  traversing  the  schemes  for  the 
reinstatement  of  the  Pretender;  but  as  he  refused  to  flatter 
his  countryman,  Law — notorious  in  connection  with  the 
fatal  Mississippi  scheme— who  was  then  of  highest  influ- 
ence in  France,  the  government  was  mean  enough  to  recall 
him.  For  22  years  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Newliston, 
near  Edinburgh,  busied  chiefly  in  agriculture.  He  was 
the  first  to  plant  turnips  and  cabbages  in  the  open  fields. 
In  1742,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Holland,  and  in  the 
following  year  served  under  George  II.,  at  the  battle  of 
Dettingen.  Later,  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  forces  of  Great  Britain.  See  Annals,  etc.,  of  the  Vis- 
count and  Earls  of  Stair,  by  J.  M.  Graham  (1875). 

D ALTON,  dawl'ton:  town  of  Furness,  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, on  a  gentle  declivity,  abt.  3^  m.  from  the  sea,  18  m. 

465 


DALTON— DAM. 

w.n.w.  from  Lancaster.  There  are  iron  mines  and  foun- 
dries in  the  vicinity,  and  some  malting  is  carried  on.  Near 
the  town  are  the  ruins  of  Furness  Abbey,  founded  for 
monks  of  the  Cistercian  order,  1127,  by  Stephen,  Count  of 
Boulogne,  afterward  king  of  England.  Pop.  (1881)  13,350. 

DALTON,  John:  1766,  Sep.  5—1844,  July  27;  b.  Eagles- 
field,  near  Cockermouth,  Cumberland,  England.  He 
showed  his  love  of  mathematical  and  physical  studies 
while  in  a  boarding-school  kept  by  a  relative  in  Kendal. 
He  wrote  several  mathematical  essays,  and,  1788,  began  a 
journal  of  meteorological  observations,  which  he  continued 
through  life.  In  1793,  he  was  appointed  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics and  the  physical  sciences  in  the  New  College  at  Man- 
chester, where  he  resided  during  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
though  frequently  employed,  after  1804,  in  giving  lectures 
on  chemistry  in  several  large  towns.  In  1808-10,  he  pub- 
lished his  New  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy,  2  parts  (Lond.), 
to  which  he  added  a  third  part  1827.  In  1817,  he  was  ap- 
pointed pres.  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Soc.  at 
Manchester.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Royal  Soc,  and 
of  the  Paris  Acad.,  and,  1833,  received  a  pension  of  £150, 
afterward  raised  to  £300.  In  the  same  j^ear,  D.  's  friends 
and  fellow-townsmen  collected  £2,000,  to  raise  a  statue  to 
his  honor,  executed  by  Chantrey,  and  placed  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Royal  Institution  in  Manchester.  D.  was  also  hon- 
ored by  the  univ.  of  Oxford  with  the  degree  d.c.l.,  and 
with  LL.D.  by  the  univ.  of  Edinburgh.  He  died,  universal- 
ly respected,  at  Manchester.  His  chief  physical  researches 
were  on  the  constitution  of  mixed  gases,  on  the  force  of 
steam,  on  the  elasticity  of  vapors,  and  on  the  expansion  of 
gases  by  heat.  In  chemistry,  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  progressive  development  of  the  atomic  theory  (q.v.), 
as  also  by  his  researches  on  the  absorption  of  gases  by  water, 
on  carbolic  acid,  carburetted  hydrogen,  etc.  His  treatises 
are  mostly  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Soc.  of  Manchester,  the  Philosojjhical  Transactions,  Nichol- 
son's Philosophical  Journal,  and  Thomson's  Annals  of 
Philosophy.  Besides  these,  we  have  his  Meteorological  Es- 
says and  Observations  (Lond.  1793;  2d  edit.  1834).  D.  was 
unquestionably  one  of  the  greatest  chemists  that  any  coun- 
try has  produced.  Profound,  patient,  and  intuitive,  he  had 
precisely  the  faculties  requisite  for  a  great  scientific  discov- 
erer. His  atomic  theory  elevated  chemistry  into  a  science. 
In  his  habits,  D.  was  simple;  in  his  manners,  grave  and 
reserved,  but  kindly,  and  distinguished  by  truthfulness  and 
integrity  of  character. 

DALTONISM,  n.  dal'ton-lzm  [after  the  chemist  Balton, 
who  was  so  affected]:  color-blindness:  see  Color:  Color- 
blindness. 

DAM,  n.  dam  [It.  dama;  F.  dame,  a  lady — from  L. 
doniinaj\\  a  female  parent,  now  used  only  for  animals. 

DAM,  v.  dam  [Icel.  dammr;  Dan.  dam,  a  fish-pond: 
old  Sw.  damfn,  a  dam:  Pol.  tama,  a  dam,  a  dike]:  to  stop 
wholly  or  partially  the  flow  of  a  stream  of  \fater  by  a  mound 
of  earth  and  stones,  by  a  wall  of  timber  or  masonry,  or  by 

466 


DAM—DAMAGES. 

any  other  obstruction;  N.  a  bank  or  mound  of  earth  and 
stones;  anything  to  confine  wholly  or  partially  a  stream  of 
water.  Dam  ming,  imp.  Dammed,  pp.  ddmd.  Tinker's 
DAM,  a  little  bairier  of  clay  or  dough  used  by  tinkers  for 
confining  melted  metal  till  it  hardens,  and  after  its  use 
proverbially  worthless. 

DAM,  or  Daum,  n.  dawm:  an  Indian  copper  coin,  the 
fortieth  part  of  a  rupee,  rather  more  than  a  halfpenny. 

DAMA,  n.  dd'ma  [L.,  a  fallow-deer,  buck  or  doe]:  genus 
of  mammals,  family  Cervidce.  D.  platyceros  is  the  Fallow- 
Deer  (q.v.),  called  by  many  zoologists,  Cervus  dama. 

DAMAGE,  n.  ddm'lj  [F.  dommage,  harm — from  OF. 
damage — from  L.  damnum,  hurt,  loss] :  any  hurt,  loss,  or 
harm  to  property  or  person;  the  value  of  the  mischief  done: 
V.  to  injure;  to  hurt  or  harm;  to  receive  harm;  to  be  in- 
jured. Dam  aging,  imp.  Dam  aged,  pp.  -ijd.  Damages, 
n.  plu.  ddm'd-jez,  money  awarded  by  a  court  of  law  on 
account  of  loss  or  injury  to  property,  or  injury  to  person, 
through  the  fault  of  another.  Dam'ageable,  a.  4j-d-bl, 
that  may  be  injured.  What's  the  damage?  how  much 
is  to  pay?  what  is  the  bill  of  loss?— Syn.  of  *  damage,  n.': 
detriment;  injury;  harm;  mischief;  prejudice;  injustice; 
wrong;  loss. 

DAM'AGES,  in  Law:  pecuniary  recompense  claimed  on 
account  of  suffering  an  injury  through  the  act  of  another. 
The  progress  of  recent  legislation  has  been  in  the  direction 
of  restricting  actions  for  D.  to  the  cases  in  which  the  restitu- 
tion of  property  or  enforcement  of  a  right  cannot  be  other- 
wise attained. 

Where  a  sum  ascertained  in  amount  is  due,  the  action  is 
one  not  properly  for  D.,  but  of  debt.  But  where  the  sum 
is  not  ascertained,  as  where  an  injury  has  been  done  to  a 
man's  character  or  property,  the  action  can  in  general  be 
only  for  D.,  the  amount  of  which  the  injured  party  esti 
mates,  and  which  is  determined  by  the  judgment  of  the 
court,  or  verdict  of  a  jury,  subject  to  certain  fixed  rules 
which  the  courts  have  laid  down,  as  the  principle  accord- 
ing to  which  the  estimation  is  to  be  made.  See  the  titles 
'  of  the  special  subjects  out  of  which  a  claim  may  arise.  It 
,  is  a  general  rule  to  restrict  the  amount  of  D.  to  the  actual 
J  pecuniary  loss,  wherever  it  can  be  ascertained;  and  a  stipu- 
lated penalty  for  breach  of  agreement  will  not  usually  be 
accepted  as  determining  the  sum  due  for  D.,  unless  it  shall 
appear,  by  the  use  of  the  term  'as  liquidated  damages,'  or 
some  equivalent  expression,  that  both  the  parties  had  in- 
tended to  fix  conclusively  the  sum  payable  in  case  of  de- 
fault. Other  general  rules  are,  that  the  injury  for  which 
D.  are  claimed  must  have  alfected  the  claimant  individu- 
ally, and  not  merely  as  one  of  the  general  public,  though 
it  is  not  essential  that  the  injury  should  have  done  material 
hurt  to  him,  as  this  affects  only  the  amount  of  damages. 
And  the  injury  suffered  must  have  been  the  direct  and  im- 
mediate consequence  of  the  act  done;  when  it  is  only  a 
secondary  or  remote  result  of  the  act,  no  D.  will  be  given. 
And  any  act  sued  on  must  be  an  actual  injustice;  it  is  not 

467 


DAMALIS— DAMAN. 

enough  that  it  produces  disadvantageous  results,  if  these 
arise  only  from  doing  what  the  party  was  justified  in  doing. 
D.,  therefore,  may  be  sued  for  in  respect  of  a  crime  involv- 
ing liability  to  criminal  punishment.  In  general,  D.  are 
only  compensatory;  though  there  are  cases  in  which  they 
have  a  punitive  quality. 

DAMALIS,  n.  damal-is  [Gr.,  a  young  cow  or  heifer]: 
genus  of  quadrupeds  belonging  to  the  order  Ruminantia, 
\and  intervening  between  the  cow  and  the  sheep.  They 
'  were  formerly  classed  with  the  antelopes.  The  horns  are 
sub-cylindrical,  lyrate,  and  diverge;  a  small,  bald,  moist 
muffle  exists  between  and  below  the  nostrils;  the  female 
has  two  tails.  Damalis  lunatus  is  the  Sassaby  or  Bastard 
Harte-beest;  D.  8enegalensis,t}iG  K.omgMm\  D.  pygarga,  the 
Nunni  or  Bonte  boc;  J),  alhifrons,  the  Bless-boc;  and  D. 
zebra,  the  Doria. 

DAMAN,  dd-mdn' :  outlying  portion  of  the  Punjab,  runs 
about  300  m.  along  the  right  or  w.  bank  of  the  Indus,  ex- 
tending back  with  an  average  breadth  about  60  m.,  as  far  as 
the  Suliman  Mountains.  It  stretches  in  n.  lat  from  28°  40' 
to  33'  20',  and  in  e.  long,  from  69°  30'  to  71°  20'.  In 
the  absence  of  irrigation,  the  district  in  general  is  little  bet- 
ter than  a  plain  of  smooth,  bare,  hard  clay — the  result  of 
alternate  inundation  and  evaporation.  But  when  duly  irri- 
gated, this  baked  and  burned  surface  becomes  very  produc- 
tive, more  especially  in  the  strip  of  land — known  as  the 
Derajat — nearest  the  bordering  stream. 

DAMAN':  seaport  town,  province  of  Guzerat,  Hindustan, 
belonging  to  the  Portuguese.  It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Daman  Gunga,  or  Daman  river,  which  rises  in  the  Syadree 
Mountains,  as  the  upper  extremity  of  the  w.  Ghauts  is 
called  by  the  natives;  lat.  20°  11'  n.,  and  long.  73°  42'  e. 
Common  spring-tides  give  at  least  three  fathoms  on  the  bar, 
while  outside  is  a  roadstead  of  more  than  double  that  depth. 
The  harbor  affords  good  shelter  from  the  s. w.  monsoon,  and, 
as  the  neighborhood  is  well  stocked  with  suitable  timber, 
the  people  are  largely  employed  in  the  building  and  repair- 
ing of  ships.  The  peculiar  drawback  of  the  locality  is  the 
lack  of  fresh  water.  The  river,  even  when  swollen  by  the 
rains  into  an  inundation,  is  brackish,  and  the  wells  likewise 
are  so  in  some  degree.  Endemic  fevers  are  the  natural  con- 
sequence. The  place  is  fortified  with  a  rampart  and  bas- 
tions, and  it  is  described  as  having  been,  before  the  arrival 
of  the  whites,  '  a  town  great  and  strong.'    Pop.  6,000. 

DAMAN,  dam' an  {Hyrax):  name  of  one  or  more  species 
of  the  order  Hyracoidea,  established  by  Huxley,  and  con- 
taining 13  species.  They  were  long  regarded  as  a  link  be- 
tween Rodentia  and  Pachydermata.  They  were  always 
ranked  among  the  former,  till  Cuvier  pointed  out  their  es- 
sential agreement,  in  dentition  and  anatomical  characters, 
with  the  latter,  and  assigned  them  a  place  next  to  the  ele- 
phant and  the  rhinoceros,  remarking  that,  '  excepting  the 
horns,  they  are  little  else  than  rhinoceroses  in  miniature. '  He 
adds  that '  they  have  quite  similar  molars,  but  the  upper  jaw 
has  two  stout  incisors  curved  downward,  and  during  youth 

46b 


DAMAE— DAMASCEKE. 

two  very  small  canines,  the  lower  jaw  four  incisors  without 
any  canines.'  The  skull,  also,  and  other  bones  of  the  head, 
resemble  those  of  the  pachyderms.  The  muzzle  is  short; 
the  ears,  short  and  round.  The  ribs  are  more  numerous 
than  even  in  the  pachyderms — 21  pair,  a  number  exceeded 
in  no  quadrupeds  except  the  sloths,  whereas  no  rodent  has 
more  than  15  pair.  The  toes  are  united  by  the  skin  to  the 
very  nail,  as  in  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  and  are  round 
and  soft,  merely  protected  in  front  by  a  broad  nail,  which 
does  not  reach  the  ground.  The  legs  are  short.  The  tail 
is  a  mere  tubercle.  There  are  several  species  of  this  genus,  . 
natives  of  Africa  and  of  s.w.  Asia.  The  Syrian  D.  (// 1 
Syriacus)  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  the  shaphan  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  cony  (q.v.)  of  the  authorized  Eng- 
lish version.  The  D.  is  common  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  in- 
habiting rocky  places,  and  sheltering  itself  in  the  holes  of 
the  rocks,  but  not  burrowing,  for  which  its  feet  are  not 
adapted.  It  is  a  timid  harmless  creature,  quick  and  lively  in 
its  movements,  completely  herbivorous,  easily  domesticated, 
and,  in  confinement,  readily  eating  bread,  roots,  fruits,  and 
herbs.  It  is  about  11  inches  long  and  10  inches  high; 
brownish-gray  above,  white  beneath,  the  thick  hair  inter- 
spersed with  long  scattered  bristles.  The  Ashkoko  {H. 
Abyssinicus)  of  Abyssinia,  described  first  by  Bruce,  and  sup- 
posed by  him  to  be  the  shaphan,  is  now  believed  to  be  dis- 
tinct from  the  Syrian  D.,  though  very  similar.  The  Klip- 
DASSE  (H.  capensis)  of  s.  Africa  differs  from  the  shaphan  in 
its  darker  color  and  rather  larger  size,  and  also  in  having 
only  three  toes  on  each  foot,  whereas  the  Syrian  D.  has 
four  toes  on  the  fore-feet  and  three  on  the  hind-feet.  It  is 
very  common  in  rocky  places  in  s.  Africa,  both  on  the  hills 
and  near  the  sea-shore.  Its  favorite  food  consists  of  aromat- 
ic plants,  and  its  flesh,  although  eatable,  is  highly  flavored. 
In  the  places  which  it  frequents,  a  peculiar  substance  called 
Hyraceum  (q.v.)  is  found. 

DAMAR,  dd-mdr' :  town  of  Yemen,  Arabia,  about  120 
m.  n.n.w.  of  Aden.    It  has  about  5,000  houses. 

DAMARALAND,  da-md'rd-land:  inland  territory  in  the 
west  of  s.  Africa,  n.  of  Namaqualand  (q.v.)  and  s.  of 
Ovampoland  proper.  But  the  latter  name  is  often  used  as 
including  Damaraland;  so  at  the  article  Ovampos  (q.v.) 
AND  Ovampoland. 

DAMASCENE,  n.  ddm'd-sen  [from  Damascus  in  Syria]: 
a  particular  kind  of  plum,  now  written  damson.  Damask, 
n.  dam' ask,  figured  silk  or  linen;  a  red  color:  V.  to  form 
flowers  on  cloth;  to  variegate.  Damask-stitch,  name 
given  to  satin-stitch  when  worked  upon  a  linen  foundation. 
Dam' ASKING,  imp.  -ask  ing.  Dam' asked,  pp.  -dskt.  Dam'- 
ASKEEN,  V.  -ds-ken,  or  Dam'ascene,  v,  -ds-sen,  to  produce 
Damascus  blades  having  a  many-colored  watered  appear- 
ance; to  etch  slight  ornaments  on  polished  steel  wares;  to 
inlay  steel  or  iron  with  gold  and  silver.  Dam  askee  ning, 
imp.  -ke'ning:  N.  the  act  of  beautifying  iron  or  steel  by  en- 
graving, or  by  inlaying  with  gold  or  silver.  Dam  askeened, 
pp.  -kPnd.  Dam'askins,  n.  plu.  -ds-klnz,  Damascus  blades. 

469 


D  AMASCENUS  -DAMASCUS. 

Dam'asstn,  n.  -as-sin,  damask  cloth  iuterwoveu  with  flowers 
in  gold  and  silver.  Damascene-lace,  an  imitation  of 
Honiton  lace,  and  made  with  lace  braid  and  lace  sprigs 
joined  together  with  corded  bars.  The  difl'erence  between 
it  and  modern  point  lace,  which  it  closely  resembles,  is  in 
the  introduction  into  Damascene  of  real  Honiton  sprigs, 
and  the  absence  of  any  needle-work  fillings. 

DAMASCENUS,  dam  as-senus,  Joannes:  abt.  700 — abt. 
756;  b.  Damascus:  author  of  the  standard  text-book  of 
Dogmatic  Theology  in  the  Greek  Church.  On  account  of 
his  eloquence,  he  was  surnamed  Chrysorrhoas  ('  Golden 
Stream In  730,  he  became  a  monk  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Saba  at  Jerusalem,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days 
in  the  composition  of  theological  works.  He  had  the  honor 
of  being  canonized  by  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches. 
D.  was  a  man  of  extensive  erudition,  and  was  considered 
the  ablest  philosopher  of  his  time;  but  the  word  *  philoso- 
pher '  must  have  meant  something  very  different  in  those 
days  from  what  it  does  now,  as  D.'s  writings  are  character- 
ized by  weakness  of  judgment  and  want  of  critical  power. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  Le  Quien  (2  vols.  Paris  1712). 

DAMASCUS,  da-mds'kus  (xlrabic  Di?nishkesh-Shd7n):  city 
of  Syria,  largest  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  a  situation  of  un- 
rivalled beauty  on  a  luxuriant  plain  at  the  e.  base  of  the 
Anti-Libanus,  53  m.  e.s.e.  of  Beyrout,  which  forms  its  port; 
lat.  33°  27'  n.,  long.  36°  23'  e.  The  appearance  of  the  city 
from  a  distance  is  beautiful  in  the  highest  degree.  The 
bright  buildings,  sparkling  beneath  a  Syrian  sun,  rise  out 
of  a  sea  of  various  tinted  foliage,  while  all  around — save 
on  then.w.,  where  stretches  the  long  bare  snow-white  ridge 
of  the  Anti-Lebanon — extend  charming  gardens,  rich 
wheat- fields,  and  blooming  orchards,  with  the  river  Bar- 
rada  (the  Abana  of  Scripture)  and  its  branches  winding 
through  until  they  lose  themselves  far  to  the  e.  in  the  Lake 
Bahr-el-Merj,  into  which  the  Phege  (the  Pharpar  of  Scrip- 
ture), a  smaller  stream,  also  flows.  As  in  the  case  of  all 
eastern  cities,  the  expectations  excited  by  a  distant  view  of 
D.  are  by  no  means  realized  on  a  close  inspection.  The 
city  proper  is  about  6  m.  in  circumference,  partly  sur- 
rounded by  old  dilipadated  walls,  portions  of  which  date 
from  early  Roman  times,  while  other  parts  are  of  Saracenic 
architecture,  and  some  mere  mud-patches  of  the  present 
day.  The  streets  generally  are  dirty  and  decayed,  and  so 
very  narrow  that  a  loaded  donkey  almost  entirely  blocks 
tlie  passage.  The  best  street  is  '  Straight  Street,'  mentioned 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  connection  with  the  apostle 
Paul.  The  houses  for  the  most  part  are  very  mean-look- 
ing structures,  often  presenting  to  the  street  nothing  but  a 
dead-wall  with  a  doorway  in  it,  while  the  best  have  rough 
mud-walls,  with  a  projecting  upper  story  extending  so  far 
over  the  narrow  street  that  hands  may  be  shaken  from  op- 
posite windows.  But  as  the  interior  of  the  city  presents  a 
sad  contrast  to  its  charming  surroundings,  so  do  the  rich 
interiors  of  the  houses  contrast  with  their  miserable  exter- 
nals.    Fine  marble-paved  courts  ornamented  with  trees, 

470 


DAMASCUS. 

shrubs,  and  fountains,  rooms  with  arabesqued  roofs  and 
walls,  most  luxuriously  furnished,  are  common  features  of 
all  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthier  classes.  The  principal 
buildiugs  of  D.  are  places  of  worship,  chief  of  which  is 
the  Great  Mosque — formerly  a  heathen  temple,  then  a 
Christian  church — composed  of  dilferent  kinds  of  architec- 
ture, and  occupying  a  quadrangle  163  yards  by  108  yards, 
the  interior  dimensions  being  481  ft.  by  125.  The  tioor  is 
of  marble  tessellated,  and  covered  with  Persian  carpets,  and 
the  walls  and  piers  of  the  transept  are  enriched  with  beau- 
tiful devices  formed  of  various  colored  marbles,  while  rows 
of  noble  Corinthian  pillars  divide  the  interior  into  nave 
and  aisles.  Altogether,  this  is  one  of  the  handsomest  ec- 
clesiastical buildings  of  which  Mohammedans  can  boast. 
The  citadel  is  large  and  imposing,  but  not  strong;  and  the 
Great  Khan  is  a  splendid  building,  of  black  and  white  mar- 
ble There  are  many  interesting  remains  of  antiquity  in 
D.,  but  they  are  lost  amid  the  mean  modern  structures  and 
the  bazaars.  The  latter  are  numerous,  and  finer  than  those 
of  Cairo  or  Constantinople,  and  very  well  supplied  with 
goods  of  oriental  manufacture;  each  class  of  goods  having 
a  bazaar  for  itself.  The  manufactures  of  D.  used  to  be  im- 
portant, consisting  of  silks,  cottons,  coarse  woolen  cloth, 
jewelry,  saddlery,  and  arms;  but  the  productions  now  are 
little  more  than  sufficient  for  local  consumption.  Before 
1860  the  looms  were  reckoned  at  3,000,  while  now  they  are 
said  to  reach  barely  1,300.  The  manufactures  of  the  fa- 
mous Damascene  blades  have  long  ceased.  This  decline  is 
caused  chiefly  by  the  taxation  upon  raw  products.  The 
trade  with  Bagdad  was  large;  but  in  1857  the  caravan  was 
plundered  on  its  way  across  the  desert,  the  loss  to  the  mer- 
chants of  D.  being  estimated  at  |200,000.  This  paralyzed 
the  commerce..  The  annual  caravan  to  Mecca  from  D.  at 
one  time  consisted  of  some  50,000  or  60,000  persons,  most 
of  whom  engaged  to  some  extent  in  trade;  but  the  facili- 
ties which  in  recent  years  have  been  afforded  for  making 
the  pilgrimage  by  way  of  Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea  has 
caused  considerable  diminution  in  the  pilgrims,  and  conse- 
quently in  the  trade.  One  of  the  greatest  blows  at  the 
prosperity  of  D.  was  struck  in  1860,  when  the  Druses 
(q.v.)  entered  the  city  and  destroyed  about  6,000  houses  in 
the  Christian  quarter,  killing  from  3,000  to  5,000  persons, 
and  selling  many  of  the  women  into  Turkish  harems.  The 
imports  of  British  goods,  chiefly  plain  and  printed  calicoes, 
cotton  handkerchiefs,  and  cotton  yarn,  have  been  valued  at 
£150,000.  In  1870  the  value  of  the  goods  brought  into  D. 
by  the  great  (Bagdad)  caravan  was  £90,000. 

D.  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient  city  in  the  world.  Jose- 
phus  attributes  its  foundation  to  Uz,  great-grandson  of 
Noah;  but  whether  it  dates  so  far  back  or  not,  it  is  certain 
that  it  was  a  place  of  consequence  in  the  days  of  Abraham. 
During  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  it  was  the 
capital  of  Syria.  It  afterward  passed  successively  under 
the  rule  of  the  Assyrians,  Persians,  Macedonians,  Romans, 
and  Saracens;  and  finally,  1516,  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  under  Sultan  Selim  I.— in  whose  hands,  with  the 

471 


DAMASCUS  BLADE— DAMASK. 

exception  of  a  short  interval  (1832-40),  when  it  belonged  to 
the  pasha  of  Egypt,  it  has  since  remained.  Under  every 
change  of  dynasty  and  every  form  of  government,  D.,  un- 
like most  cities,  has  retained  its  prosperity.  Pop.,  includ- 
ing the  adjoining  village  of  Salahiyeh,  150,000:  130,000  are 
Mohammedans,  15,000  Christians,  and  5,000  Jews. 

The  vilayet  of  Damascus  comprises  all  the  territory 
between  the  Lebanon  and  the  Euphrates — that  is,  all 
between  lat.  3r-36°  n.,  and  long,  35°-4r  e.  The  surface 
is  mostly  level  and  very  fertile,  and  produces  grain  of 
various  kinds,  hemp,  flax,  silk,  cotton,  madder,  tobacco, 
and  cochineal.  The  vilayet  of  D. — or  of  Syria,  as  it  is  also 
called — is  accounted  the  most  important  vilayet  of  Turkey. 
Pop.  518,750. 

DAMAS  CUS  BLADE:  see  Damaskeening. 

DAM' ASK:  any  textile  fabric  in  which  figures  of  flowers, 
fruits,  or  others  not  of  geometrical  regularity,  are  woven. 
The  word  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  city  of 
Damascus  having  been  an  early  seat  of  these  manufactures. 
From  the  intricacy  of  the  early  process,  the  art  of  D.  weav- 
ing was  long  a  mystery  confined  to  a  few  localities;  but 
since  the  introduction  of  the  Jacquard  machine,  it  is  ex- 
tensively employed  wherever  ornament  is  wanted  in  the 
stuffs  used  for  dress  or  house-furnishings.  The  rich 
satins  and  brocades  of  Lyon  and  Spitalfields,  the  flowered 
ribbons  of  Coventry,  and  the  bed  and  window  curtains 
of  Halifax  and  Bradford,  are  all  examples  of  D.  manu- 
facture; but  it  is  in  the  department  of  table-linen  that  the 
art  has  had  its  widest  scope  and  greatest  triumphs.  The 
principal  seats  of  the  manufacture,  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  are  at  Courtrai  and  Liege  in  Belgium,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Saxony,  Silesia,  and  Austria;  in  England,  to  a 
considerable  extent  at  Barnsley,  in  Yorkshire;  in  Ireland, 
at  Belfast,  Lisburne,  and  Ardoyne;  and  in  Scotland,  at 
Dunfermline,  which  may  be  called  the  metropolis  of  the 
manufacture. 

There  are  three  descriptions  of  D.  known  in  the  trade 
— viz.,  1.  Full  Harness,  which  is  generally  employed  in 
patterns  of  limited  size  and  minute  detail,  the  peculiarity 
being  that  the  Jacquard  machine  lifts  only  one  thread  by 
each  needle,  and  in  such  cases  the  pattern  is  repeated  to 
fill  up  the  breadth  wanted.  2.  '  Single'  or  '  Common'  D., 
in  which  any  number  of  threads,  from  two  to  seven,  can 
be  lifted  by  one  needle,  to  form  the  pattern;  while  the 
ground  is  produced  by  a  set  of  five  shafts  and  heddles, 
giving  from  twice  to  seven  times  the  extent  of  pattern 
obtained  from  the  same  machine  by  the  full- harness  pro- 
cess. In  full-harness  and  single  D.  goods,  a  square  fabric 
is  considered  the  proper  medium,  that  is,  the  warp  and 
weft  equal;  but  sometimes  a  thread  or  two  less  or  more  on 
warp  or  weft  is  used,  according  to  the  effect  to  be  pro- 
duced. 3.  In  Double  D.,  the  pattern  is  produced  in  the 
same  way  as  in  single,  and  the  ground  formed  by  eight 
shafts  and  heddles,  forming  what  the  weavers  call  an  eight- 
leaved  twill,  absorbing  one-half  more  weft  than  warp,  and 

47  2 


DAMASKEENING—DAMASONIUM. 

giving  that  fine  satin-like  ground  which  distinguishes 
double  damask.  Besides  these  descriptions  of  D.,  a  mixed 
cotton  and  woolen  colored  fabric  in  table-covers  has  been 
inh-oduced,  and  is  now  manufactured  extensively,  the 
ground  of  w^hich  is  woven  with  twelve  shafts. 

It  is  quite  usual  for  the  mere  designing  and  painting  of  a 
pattern  to  cost  |250;  and  $350  has  been  paid  for  some 
extensive  designs;  while  the  famous  *  Crimean  Hero ' 
pattern,  containing  portraits  of  the  Queen,  Prince  Con- 
sort, Emperor  Napoleon,  etc.,  cost  $3,000  of  outlay,  ere  a 
yard  of  cloth  could  be  brought  to  market,  employing 
seven  Jacquard  machines,  consuming  50,000  cards,  and 
containing  4,800  threads  in  the  sq.  yard.  In  1836,  there 
were  in  Dunfermline  3,000  D.  and  517  diaper  looms,  and 
the  capital  embarked  in  the  trade  was  estimated  at  £826,261, 
and  the  total  number  of  persons  employed,  5,044.  Steam- 
power  was  successfully  introduced  in  1849,  when  one 
factory  employed  about  100  power-looms.  In  1877,  there 
were  11  power-loom  factories,  with  4,000  looms,  two- 
thirds  employed  in  the  weaving  of  damask.  When  it  is 
considered  that  the  production  of  one  power-loom  is  equal 
to  that  of  four  hand-looms,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  development  of  the  trade  since  1836. — A  good  descrip- 
tion of  D.  and  the  D.  loom  is  in  Chalmers's  History  of  Dun- 
fermline I.  II. 

DAMASKEENING,  ddm-ds-M ning ,  or  Damascening, 
-se'ning:  art  of  producing  upon  ordinary  steel  certain  orna- 
mental appearances  resembling  those  observed  on  the  famous 
Damascus  blades.  Attention  was  drawn  to  this  branch  of 
industry  first  by  the  Crusaders,  who  brought  from  Damas- 
cus to  Europe  many  articles  made  of  superior  steel,  such  as 
sword-blades  and  daggers.  These  were  found  to  possess  not 
only  great  elasticity,  united  with  considerable  hardness,  but 
their  surfaces  were  covered  with  beautiful  designs,  formed 
by  a  tissue  of  dark  lines  on  a  light  ground,  or  light  lines 
upon  a  dark  ground,  and  occasionally  by  the  inlaying  of 
gold  on  the  steel-blue  ground.  These  Damascus  blades 
appear  to  have  been  constructed  of  steel  and  iron  welded 
together;  and  the  elegant  designs  were  brought  out  by 
iumiersing  the  blades  in  dilute  acids,  which,  eating  away 
unequally  the  surface,  gave  rise  to  the  mottled  appearance. 
In  genuine  Damascus  blades,  the  designs  run  through  the 
substance  of  the  blade,  and  the  watering,  or  regular,  almost 
symmetrical  figuring,  is  not  worn  off  by  friction  or  even 
grinding.  Imitations  of  the  watering  of  Damascus  steel  are 
produced  on  common  steel  by  etching  with  acids;  and  in 
this  way  landscapes,  inscriptions,  and  ornaments,  and  deco- 
rations in  general,  are  imprinted  on  the  steel-blue  ground. 
Gold  and  silver  also  are  inlaid  in  the  higher  class  of  sword- 
blades  and  other  articles.  Gun-barrels  are  occasionally 
subjected  to  the  process  of  Damaskeening.  Attempts  have 
been  made  in  France  to  accomplish  damaskeening  by 
means  of  photography,  but  as  yet  with  imperfect  results. 

DAMASONIUM,  n.  d<hn-a-soni-um  [mod.  L.  —  from 
class  L.  damasoneon;  Gr.  damasdnion,  the  plant  described 
in  the  definition];  genus  of  Alismacece,  formed  for  the  re- 
47a 


DAMASUS-DAME. 

ception  of  the  star-fruit,  of  which  the  more  common  scien- 
tific name  is  Actinocarpus  Damasonium. 

DAMASUS,  dam'a-sus.  Saint:  Bishop  of  Rome:  a 
Spaniard,  born  probably  early  in  the  4th  c. ;  d.  384.  In 
366,  he  was  elected  Bp.  of  Rome,  but  had  to  struggle  fierce- 
ly for  the  possession  of  his  office  with  one  Ursinus,  who  was 
supported  by  a  cousiderable  party.  His  career  throughout 
was  far  from  peaceful.  He  was  busied  mainly  in  subdu- 
ing the  still  numerous  Arians  in  the  west;  in  combating 
the  heresy  of  Apollinaris,  which  he  caused  to  be  con- 
demned by  the  council  assembled  at  Constantinople  382; 
and  in  defending  the  cause  of  Paulinus  against  Meletius. 
It  is  difficult  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  D.'s  character. 
His  enemies  used  to  call  him  Auriscalpius  Matronarum 
(*  The  ear-tickler  of  the  married  ladies '),  and  hinted  that  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  inducing  rich  female  penitents  to  make 
testamentary  bequests  in  his  favor— a  conspicuous  vice  of 
the  clergy  at  that  time;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  Yalen- 
tinian  was  obliged  to  issue  an  edict  forbidding  ecclesiastics 
to  receive  such  bequests  for  the  future.  The  edict  was 
addressed  to  D.,  who  was  required  to  announce  it  to  the 
church.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  a  great  friend  of  St. 
Jerome,  and  was  primarily  instrumental  in  inducing  that 
learned  divine  to  undertake  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible. 
His  extant  works  consist  of  seven  epistles,  addressed  to 
various  bishops,  and  rather  more  than  40  short  poems, 
religious,  descriptive,  etc.,  but  of  little  or  no  merit.  The 
first  edition  w^as  published  at  Rome  by  Sarrazanius,  1638. 
D.'s  festival  is  on  Dec.  11. 

DAMBOOL,  ddm-hol' :  vast  rock-temple  of  the  Buddhists 
in  Ceylon,  containing,  among  a  profusion  of  carvings, 
figures  of  Buddha  of  extraordinary  magnitude.  There 
are  also  important  inscriptions.  The  village  of  D.  is  40  m. 
n.  of  Kandy.  See  Ceylon,  by  Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent 
(Lond.  1859),  II,  577. 

DAME,  n.  dam  [It.  dama ;  F.  dame,  a  lady — from  L. 
domind,  a  lady] :  title  of  honor  which  in  England  long  dis- 
tinguished high-born  ladies  from  the  wives  of  citizens,  and 
of  the  commonalty  in  general.  In  the  age  of  chivalry,  it 
was  customary  even  for  a  queen  to  be  so  called  by  her 
chosen  knight  (*  the  dame  of  his  heart,  of  his  thoughts,' 
etc.).  In  consequence  of  the  greater  courtesy  shown 
toward  women  of  higher  rank  arose  the  custom  of  prefixing 
the  word  ma  to  dame,  as  a  special  proof  of  veneration  and 
homage.  Hence,  too,  the  Virgin-mother  was  called  in 
France  Notre  Dame  {'  Our  Mistress,'  or  Lady,  as  if  no  one 
Christian  could  exclusively  claim  the  privilege  of  serving 
her  with  the  homage  of  his  heart).  The  daughters  of  the 
king  of  France,  as  soon  as  they  came  into  the  world,  were 
called  Madame  ;  and  this  was  also  the  sole  title  of  the  wife 
of  the  king's  eldest  brother.  In  England,  the  word  D., 
though  not  much  used,  is  now  applied  to  married  women 
of  all  classes.  In  the  United  States  it  is  seldom  heard. 
Madame  is  shortened  into  Madam,  which  is  still  a  word  of 
lionor,  applicable,  in  particular  cases,  to  majesty  itself. 

474 


DAME'S  VIOLET— D AMIENS. 
Thus,  Alfred  Tennyson,  in  dedicating  bis  poems  to  Queen 
Victoria,  speaks  as  a  chivalrous  troubadour  might  have 
done — 

'Take,  Madam,  this  poor  book  of  song.' 
Dame-school;  an  elementar^^  school  taught  by  a  female 
who  is  not  a  professional  or  certificated  teacher. 


genus  of  plants  of  the 


Dame's  Violet: 


DAME'S  YTOLWr  {Hesperis)  : 
nat.  ord.  CrucifercB,  having  four 
sided  or  two-edged  pods,  and 
containing  several  species,  an- 
nual and  biennial  herbaceous 
plants,  natives,  chiefly,  of  the 
middle  and  south  of  Europe. 
One,  the  Common  D.  V.,  or 
White  Rocket  {H.  matronalis), 
is  found  in  Britain,  in  hilly 
pastures,  but  perhaps  rather  es- 
caped from  cultivation  than  a 
true  native.  It  has  an  erect 
branchedstem,  with  ovato-lance- 
olate  leaves,  and  terminated 
by  numerous  large  lilac  flow- 
ers, scentless  by  day,  but  very 
fragrant  at  night,  on  which  ac- 
count this  plant  is  cultivated 

in  flower-pots  by  German  ladies,  a,  a  flower  divestecT  of  calyx 
The  custom  appears  to  have  and  corolla;  6, a  petal;  c,  calyx, 
been  an  old  English  one  also,  and  to  have  given  the 
plant  its  common  name.  The  Night-scented  Rocket 
(H.  tristis)  is  also  a  favorite  flower  in  Germany. 

DAMI ANISTS,  dd'mi-an-tsts,  or  Angelists  :  sect  who 
followed  Damianus  (d.  601),  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  He 
held  monophysite  views,  and  his  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
was  essentially  Sabellian.  The  D.  were  called  by  their  op- 
ponents Tetradites,  as  having  four  gods — the  Father,  the 
Son,  the  Spirit,  and  the  Divine  Being  in  which  the  three 
former  were  united. 

T)AMlE'NB,dd-7ne-dng'  or  dd'mi-enz' ,  Robert  FRAN901S: 
1714-57;  b.  Ticulloy,  village  near  Arras,  France:  known 
for  his  attempt  to  assassinate  Louis  XV.  He  was  evil  dis- 
posed from  his  youth,  known  even  then  as  Robert  le  Diable. 
On  account  of  a  robbery  which  he  had  committed,  he  fled 
into  Belgium  1756,  whence  he  returned  to  Paris  about  the 
end  of  the  year.  The  motives  of  his  attempt  at  assassina- 
tion are  not  well  understood.  He  alleged  that  it  Vv^as  the 
conduct  of  the  king  toward  the  parliament ;  the  popular, 
but  apparently  groundless,  opinion  was  that  he  was  insti- 
gated by  the  Jesuits.  1757,  Jan.  5,  having  gone  to  Ver- 
sailles on  the  previous  day,  he  assiduously  followed  the 
king  and  his  courtiers  about  everywhere;  and  about  six 
o'clock  at  night,  when  the  king  was  entering  his  carriage 
to  leave  Trianon,  he  stabbed  him.  The  king  recognized 
his  assassin,  and  D.  was  seized.  The  punishment  inflicted 
on  him  was  horrible.  The  hand  by  which  he  attempted 
the  rnurder  was  burned  at  a  slow  tire;  the  fleshy  parts  of 


DAMIETTA— DAMMAR. 

his  body  were  theu  torn  off  by  pincers;  and,  finally,  he 
was  diagged  about  for  an  hour  by  four  strong  horses, 
while  into  his  numerous  wounds  were  poured  molten  lead, 
resin,  oil,  and  boiling  wax.  Toward  night  the  wretch  ex- 
pired, having  hept  his  resolution  of  not  confessing  who 
were  his  accomplices — if,  indeed,  he  had  any.  His  re- 
mains w^ere  immediately  burned,  his  house  was  destroyed, 
his  father,  wife,  and  daughter  were  banished  from  France 
forever,  and  his  brothers  and  sisters  compelled  to  change 
their  names. 

DAMIETTA,  ddm-e-et'ta  :  tow^n  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  chief  of  the  Nile's  branches,  about  8  m. 
from  its  mouth  in  the  Mediterranean;  lat.  31°  25' n.,  long. 
31°  49'  e.  It  is  in  general  ill  and  irregularly  built,  but  has 
some  handsome  mosques  and  marble  baths,  and  several 
bazaars.  Its  commerce  has  been  much  injured  by  the  pros- 
perity of  Alexandria.  It  still  has  considerable  trade  in  ex- 
porting rice,  which  grows  abundantly  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, fish  (from  Lake  Menzaleh),  coffee,  and  dates;  and 
imports  charcoal,  soap,  and  manufactured  goods.  D. 
(native  Daraiat)  is  connected  by  railway  with  Cairo,  etc. 
The  cloth  known  as  dimity  received  its  name  from  D., 
where  first  it  was  manufactured.  A  bar  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  prevents  vessels  of  more  than  50  or  00  tons  from 
ascending  to  Damietta.  The  existing  town  was  erected 
about  1251,  but,  prior  to  that,  a  city  of  the  same  name 
(more  anciently  Tamiathis)  stood  about  4  m.  to  the  south. 
It  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  Saracens,  and  formed  on 
that  side  the  bulwark  of  Egypt  against  the  early  Crusaders, 
who,  however,  succeeded  in  capturing  it  more  ihan  once. 
It  was  razed,  and  rebuilt  farther  inland  on  the  present 
site,  by  the  sultan  Baybers.    Pop.  37,100. 

DAMMAR,  n.  ^Z^^m'wr^r  [the native  name]:  oleo-resinous 
substance,  obtained  from  certain  trees;  called  also  'piney- 
resin,'  '  Indian  copal,'  or  '  gum  anime.' — Dammar  or  Dam- 
mar Pine  {Dammar a)  is  the  name  also  of  a  genus  of  trees 
of  the  nat.  ord,  Coniferce,  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  of 
that  order  by  their  broad  lanceolate  leathery  leaves,  which 
have  numerous  nearly  parallel  veins,  and  by  their  seeds 
being  winged,  not  at  the  end,  but  on  one  side.  The  tree 
from  which  the  name,  originally  applied  to  its  resinous 
product,  has  been  extended  to  the  whole  genus,  is  the 
MoLUCCAN  D.  (D.  orientalis),  which  grows  on  the  high 
mountain-ridges  of  the  Molucca  Islands.  It  grows  to 
great  height,  attains  a  diameter  of  9  ft.,  and  generally 
has  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  beset  with  knots  as  large  as 
a  man's  head.  The  timber  is  light  and  of  inferior  quality; 
and  the  tree  is  valuable  chiefly  for  its  resin,  which  is  soft, 
transparent,  hardens  in  a  few  days,  and  is  then  white,  with 
a  crystalline  appearance.  The  resin  often  flows  sponta- 
neously from  the  tree  in  such  quantity  that  it  hangs  in 
masses  like  icicles  of  a  hand-breadth  and  a  foot  long.  At 
another  period  of  the  year,  it  is  yellow,  and  less  valued. 
By  incision,  especially  in  the  protuberances  of  the  stem,  it 
is  obtained  in  large  pieces.    So  long  as  Dammar  Besin  is 

476 


DAMMUDAH. 

soft  it  has  a  strong  smell,  which  it  loses  when  dry.  It 
contains  only  a  trace  of  volatile  oil,  but  consists  of  two 
distinct  resins,  one  soluble  in  alcohol,  the  other  not.  It  is 
light,  brittle,  and  easily  friable,  readily  soluble  in  oil  of 
turpentine;  quickly  becomes  viscid  when  heated;  when 
sprinkled  on  burning  coal,  diffuses  an  odor  like  that  of 
rosin  or  mastich;  readily  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  much 
smoke  and  a  somewhat  acid  smell.  It  is  used  in  Asia  for 
domestic  purposes,  and  in  the  arts  like  other  resins;  it  is 
an  article  of  commerce,  and  in  Europe  is  used  in  various 
ways  to  form  varnishes,  which  dry  quickly,  have  a  very 
bright  lustre,  and,  being  colorless,  allow  the  beauty  of  the 
colors  over  which  they  are  spread  to  be  perfectly  seen;  but 
readily  become  viscid  again,  and  are  not  permanent,  so 
that  this  resin  cannot  be  made  a  substitute  for  copal  and 
amber.  It  is  almost  completely  soluble  in  benzole,  and  in 
this  solvent  makes  an  excellent  colorless  varnish  for  posi- 
tive photographs  on  glass — it  is,  however,  scarcely  hard 
enough  for  negatives. — To  this  genus  belongs  also  the 
Kauki  Pine  (q.v.)  of  New  Zealand  (D.  australis),  which 
produces  the  resin  known  as  Kauri  Resin,  ov  Kauri  Gum. — 
The  word  Dammar,  Dammer,  or  Damar,  signifies  resin  in 
some  of  the  languages  of  India.  The  resin  known  as 
Black  Dammak  is  obtained  in  the  Molucca  Islands  from 
the  trunk  of  Marignia  acutifolia,  a  tree  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Amyridacem.  It  is  a  semi-fluid  soft  resin,  with  a  strong 
smell,  becoming  black  when  it  dries:  it  is  used  as  pitch, 
also  to  yield  a  kind  of  turpentine  obtained  by  distillation. 
— Canarium  microcarpum,  tree  of  the  same  order,  also  na- 
tive of  the  furthest  east,  yields,  by  incision  of  the  trunk,  a 
viscid,  odorous,  yellowish  substance  very  similar  to  Bal- 
sam of  Copaiva,  which  is  called  i^ama?'  or  Dammar,  and  is 
used  in  naval  yards  as  oakum,  being  mixed  with  a  little 
chalk  and  the  bark  of  reeds,  and  becomes  as  hard  as  a 
stone. — Quite  distinct  from  all  these  is  the  resin  also  called 
Dammar  or  Piney  Dammar  in  India,  often  also  called  Copal 
(q.v.)  in  India,  and  Anime  (q  v.)  in  Britain,  the  produce  of 
Valeria  Indica,  a  large  tree  of  the  nat.  ord.  Dipteracea^.  It 
is  obtained  by  wounding  the  tree,  and  when  fresh  is  clear, 
fragrant,  and  acridly  bitter;  when  dried  it  becomes  yel- 
lowy brittle,  and  glass-like.  It  is  used* in  India  as  a  var- 
nish {Piney  Varnish),  hard,  tenacious,  and  much  esteemed. 
It  is  also  made  into  candles  in  Malabar,  which,  in  burning, 
give  an  agreeable  fragrance,  and  a  clear  light  with  little 
smoke.  Shorea  rohusta,  the  Sal  (q.v.),  so  much  valued  in 
India  as  a  timber-tree,  also  of  the  nat.  ord.  Dipteracece,  and 
some  other  species  of  Sliorea,  yield  a  resin  also  known  as 
Dammar,  and  ^sBal  and  DJioona,  much  used  in  dock-yards 
in  India  as  pitch. 

DAMMUDAH,  ddm-modd,  or  Dummo'dah:  river  of 
India,  rises  in  Ramgurh,  a  district  in  the  presidency  of 
Bengal,  about  lat.  23°  55  n.,  and  long.  84°  53'  e.  After  a 
generally  s.e.  course  of  350  m.,  it  enters  the  Hoogly  from 
the  right,  in  lat.  22°  13'  n.,  and  long.  88°  7'  e.  The  valley 
of  the  D. — traversed  by  the  main  railway  between  Calcutta 
and  the  n.w.  (the  E.  Indian  railway) — abounds  in  coal  and 

477 


DAMN— DAMP. 

iron;  and  competent  judges  have  calculated  that  bar-iron 
may  here  be  manufactured  20  per  cent,  cheaper  than  it  can 
be  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

DAMN,  V.  dam  [F.  daimier,  to  condemn— from  L.  dam- 
ndre,  to  condemn — from  damriU7n,  loss,  harm]:  to  sentence 
to  misery  in  the  future  world;  to  condemn;  to  condemn  as 
bad  or  displeasing,  as  a  play  by  hissing.  Damn  ing,  imp. 
-ing.  Damned,  pp.  ddmd:  Adj.  sentenced  to  future  pun- 
ishment; condemned;  haieful.  Damnable,  a.  -nd-hl, 
[F. — L.]:  deserving  damnation,  or  leading  to  it;  odious. 
Dam  nably,  ad.  -hit.  Dam  nableness,  n.  -na-hl-nes,  the 
state  or  quality  of  deserving  damnation.  Damnation,  n. 
-ri'TsMn  [F. — L.]:  condemnation;  sentence  to  everlasting 
punishment.  Dam  natoiiy,  a.  -nd-iei'-t,  tending  to  con- 
demn; containing  a  sentence  of  condemnation.  Damnif  ic, 
a.  -nif  tk  [L.  jid,  I  become]:  causing  loss;  injurious. 
Dam  nify,  v.  nifi,  to  inflict  damage  on  any  one;'  to  in- 
jure;  to  impair. 

DAMOCLES,  dnm'd-kliz:  one  of  the  courtiers  and  syco- 
phants of  the  ekler  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  It 
is  recorded  by  Cicero  that  D.,  having  lauded  in  the  highest 
terms  the  grandeur  and  happiness  of  royalty,  was  reproved 
by  Dionysius  in  a  singular  manner.  The  sycophant  was 
seated  at  a  table,  richly  spread  and  surrounded  by  all  the 
furniture  of  royalty,  but  in  the  midst  of  his  luxurious  ban- 
quet, looking  upward,  he  saw  a  keen-edged  sword  sus- 
pended over  his  head  by  a  suigle  horse-hair,  emblem  of  the 
constant  danger  that  attends  the  possession  of  power. 
Damocles'  sword,  a  dreaded  and  ever-present  danger. 

DAMONICO,  n.  da-mbnl-ko  [It.]:  compound  of  terra 
di  Sienna  and  Roman  ochre,  burnt  and  having  all  their 
qualities;  it  is  rather  more  russet  in  hue  than  the  orange  de 
Mars,  has  considerable  transparency,  and  is  rich  and  dura 
ble  in  color. 

DAMON,  dd'mon,  and  PYTHIAS,  pitlii-as  (or  Phin- 
TiAS,  fin' tl-(is):  two  noble  Pythagoreans  of  Syracuse,  mod- 
els of  faithful  friendship.  Pythias  having  been  condemned 
to  death  by  Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  begged  to 
be  allowed  to  go  home,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  his 
affairs,  Damon  pledging  his  own  life  for  the  reappearance 
of  his  friend.  Dionysius  consented,  and  Pythias  returned 
just  in  time  to  save  Damon  from  death.  Struck  by  so 
noble  an  example  of  mutual  affection,  the  tyrant  pardoned 
Pythias,  and  desired  to  be  admitted  into  their  sacred  fel- 
lowship. 

DAMP,  a.  damp  [Ger.  dampf,  short  wind,  vapor,  steam; 
ddmpfen,  to  suifocate:  Dut.  dempen;  Sw.  dampa,  to  ex- 
tinguish a  light,  to  repress — lit  ,  close  and  confined,  as 
causing  humidity]:  in  a  state  between  dry  and  wet;  moist; 
humid:  N.  moist  air;  moisture;  fog;  vapor;  depression  of 
spirits;  dejection:  Y.  to  moisten;  to  make  slightly  wet;  to 
depress  or  discourage;  to  weaken;  to  check  or  restrain. 
Damp  ing,  imp.  Damped,  pp.  ddmpt.  Dam  per,  n.  that 
which  damps  or  checks;  a  movable  iron  plate  acting  as  a 
door  or  valve,  rising,  falling,  sliding,  or  turning  in  a  flue  or 

478 


DAMPIER— DAMPIETi  ARCHIPELAGO. 

chimney  to  reduce  its  size  at  pleasure,  and  thus  by  checking 
the  tiow  of  air  to  *  damp  '  or  reduce  the  combustion:  in 
Aastralia,  etc.,  a  simple  kind  of  scone  or  unleavened  bread, 
of  wheat  flour;  in  a  locomotive  engine,  a  kind  of  iron  valve 
fixed  to  the  smoke  box  end  of  the  boiler,  which  is  shut 
down  when  the  engine  is  standing,  and  opened  when  it  is 
running;  an  apparatus  (1)  for  checking  tlie  vibrations  of  a 
magnetic  needle,  (2)  for  moderating  the  vibrations  of  the 
wires  of  a  pianoforte  after  a  key  is  struck,  and  the  finger  is 
lifted  from  the  key,  immediately  stopping  the  vibration  of 
the  string.  It  consists  of  a  second  hammer,  which,  on  the 
rising  of  the  key,  strikes  the  string  and  remains  upon  it, 
instead  of  bounding  off  as  the  sounding  hammer  does. 
Perfect  damping,  always  desirable,  is  not  always  obtained, 
especially  in  upright  pianofortes  of  the  older  make.  In 
respect  of  damping,  the  pianofortes  of  the  German  makers 
are  superior  to  the  English.  The  more  perfect  the  damping 
is,  the  more  distinctly  and  clearly  the  passages  and  harmony 
are  heard,  while  the  instrument  gains  in  purity  of  tone,  when 
there  is  none  of  that  confusion  of  sounds  which  arises  from 
imperfect  damping.  Damps,  n.  plu.  noxious  vapors  issu- 
ing from  the  earth,  as  from  old  wells  or  pits.  Damp'ness, 
n.  moisture;  humidity.  Choke  damp,  chdk-,  the  carbonic- 
acid  gas,  fatal  to  animal  life,  which  is  generated  in  close 
and  confined  places,  as  coal-pits,  cellars,  wells,  etc.  Fire- 
damp, the  inflammable  gas  generated  in  coal-pits;  marsh- 
gas  or  light  carburetted  hydrogen.  Damp  en,  v.  -en,  to 
make  damp  or  moist.  Dampening,  imp.  damp' mng . 
Damp  ened,  pp.  -end.  Damp  ish,  a.  4^^,  moderately  damp 
or  moist.  Damp'ishly,  ad.  -U.  Damp'ishness,  n.  a  mode- 
rate degree  of  damp;  slight  moisture. 

DAMPIER,  dam' per,  William:  b.  1652,  of  a  Somerset- 
shire family:  English  navigator.  He  early  went  to  sea, 
and  with  a  party  of  buccaneers  D.  crossed  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien  1679,  and  embarking  on  the  Pacific  in  canoes  and 
similar  small  craft,  captured  several  Spanish  vessels,  in 
which  they  cruised  along  the  coast  of  Spanish  America, 
waging  war  with  the  Spanish  subjects.  In  1684,  D.  en- 
gaged in  another  buccaneering  expedition,  in  which  he 
coasted  along  the  shores  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico,  sail  - 
ing thence  to  the  E.  Indies,  touching  at  Australia,  and 
after  some  time  returning  to  England,  where,  1691,  he  pub- 
lished an  interesting  account  of  the  expedition,  entitled  A 

Voyage  Round  the  World.  He  was  afterward  deputed  by 
govt,  to  conduct  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South  Seas, 
in  which  he  explored  tlie  w.  and  n.w.  coasts  of  Australia, 
also  the  coasts  of  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  and  New  Ire- 
land, giving  his  name  to  the  Dampier  Archipelago  and 
Strait  (q.v.).  The  events  of  the  latter  part  of  D.'s  life  are 
not  well  known.  Besides  one  above  mentioned,  the  fol- 
lowing are  his  principal  works:  Voyages  to  the  Bay  of  Cam- 
peachy  (Lond.  1729);  A  Treatise  on  Winds  and  Tides;  and  a 

Vindication  of  his  Voyage  to  the  South  Sea  in  the  Ship  St. 

George  (1707). 

DAMPIER  ARCHIPELAGO,  and  STRAIT:  named 

479 


DAMPING  OFF-DAMSON. 

from  the  famous  navigator  and  buccaneer  William  Dam- 
pier  (q.v.). 

The  Archipelago  is  off  the  n.w.  coast  of  Australia,  about 
lat.  21°  s.,  and  long.  117''  e.  The  principal  islands  of  the 
cluster  are  Enderby,  Lewis,  Rosemary,  Legendre,  and 
Depuch. 

The  Strait,  35  m.  wide,  separates  the  island  of  Waygiou 
from  the  n.w\  extremity  of  Papua  or  New^  Guinea,  lying 
almost  immediately  under  the  equator,  and  about  long.  131" 
e.;  thus,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  antipodes  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon. 

DAMP  ING  OFF,  in  Horticulture:  death  of  plants  from 
excess  of  moisture  in  the  soil  and  atmosphere.  Young 
seedlings  in  stove-houses  and  hotbeds  are  particularly 
liable  to  it.  Although  the  cause  is  obvious,  prevention  is 
not  ahvays  easy;  not  only  because  some  plants  are  very 
sensitive  as  to  moisture,  but  also  because  the  necessity  of 
keeping  sashes  closed  on  account  of  temperature  often 
stands  in  the  way  of  desirable  ventilation,  and  it  is  when  a 
moist  atmosphere  stagnates  around  plants,  and  the  tem- 
perature is  not  very  low,  that  they  are  most  liable  to  damp 
off. 

DAMROSCH,  ddm'rosli,  Leopold,  m.d.:  1832,  Oct.  22— 
1885,  Feb.  15;  b.  Posen,  Prussia:  musician.  He  took  his 
degree  in  medicine  at  the  Univ.  of  Berlin  1854,  but  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  music  and  attained  wide  popularity 
as  a  violinist.  Liszt  appointed  him  sole  violinist  in  the 
ducal  orchestra  at  Weimar,  1856,  and  he  became  leader  of 
the  Philharmonic  Soc.  of  Breslau  1858.  He  conducted  its 
concerts  with  success  three  years,  then  founded  a  sym- 
phonic soc.  of  80  instrumentalists  w  ith  which  he  remained 
till  1871,  when  he  removed  to  New  York  and  assumed  the 
directorship  of  the  Arion  singing  soc,  with  which  he  made 
his  first  American  appearance,  1871,  May  6.  In  1873,  he 
founded  the  New  \ork  Oratorio  Soc,  which  produced 
the  chief  works  of  Bach,  Beethoven,  Brahm,  Handel, 
Haydn,  Mendelssohn,  and  ^Fozart  under  his  direction,  and 
with  full  orchestral  accompaniment;  1878,  organized  the 
New  York  Symphony  Soc;  1881,  May  3-7,  gave  a  memo- 
rable musical  festival  with  the  aid  of  both  societies;  and 
1884,became  director  of  the  new  Metropolitan  Opera-house. 
He  composed  a  number  of  violin  concertos,  12  books  of 
song,  and  the  Fest  Omrture,  Ruth  and  Naomi. 

DAMSEL,  n.  damzel  [F.  demoiselle,  a  young  lady— from 
OF.  damoiselle,  fem.  of  OF.  damoisel,  a  young  man:  It. 
damigella,  dim.  of  dama,  a  lady — from  L.  domind,  a  lady]: 
a  young  unmarried  woman;  a  maiden;  a  girl. 

DAMSON,  n.  ddm'zn  [from  damascene,  the  Damascus 
plum]:  rather  small  oval-fruited  variety  of  the  common  plum, 
much  esteemed  for  preserving,  and  not  wholly  unfit  for 
dessert.  The  tree  grows  to  considerable  height,  but  has  a 
bushy,  sloe-like  appearance.  It  is  extremely  fruitful.  There 
are  many  sub-varieties,  with  fruit  of  different  colors,  dark 
purple,  bluish,  black,  yellow,  etc.  D.  pies,  and  Z>.  cheese — 
made  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  fig-cake— are  w^ell-knowu 

480 


DAMUGGOO— DANA. 

English  luxuries. — The  Mountain  D.  or  Bitter  D.  of  the 
W.  Indies  is  the  Simaruba  (q.v.). 

DAMUGGOO,  da-mug -go  :  large  and  populous  town  of 
Upper  Guinea,  Africa,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Niger;  lat. 
T  n..,  long.  7^  50'  e.  The  houses,  built  of  mud,  and  sup- 
ported by  wooden  props,  are  circular  in  shape.  The  town 
is  dirty,  and  has  a  miserable  appearance.  The  population, 
of  number  not  known,  support  themselves  by  trade  and 
cultivation  of  the  soil. 

DAN,  n.  clan  [Sp.  don;  F.  dom,  sir,  lord  —  from  L. 
dominiis,  lord:  Icel.  dan,\oYd\  Gael,  duine,  a  man]:  in  OE., 
applied  as  a  title  of  honor  to  men;  sir;  master;  latterly  ap- 
plied in  a  jocular  way. 

DAN:  city  in  the  n.  of  Palestine,  e.  of  the  springs  of  Jor- 
dan, s.  of  Mount  Lebanon;  built  by  the  Canaanites  and  orig- 
inally called  Laish  or  Leshem.  After  the  close  of  Joshua's 
wars  the  city  had  a  period  of  quietness  and  prosperity  till  a 
tribe  of  Danites  who  lived  about  140  m.  to  the  s.w.,  assault- 
ed and  captured  the  city,  set  up  a  stolen  graven  image,  and 
named  the  city  after  their  ancestor.  It  was  near  D.  that 
Abraham  gained  his  victory  over  Chedorlaomer  and  the 
allies,  and  within  the  city  that  Jeroboam  publicly  estab- 
lished idolatry  by  erecting  a  golden  calf.  Nebuchadnezzar 
marched  his  troops  through  or  past  it  when  on  his  way 
to  invade  J udea,  and  it  was  laid  waste  by  Benhadad,  King 
of  Syria.  The  familiar  expression,  'from  D.  to  Beersheba,' 
was  used  to  denote  the  whole  extent  of  the  country,  as  D. 
was  the  most  northern  outpost  and  Beersheba  the  most 
southern  city;  in  modern  usage  it  means  from  one  end  of 
land  to  the  other. 

DAN:  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and  eldest  son  of  Bilhah,  Ra- 
chel's maid.  He  was'  credited  with  having  but  one  son, 
Hushim,  or  Shuam,  yet  when  the  tribes  came  out  of  Egypt 
and  were  numbered  near  Sinai,  the  tribe  of  D.  under  com- 
mand of  Ahiezar  amounted  to  62,700  able-bodied  men,  and 
was  the  largest  except  that  of  Judah.  While  in  the  wil- 
derness the  tribe  increased  to  64,400  men.  With  the  tribes 
of  Asher  and  Naphtali,  it  formed  the  fourth  division  of 
the  Hebrew  camp.  It  was  the  last  to  receive  the  inheri- 
tance of  land,  and  was  given  the  smallest  of  the  twelve  por- 
tions, a  tract  n.w.  of  Judah,  near  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Amorites  disputed  this  possession  and  occupied  a  large  por- 
tion of  it  till  the  neighboring  tribe  of  Ephraim  aided  the 
Danites  to  subdue  them. 

DANA,  dd'na,  Francis,  ll.d.:  jurist:  174B,  June  13 — 
1811,  Apr.  25;  b.  Charlestown,  Mass. :  son  of  Judge  Richard 
D.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  1762,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
1767;  joined  the  Sons  of  Liberty;  was  a  delegate  in  the 
first  provincial  congress  of  Mass.  1774;  bearer  of  confiden- 
tial dispatches  to  his  brother  Edmund  in  London  1775; 
member  of  executive  council  of  Mass.  1776-80;  delegate 
to  the  continental  congress  which  formed  the  confedera- 
tion 1777,  and  to  the  congress  1778,  in  which  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  committee  on  the  reorganization  of  the  army; 
appointed  sec.  to  John  Adams  (commissioner  to  negotiate 

481 


DANA-DAKAE. 

peace  with  Great  Britain)  1779;  minister  to  Russia  1780-82. 
He  returned  home  1783,  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Mass. 
supreme  court  1785,  elected  delegate  to  the  Annapolis  con- 
vention 1786,  the  convention  that  adopted  the  federal  con- 
stitution 1787,  and  the  state  convention  that  ratified  it  1788; 
appointed  chief  justice  of  Mass.  1791,  Nov.  29,  and  served 
till  1806.  He  was  a  federalist  in  politics,  a  founder  of  the 
American  Acad,  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  father  of  Richard 
Henry  D.,  the  poet. 

DANA,  Richard:  1699,  July  7—1772,  May  17;  b.  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. :  lawyer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
1718,  studied  law,  and  settled  in  Boston  to  practice.  He 
attained  large  distinction  at  the  bar;  was  prominent  in  the 
patriotic  movements  preceding  the  revolutionary  war,  ad- 
ministered to  the  sec.  of  the  Mass.  province  a  special  oath 
obligating  him  not  to  attempt  to  execute  the  obnoxious 
stamp-act  1769,  investigated  and  reported  on  the  massacre 
of  citizens  by  British  soldiers  1770,  Mar.  5,  presided  fre- 
quently over  the  Boston  town-meetings,  was  a  leader  among 
the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  a  representative  in  the  Mass.  gen- 
eral assembly. 

DANA,  Richard  Henry:  1787-1879,  Jan.  6;  b.  Cam- 
bridge, Mass  :  poet  and  novelist.  After  three  years  at 
Harvard  college,  he  adopted  law  as  a  profession,  but 
eventually  applied  himself  to  literature.  In  1817-20,  he 
was  a  contributor  to  the  North  American  Remew,  and  assisted 
in  its  editorship.  The  Idle  Man,  w^hicli  contains  many  of 
his  best  prose  efforts,  was  a  periodical  commenced  1821, 
but  was  a  commercial  failure,  soon  discontinued.  Having 
at  an  earlier  date  published  the  Dying  liamn,  a  poem  of 
merit,  he  came  forward,  in  1827,  with  the  Buccaneer,  and 
other  poems,  and  in  1839  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
on  Shakspeare. 

DANA,  Richard  Henry,  Jr.:  1815-82,  Jan.  6;  b.  Mass.; 
son  of  Richard  Henry:  well-known  author  of  Two  Years 
before  the  Mast  (enlarged  ed.  1869),  the  description  of  a 
voyage  undertaken  for  health.  To  Cuba  and  Back  ap- 
peared 1859.  D.  was  also  a  distinguished  authority  on 
maritime  law,  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar  1840.  In 
1841,  he  published  The  Seaman's  Friend,  containing  a 
Treatise  on  Practical  Seamanship;  also  an  edition  of  Wheaton 
on  International  Law.  He  was  nominated  1876  as  ambassa- 
dor England,  but  the  appointment  was  not  sanctioned  by 
the  senate. 

DANA^E,  n.  ddn'e-a  [named  after  Pierre  Martin  Dana, 
who  wrote  on  the  plants  of  Piedmont]:  genus  of  ferns, 
typical  of  the  Danmacece,  or  Dancm,  an  order  of  fern-like 
acrogens. 

DANAE,  ddn'a-e  :  in  ancient  w?/^7i.,  daughter  of  Acrisius, 
King  of  Argos,  and  Ocaleia.  An  oracle  had  announced 
that  she  would  one  day  give  birth  to  a  son,  who  should 
kill  his  grandfather.  Acrisius,  of  course,  felt  extremely 
uncomfortable  after  this  declaration,  and  took  every  pre- 
caution to  keep  D.  a  virgin.  He  shut  her  up  in  a  dungeon, 
where,  nevertheless,  she  was  visited  by  Zeus  in  a  shower  of 

482 


DAKAIDE— DANBURY. 

gold,  and  became,  in  consequence,  the  mother  of  Perseus. 
Acrisius  put  both  the  mother  and  child  into  a  chest,  and 
exposed  them  on  the  sea.  The  chest  drifted  ashore  on 
the  island  of  Seriphos,  and  D.  and  her  child  were  saved. 
D.  remained  in  the  ishmd  until  Perseus  had  grown  up  and 
become  a  hero  famous  for  his  exploits.  She  afterward 
accompanied  him  to  Argos.  On  his  arrival,  Acrisius  fled, 
but  was  slain  accidentally  by  Perseus  at  Larissa. 

DAN  AIDE,  da-nd'l-de  [from  Danaus  (q.v.)]:  machine 
for  utilizing  hydraulic  power;  consisting  of  two  cylin- 
ders, one  within  the  other,  revolving  on  a  vertical  axis. 

DANAIS,  n.  dan'd-is  [L.  Danais,  a  daughter  of  Danaus, 
King  of  Argos]:  genus  of  plants,  ord.  Cinchonacece ,  consist- 
ing of  climbing  and  straggling  shrubs,  natives  of  Mauritius; 
in  entom. ,  a  genus  of  butterflies. 

DANAUS,  ddn'a-us,  mythical  personage,  son  of  Belus 
and  Anchinoe,  brother  of  ^gyptus,  and  originally  ruler  of 
Libya.  Thinking  his  life  in  danger  from  the  machinations 
of  his  brother,  he  fled  to  Argos,  accompanied  by  his  50 
daughters,  known  as  the  Danaides,  where  he  was  chosen 
king,  after  the  banishment  of  Gelanor,  the  last  of  the 
Inachid(3e.  The  50  sons  of  ^gyptus  followed  him,  and, 
under  the  pretense  of  friendship,  sought  his  daughters  in 
marriage.  D.  consented,  but  on  the  bridal-night  he  gave 
his  daughters  each  a  dagger,  and  urged  them  to  murder 
their  bridegrooms  in  revenge  for  the  treatment  he  had 
received  from  ^gyptus.  All  did  so,  except  one,  Hyperm- 
nestra,  who  allowed  her  betrothed,  Lynceus,  to  escape. 
D.,  as  may  naturally  be  supposed,  found  great  difliculty 
in  obtaining  new  husbands  for  his  daughters;  and  in  order 
to  get  them  oft'  his  hands,  instituted  games,  where  they 
were  given  as  rewards  to  the  victors,  though  they  could 
scarely  have  been  considered  very  tempting  j)rizes.  As  a 
punishment  for  their  crime,  the}^  were  compelled,  in  the 
under-world,  to  pour  water  forever  into  a  vessel  full  of 
holes.  So  runs  the  myth  ;  but  Strabo  mentions  an  old 
tradition,  w^hich  declares  D.  and  his  50  daughters  to  have 
provided  Argos  with  water,  which  is  probably  the  origin  of 
the  scene  in  Hades.  Greek  art,  of  course,  represents  the 
Danaides  in  conformity  with  the  popular  myth.  The  tomb 
of  D.,  in  the  Agora  of  Argos,  was  shown  as  late  as  the  time 
of  Pausanias. 

DANBURY,  ddn'her-l:  town,  one  of  the  caps,  of  Fairfield 
CO.,  Conn.;  20  m.  n.w.  of  Bridgeport,  28  m.  w.  by  n.  of 
New  Haven,  69m.  n.n.e.  of  New  York;  at  then,  terminus 
of  the  D.  and  Norwalk  railroad,  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
Housatonic  line.  A  temporary  settlement  was  made  there 
1684,  a  Congl.  meeting-house  was  erected  1696,  and  for 
many  years  the  place  was  known  by  the  Indian  name  of 
Paliquioque.  In  1776,  the  place  was  made  a  depository  for 
army  stores;  and  when  Gen.  Try  on,  the  British  gov.  of  New 
York,  was  informed  of  the  fact,  he  headed  a  force  of  over 
2,000  men,  landed  at  Norwalk  1777,  Apr.  25,  marched  im- 
mediately upon  D.  and  set  fire  to  the  town  and  stores,  de- 
stroying 3,000  barrels  of  pork,  over  1,000  barrels  of  flour, 

4-63 


DANBY— DAiSrCE. 

several  hundred  barrels  of  beef,  3,000  bushels  of  coin, 

I,  600  tents,  and  large  quantities  of  rice,  wine,  and  rum. 
The  patriot  Gen.  Wooster  hastened  to  the  relief  of  D. 
from  Fairfield,  gave  battle  to  the  British  at  Ridgetield, 
and  received  a  fatal  wound.  In  1780,  Zadoc  Benedict  es- 
tablished in  D.  the  first  hat-factory  in  the  United  States, 
employed  one  journeyman  and  two  apprentices,  and  pro- 
duced three  hats  per  day.  From  this  has  grown  the  enor- 
mous business  which  now  distinguishes  the  town,  gives 
employment  two-thirds  of  its  citizens,  and  is  conducted 
in  12  or  more  factories  on  an  aggregate  capital  of  over 

II,  500,000.  The  manufactures  of  shirts  and  sewing-ma- 
chines are  the  other  chief  Industrie?.  D.  has  great  business 
activity;  has  many  handsome  residences,  a  co.  court-house; 
a  public  library,  the  gift  of  William  A.,  Alexander  M.,  and 
George  G.  White;  9  churches,  the  First  and  Second  Congr., 
St.  James's Prot.Episc,  Meth.  Episc.,Bap.,  Disciples', Univ., 
St,  Peter's  Rom.  Cath.,  and  a  Sandemanian;  2  national 
banks;  2  savings  banks;  the  second  largest  graded  school 
in  the  state;  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1870)  6,542; 
(1880)  11,666;  (1888)  estimated  abt.  17,000. 

DANBY,  ddn'hi,  Francis,  a.r.a.:  1793,  Nov.  16— 1861;  b. 
abt.  6  m.  from  Wexford,  Ireland:  painter.  He  was  educated 
in  the  school  of  the  Soc.  of  Arts,  Dublin,  and  soon  gave 
indications  of  artistic  talent.  His  first  attempts  were  sent 
to  the  Dublin  Exhibition.  After  1820,  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Bristol,  whence  he  sent  to  the  Koyal  Acad.,  Lon^ 
don,  his  Disappointed  Love  (1821),  Warriors  oj"  the  Olden  Time 
listening  to  the  Song  of  their  Minstrel  (1823),  and  Sunset  at 
Sea  after  a  Storm  (1824).  In  1825,  D.  produced  2he  Deliv- 
ery of  Israel  out  of  Egypt  (1826),  Christ  Walking  on  the  Sea 
(1827),  The  Embarkation  of  Cleopatra  on  the  Cydnus  (1828-9), 
An  Attempt  to  Illustrate  the  Opening  of  the  Seventh  Seal,  The 
Passage  of  the  Bed  Sea,  and  The  Deluge.  He  resided  on  the 
continent  1829-41,  during  which  interval  he  executed  very 
few  paintings.  On  his  return,  he  took  up  his  abode  at 
Exmouth,  where  he  died.  Among  his  later  works  are 
A  Morning  at  Bhodes  ilMl),  Ihe  Enchanted  Island  (1841), 
The  Contest  of  the  Lyre  and  Pipe  in  the  Valley  of  Tempe  (1842), 
TJie  Tomb  of  Christ  after  the  Resurrection,  Fiensford  Lake 
(Norway) — a  Sudden  Storm  passing  off,  Caius  Marius  among 
the  Ruins  of  Carthage  (1848),  and  The  Departure  of  Ulysses 
from  Ithaca  (1854). 

DANCE,  V.  dans  [F.  danser,  to  dance— from  O.H.G. 
danson:  G.  tanzen;  Dan.  dandse,  to  frisk,  to  dance:  comp. 
Gael,  danns,  to  dance — from  dan,  a  musical  composition]  : 
to  move  or  skip  with  the  feet,  keeping  time  to  music;  to 
move  nimbly;  to  leap  and  frisk  about;  to  move  with 
measured  steps.  Dan  cing,  imp.  Danced,  pp.  ddnst. 
Dan  cer,  n.  -ser,  one  who.  Dance,  or  Dan'cing,  n.  a 
leaping  and  frisking  about;  a  measured  stepping  and  jump- 
ing, nearly  always  to  music;  a  graceful  movement  of  the 
figure.  To  dance  attendance,  to  strive  to  gain  favor  and 
patronage  by  assiduous  civilities  and  ofiicious  endeavors  to 

484 


OF  DEATH. 

please.  To  lead  one  a  dance,  to  put  one  to  a  great  deal 
of  useless  trouble. 

DANCE,  George,  Jr.:  1741-1825,  Jan.  14;  b.  London: 
architect.  He  was  an  early  member  of  the  Royal  Acad., 
and  its  prof,  of  architecture  many  years;  succeeded  his 
father,  also  an  architect,  as  city  surveyor  of  Loudon  1768- 
1816;  and  built  Newgate  prison,  Shakespeare  gallery,  Bath 
theatre,  St.  Luke's  hospital,  and  the  Guild-hall. 

DANCE  OF  DEATH  (L.  Chorea  MacJiabceorum,  F.  La 
Dame  Macabre)-,  class  of  allegorical  representations,  illus- 
trative of  the  universal  power  of  Death,  and  dating  from 
the  14th  c.  When  the  introduction  of  Christianity  first 
banished  the  ancient  Germanic  conception  of  a  future  state, 
a  new  description  of  death-mythology  arose,  partly  out  of 
biblical  sources,  partly  out  of  the  popular  character  itself, 
wherein  the  Last  Enemy  was  represented  under  simple  and 
majestic  images,  such  as  that  of  a  husbandman  watering 
the  ground  with  blood,  plowing  it  with  swords,  rooting 
out  weeds,  plucking  up  flowers,  or  felling  trees,  sowing  it 
with  corpses;  or  of  a  monarch  assembling  his  armies,  mak- 
ing war,  taking  prisoners,  inviting  his  subjects  to  a  festi- 
val, or  citing  them  to  judgment.  But  with  a  gradual 
change  in  national  manners  came  a  change  in  the  mode 
of  treating  the  subject,  and  it  was  associated  with 
every-day  images,  such  as  the  confessional,  chess-play- 
ing, and,  above  all,  with  the  adjuncts  of  a  festival — viz., 
music  and  dancing.  This  tendency  to  familiarize  the 
theme  increased  during  the  confusion  and  turmoil  of 
the  14th  c,  when  the  national  mind  alternated  between  fits 
of  devotion  and  license,  or  blent  both  elements  in  satire  and 
humor.  Such  a  mood  as  this  naturally  occupied  itself  with 
personifying  Death,  and  adopted  by  preference  the  most 
startling  and  grotesque  images  it  could  find — that  of  a  mu- 
sician playing  to  dancing-men,  or  a  dancer  leading  them 
on;  and  as  the  dance  and  the  drama  were  then  intimately 
connected,  and  employed  on  religious  occasions,  this  par- 
ticular idea  soon  assumed  a  dramatic  form. 

This  drama  was  most, simply  constructed,  consisting  of 
short  dialogues  between  Death  and  four-and-twenty  or 
more  followers,  and  was  undoubtedly  enacted  in  or  near 
churches  by  religious  orders  in  Germany  during  the  14th 
c,  and  at  a  rather  later  period  in  France.  It  would  appear 
that  the  seven  brothers,  whose  martyrdom  is  recorded  2 
Maccabees,  vii.,  either  played  an  important  part  in  the 
drama,  or  the  first  representation,  at  Paris  in  the  Cloister 
'  aux  Innocents,'  fell  upon  their  festival,  and  hence  the  ori- 
gin of  the  ancient  name,  Chorea  Machabaeorum,  or  La 
Danse  Macabre.  As  early  as  1400,  the  dramatic  poem  was 
imitated  in  Spain,  and  appears  there  in  79  strophes  of  8 
lines  each  {La  Danra  Oeneral  de  los  Muertos),  but  it  did  not 
spread;  while  the  French,  having  a  love  for  pictorial  rep- 
resentation, very  early  aftixed  an  illustration  to  each  strophe, 
and  in  1425  painted  the  whole  series  on  the  churchyard- 
wall  of  the  Cloister  of  the  Innocents,  where  the  Dance  of 
Death  was  habitually  enacted.  We  find  the  subject  treated 

485 


DANCE  OF  DEATH. 

io  painting,  sculpture,  and  tapestry,  in  the  churches  of 
Anjou,  Amiens,  Angers,  Rouen,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
numerous  wood-cuts  and  accompanying  letter-press  which 
succeeded  the  invention  of  printing.  From  Paris,  both 
poem  and  pictures  were  transplanted  to  London  (1430), 
Salisbury  (about  1460),  Wortley  Hall  in  Gloucestershire, 
Hexham,  etc. 

But  nowhere  was  the  subject  so  variously  and  strikingly 
treated  as  in  Germany.  A  picture  in  one  of  the  chapels  of 
the  Marienkirche,  at  Liibeck,  still,  in  spite  of  repeated  re- 
paintings,  bearing  the  unmistakable  impress  of  the  14th  c, 
exhibits  the  very  simplest  form  of  the  drama,  and  has  some 
genuine  Low- German  verses  attached  to  it.  Here  we  see 
24  figures,  partly  clerical,  partly  lay,  arranged  in  a  descend- 
ing scale,  from  the  pope  himself  down  to  a  little  child,  and 
between  each  of  them  a  dancing-figure  of  Death,  not  in  the 
form  of  a  skeleton,  but  a  shrivelled  corpse,  the  whole  be- 
ing linked  in  one  chain,  and  dancing  to  the  music  of  an- 
other Death.  This  representation  is  almost  the  same  as  a 
very  ancient  One  at  La  Chaise-Dieu,  in  Auvergne,  and 
points  to  the  identity  of  the  original  dramatic  spectacle  in 
both  countries. 

The  celebrated  Dance  of  Death  on  the  cloister  walls  of 
the  Klingenthal,  a  convent  in  Basel,  though  painted  prob- 
ably not  later  than  1312,  exhibited  a  departure  from  the 
simplest  form — the  number  of  persons  exceeding  the  origi- 
nal 24,  and  the  chain  being  broken  up  into  separate  cou- 
ples. But  both  alike  are  to  be  regarded  only  as  scenes 
from  a  drama,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  justly  compared 
with  a  contemporary  Italian  painting,  the  '  Triumph  of 
Death,'  by  Andrea  Orcagna.  The  acted  drama  endured 
till  the  15th  c;  and  while  there  were  varieties  in  the  paint- 
ings, the  poem,  the  most  important  feature,  remained  al- 
most unchanged. 

About  the  middle  of  the  15th  c,  however,  the  drama  be- 
ing altogether  laid  aside,  the  pictures  became  the  main 
point  of  interest,  the  verses  merely  subsidiary.  Accord- 
ingly, we  find  from  this  time  the  same  ^pictures  repeated 
in  different  places,  with  diiferent  verses,  or  no  verses  at 
all,  till  at  length  both  verses  and  pictures  entirely  change 
their  original  character.  The  Dance  of  Death  being  trans- 
ferred from  the  quiet  convent  walls  into  public  places,  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  popular  art.  Duke  George  of  Saxony 
had,  in  1534,  the  front  of  his  Dresden  castle  ornamented 
with  a  life  size  bas-relief  of  the  subject,  and  other  repre- 
sentations are  to  be  found  at  Strasburg  and  Bern.  There 
was  a  Dance  of  Death  painted  round  the  cloister  of  old  St. 
Paul's  in  London,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.;  and  there 
is  a  sculptured  one  at  Rouen,  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Maclou. 
But  Holbein  has  the  credit  of  availing  himself  most  effec- 
tively of  the  original  design,  and  giving  it  a  new  and  more 
artistic  character.  Departing  from  the  idea  of  a  dance, 
he  illustrated  the  subject  by  53  distinct  sketches  for  en- 
gravings, which  he  called  Imagines  Mortis.  The  origi- 
nals of  these  are  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  impressions  of 
them  have  been  frequently  repeated  under  different  names. 

486 


DANCETTE— DANCING. 

Authorities  on  this  subject  are:  Peignot's  Reclierclies  sur 
les  Danses  des  Moris  (Dijon  and  Paris  1826);  Massman's 
Baseler  Todtentdnze  (Stuttgart  1847),  and  Donee's  The  Dance 
of  Death  (Lond.  1833). 

DANCETTE,  a.  dan  set'  [F.— from  the  zigzag  shape]: 
,  applied  to  a  line  of  division  intended  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  zigzag  molding  in 
architecture:  N.  the  zigzag  or  chevron  fret  or 
molding  peculiar  to  Norman  architecture. 

DANCETTE,  dan-set :  one  of  the  lines  of 
partition  in  Heraldry,  which  dilfers  from 
indented  (q.v.)  only  in  the  greater  size  of 
Dancette.     the  notches.     The  indentations  where  the 
division  is  per  fess  dancette  never  exceed 
three  in  number. 

DANCING:  rhythmical  movement  of  the  body,  espe- 
cially of  the  lower  limbs,  usually  keeping  time  to  music. 
Dancing  may  also  be  said  to  be  as  old  as  the  world,  and 
prevails  in  rude  as  well  as  in  civilized  nations.  Children 
dance,  as  the  lower  animals  frisk  and  gambol,  as  by  in- 
stinct. Early  records,  sacred  and  profane,  make  mention 
of  dancing,  and  in  most  of  the  ancient  nations  it  was  a 
constituent  part  of  their  religious  rights  and  ceremonies. 
They  danced  before  their  altars  and  round  the  statues  of 
their  gods.  The  Greek  chorus,  '  in  the  oldest  times,  con- 
sisted of  the  whole  population  of  the  city,  who  met  in  the 
public  place  {choros,  the  market-place),  to  offer  up  thanks- 
givings to  their  country's  god,  by  singing  hymns  and  per- 
forming corresponding  dances. '  The  J ewish  records  make 
abundant  mention  of  dancing.  Miriam  and  the  women  of 
Israel  danced  to  their  song  of  triumph,  with  sound  of  tim- 
brel, when  the  Israelites  had  passed  through  the  Red  Sea 
as  on  dry  land;  David  danced  before  the  Ark.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  primitive  Christians  sometimes  danced  in 
their  praises  at  their  religious  meetings,  though  we  have  no 
mention  of  this  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Greeks  made 
the  art  of  dancing  into  a  system  expressive  of  all  the  differ- 
ent passions,  the  dance  of  the  Eumenides,  or  Furies,  es- 
pecially, exciting  such  terror  that  the  spectators  seemed  to 
see  these  dreaded  deities  about  to  execute  Heaven's  ven- 
geance on  earth.  The  most  eminent  Greek  sculptors  did 
not  disdain  to  study  the  attitudes  of  the  public  dancers  for 
their  art  of  imitating  the  passions.  In  Homer,  we  read  of 
dancing  and  music  at  entertainments.  Aristotle  ranks  danc- 
ing with  poetry,  and  says,  in  his  Poetics,  that  there  are  danc- 
ers who,  by  rhythm  applied  to  gesture,  express  manners, 
passions,  and  actions.  In  Pindar,  Apollo  is  called  the 
dancer;  and  Jupiter  himself,  in  a  Greek  line,  is  represented 
as  in  the  act  of  dancing.  The  Spartans  had  a  law  obliging 
parents  to  exercise  their  children  in  dancing  from  the  age 
of  five.  This  was  done  in  the  public  place,  to  train  them 
for  the  armed-dance.  They  were  led  by  grown  men,  and 
all  sang  hymns  and  songs  as  they  danced.  The  young  men 
danced  the  Pyrrhic  dance,  in  four  parts,  expressive  of  over- 
taking an  enemy  and  of  a  mock-fight. 


DANCING  MANIA. 

Dancing,  as  an  entertainment  in  private  society,  was  per- 
formed in  ancient  times  mostly  by  professional  dancers, 
and  not  by  the  company  themselves.  Among  the  sedate 
Romans,  in  fact,  it  was  considered  disgraceful  for  a  free 
citizen  to  dance,  except  in  connection  with  religion.  Hav- 
ing professional  dancers  at  entertainments  is  still  the  prac- 
tice among  eastern  nations.  In  Egypt  there  are  dancing 
and  singing  girls,  called  Alme,  who  improvise  verses  as  in 
Italy.  They  are  highly  educated,  and  no  festival  takes 
place  without  them.  They  are  placed  in  a  rostrum,  and 
sing  during  the  repast;  then  descend,  and  form  dances  that 
have  no  resemblance  to  ours.  In  all  parts  in  India  there  are 
Nautch  girls  or  Bayaderes  (q.v.),  who  dance  at  festivals  and 
solemnities. 

Among  savage  nations  the  passion  for  dancing  is  most 
strongly  manifested.  Their  dances  are  mostly  associated 
with  religion  and  war;  and  the  performers  vv^ork  themselves 
into  a  state  of  frantic  excitement— a  kind  of  mechanical  in- 
toxication. As  civilization  advances,  dancing — amateur 
dancing,  at  least — assumes  a  more  and  more  subdued 
character.  However  common  may  be  its  misuse,  it  is  ca- 
pable of  being  made  a  healthful  exercise.  See  Acrobats: 
Ballet:  Pantomime:  Country-dance:  Quadrille: 
Polka:  etc. 

DAN  CING  MA  NIA:  form  of  epidemic  disorder  allied 
to  hysteria  (q.v.),  evidently  the  result  of  imitative  emotions 
acting  upon  susceptible  subjects,  under  the  influence  of  a 
craving  for  sympathy  or  notoriet3^  There  is  little  doubt 
that  imposture  entered  to  a  considerable  extent  into  all  the 
epidemic  forms  of  the  dancing  mania,  which  indeed  were 
usually  attended  and  followed  by  consequences  that  showed 
too  clearly  impure  motives;  yet  there  is  evidence  that  in 
many  cases  the  convulsive  movements  were  really  beyond 
the  control  of  the  will,  whatever  may  have  been  the  original 
motives  that  prompted  them.  Epidemics  of  this  sort  were 
common  in  Germany  during  the  middle  ages,  and  are  for- 
mally described  as  early  as  the  14th  c. ;  in  Italy,  a  somewhat 
similar  disease  was  ascribed  to  the  bite  of  a  spider  called 
the  Tarantula  (see  Tarantism);  and  similar  convulsive 
affections  have  been  witnessed  in  Abyssinia,  India,  and  even 
in  comparatively  modern  times  and  in  the  most  civilized 
countries,  under  the  influence  of  strong  popular  excitement, 
especially  connected  with  religious  demonstrations.  But 
the  true  dancing  mania  of  the  middle  ages  had  its  theatre 
chiefly  in  the  crowded  cities  of  Germany. 

In  i374,  July,  there  appeared  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  assemblies 
of  men  and  women,  who,  excited  by  the  wild  and  frantic, 
partly  heathenish,  celebration  of  the  festival  of  St.  John, 
began  to  dance  on  the  streets,  screaming  and  foaming  like 
persons  possessed.  The  attacks  of  this  mania  were  various 
in  form,  according  to  mental,  local,  or  religious  conditions. 
The  dancers,  losing  all  control  over  their  movements,  con- 
tinued dancing  in  wild  delirium,  till  they  fell  in  extreme 
exhaustion,  and  groaned  as  in  the  agonies  of  death;  some 
dashed  out  their  brains  against  walls.  When  dancing,  they 
were  insensible  to  external  impressions,  but  haunted  by 

48b 


DANDELION. 

visions,  sucli  as  of  being  immersed  in  a  sea  of  blood,  which 
obliged  them  to  leap  so  high,  or  of  seeing  the  heavens  open, 
and  the  Savior  enthroned  with  the  Virgin  Mary.  The 
frenzy  spread  over  many  towns  of  the  Low  Countries. 
Troops  of  dancers,  inMamed  by  intoxicating  music,  and 
followed  by  crowds,  who  caught  the  mental  infection,  went 
from  place  to  place,  taking  possession  of  the  religious 
houses,  and  pouring  forth  imprecations  against  the  priests. 
The  mania  spread  to  Cologne,  Metz,  and  Strasburg,  giving 
rise  to  many  disorders,  impostures,  and  profligacy.  These 
countries  were  generally  in  a  miserable  condition;  and  arbi- 
trary rule,  corruption  of  morals,  insecurity  of  property, 
and  low  priestcraft,  prepared  the 
w^retched  people,  debilitated  by  dis- 
ease and  bad  food,  to  seek  relief  in 
the  intoxication  of  an  artificial  de- 
lirium. Exorcism  had  been  found 
an  efficacious  remedy  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  outbreak;  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  c,  Para- 
celsus, great  reformer  of  medicine, 
applied  immersion  in  cold  water 
with  great  success.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  c,  the  St.  Yitus's 
Dance,  as  the  affection  was  then 
called  (because  the  dancers  were 
deemed  possessed  of  the  devil,  and 
for  cure  were  led  in  procession 
around  the  altar  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Vitus,  in  Rotestein)  was  already  on  ^'-^-^'r 
the  decline;  and  it  is  now  known 
only  in  single  cases  as  a  sort  of 
nervous  affection  (see  Chorea); 
though  a  few  years  ago,  a  case 
of  the  D.  M.  occurred  in  Ohio  in 
connection  with  a  sort  of  relig- 
ious gathering,  giving  rise  to  a  con- 
fusion which  was  suppressed  by 
force.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
phenomenon  is  given  in  Hecker's 
Epidemics  of  the  Middle  Ages.  See 
Convulsion  ARIES. 

DANDELION,  n.  dan'dUl'on 
[F.  dent,  tooth;  de,  of;  lion,  lion — 
lit.,  the  lion's  tooth],  {Leontodon 
taraxacum,  or  Taraxacum  officinale)-, 
plant  of  the  nat.  ord.  Compositce, 
sub-order  Cichoraceoe,  common 
throughout  Europe,  in  pastures  and 
by  waysides;  and  now  so  perfectly 
naturalized  in  many  parts  of  North 
America,  as  to  be  there  one  of  the 
most  familiar  spring-flowers.  The 
names  D.  and  Leontodon  (Fr.  and 
Ger.  lion's-tooth)  both  have  reference 
leaves.    The  whole  plant  abounds  in 

46!# 


Dandelion; 

a,  leaves,  scape,  and  head 
of  flowers;  h,  head  of 
ripe  fruit  with  pappus. 

to  the  form  of  the 
a  milky  juice,  con- 


DANDER-DANDY. 

1  fining  a  peculiar  crystalline  principle  called  Taramcin; 
1  as  a  bitter  taste;  and  is  tonic,  deobstruent,  and  diuretic. 
D.  root  is  employed  in  medicine,  in  the  form  of  infusion, 
decoction,  and  extract,  chietly  in  diseases  of  the  liver  and 
chronic  affections  of  the  digestive  organs.  It  contains 
resin,  inuline,  sugar,  etc.  When  roasted  and  ground,  it  is 
sometimes  used  also  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  I),  coffee^ 
however,  is  usually  a  mixture  of  ordinary  coffee  and  the 
powder  or  extract  of  D.  root;  and  B.  chocolate  is  composed 
of  one  part  of  common  chocolate  and  four  parts  of  the 
powder  of  D.  root.  The  young  leaves,  when  blanched, 
are  a  good  salad,  resembling  lettuce  or  endive. 

DANDER,  v.  dOn'der  [F.  dandiner,  to  walk  awkwardly 
— from  OF.  ddndin,  clumsy,  boobyish]:  in  Scot.,  to  w^alk 
without  thinking  whither;  to  saunter.  Dax'derikg,  imp. 
Daxdered,  pp.  cVirt'derd.  Danders,  n.  plu.  ddnderZyXiiQ 
refuse  or  cinders  from  a  blacksmith's  fire. 

DANDLE,  V.  ddn'dl  [It.  dondolare,  to  dandle  a  child; 
dondola,  a  child's  playing  baby:  Ger.  tandeln,  to  toy,  to 
trifle]:  to  move  up  and  down,  as  an  infant  on  the  knee;  to 
amuse;  to  fondle.  Dan  dllxg,  imp.  Dandled,  pp.  cf^m'tZ^d 
Dan  DLER,  n.  one  who. 

DxlNDOLO,  ddn'do-lo,  Enrico,  Doge  of  Yenice:  abt. 
1110  (or  1115) — 1205,  June  1;  of  a  famous  Venetian  family, 
which  gave  four  doges  to  the  republic.  Eminent  in  learn- 
ing, eloquence,  and  knowledge  of  affairs,  he  ascended  from 
one  step  to  another,  until,  1173,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Constantinople,  and  in  1192  was  elected  doge.  In  this 
latter  capacity,  he  extended  the  bounds  of  the  republic  in 
Istria  and  Dalmatia,  defeated  the  Pisans,  and  (1201) 
marched  at  the  head  of  the  Crusaders.  He  subdued  Trieste 
and  Zara,  the  coasts  of  Albania,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and 
Constantinople  (1203,  July  17).  When  the  emperor  Alex- 
ius, who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  exertions  of 
D.,  w^as  murdered  by  his  own  subjects,  D.  laid  siege  to 
Constantinople,  and  took  it  by  storm,  1204,  Apr.  13.  He 
then  established  there  the  empire  of  the  Latins,  and  caused 
Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders  to  be  chosen  emperor.  By  the 
treaty  of  partition  which  he  concluded  with  the  other  lead- 
ers of  the  crusade,  Yenice  obtained  possession  of  some  of 
the  islands  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  of  the  Archipelago,  sev- 
eral harbors  and  tracts  of  land  on  the  Hellespont,  in  Phry- 
gia,  the  ]Morea,  and  Epirus,  an  entire  quarter  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  also,  by  purchase,  the  island  of  Candia.  Soon 
after  this,  D.  died  in  Constantinople,  and  w^as  buried  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  His  monument  was  destroyed 
by  the  Turks  at  the  taking  of  Constantinople  1453. 

DANDRUFF,  n.  ddn'druf,  or  Dan'driff,  n.  -drtf  [F. 
teigne,  scurf:  W.  ton,  skin;  ^drwg,  bad,  evil]:  a  scurf  on  the 
head  that  comes  off  in  small  particles  or  scales. 

DANDY,  n.  dan  dt  [It.  dondola,  a  tov:  Ger.  tandeln,  to 
ti'ifle,  to  toy:  comp.  Gael,  deanta,  perfectly  fini.<.hcd]:  a 
man  dainty  in  his  attire  and  manners;  one  w'ho  dresses  to 
excess,  like  a  doll;  a  fop;  a  coxcomb.  Dan  dyish,  a.  -Ish, 
like  a  dandy.  Dan'dyis^i,  n.  -izm,  the  manners  and  dress 
m 


DAKE— DAKFORTH. 

of  a  dandy.  Dandy-note, a  document  used  for  the  shipment 
of  goods.  For  goods  removed  from  the  warehouses  of  the 
English  customs,  a  form  of  dandy-note  and  pricking-note 
combined  is  used. 

DANE,  n.  dan:  native  of  Denmark.  Dane'gelt,  -gelt, 
or  Danegold,  a  tax,  first  of  Is.,  afterward  2^.,  on  every 
hide  of  land,  formerly  paid  by  the  English  for  maintaining 
forces  to  oppose  the  Danes,  or  to  procure  peace  from  them 
by  giving  tribute.  The  tax  was  continued  after  the  conquest, 
as  one  of  the  i-ights  of  the  crown,  till  the  time  of  Stephen. 
Danish,  a.  dd'msh,  of  or  belonging  to  the  Danes:  N.  the 
language. 

DANE,  dan,  Nathan,  ll.d.:  1752,  Dec.  27—1835,  Feb. 
15;  b.  Ipswich,  Mass.:  lawyer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  1778,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  practice 
at  Beverly  1782.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Mass.  house  of  representatives,  and  served  till  1785, 
when  he  became  a  member  of  the  continental  congress,  to 
which  he  was  twice  re  elected.  In  1787  he  drafted  the  ordi- 
nance for  the  organization  and  govt,  of  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory, in  which  he  inserted  clauses  prohibiting  slavery  and 
any  laws  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts;  1790-99,  was 
a  member  of  the  Mass.  senate;  1795,  commissioner  to  revise 
the  state  laws;  1811,  commissioner  to  revise  and  publish  all 
charters  granted  in  the  state;  1812,  presidential  elector;  and 
1814,  member  of  the  Hartford  convention.  He  established 
the  D.  professorship  of  law  in  Harvard's  law  school  1829, 
and  published  An  Abridgment  and  Digest  of  American 
Law,  9  vols.  8vo  (1823-29). 

DANEBROG,  dan'e-hrog,  Order  of:  second  of  the  Dan- 
ish orders;  instituted  by  King  Waldemar  1219.  The  word 
brog  in  old  Danish  signifies  *  cloth,'  thus  D.  is  equivalent 
to  the  cloth  or  banner  of  the  Danes.  The  order  is  a  sort  of 
glorification  of  the  [old  national  flag  of  Denmark,  which 
long  floated,  like  the  oriflamme  of  France,  at  the  head  of 
the  army,  and  was  fabled  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  at  the 
battle  of  Yolkmar,  1219.  The  order  is  meant  to  recom- 
pense services  rendered  to  the  state,  whether  civil  or  mili- 
tary, and  irrespective  of  age  or  rank.  The  decoration  of 
the  order  consists  in  a  cross  of  gold  pattee,  enamelled  with 
white,  and  suspended  by  a  white  ribbon,  embroidered  with 
red. 

DANE'-LAGE,  or  Danelagh,  or  Dane-law:  district  in 
England  before  the  Norman  conquest.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Danes  under  Guthrun  at  Ethandune  by  King 
Alfred  (878),  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  two,  in 
virtue  of  which  the  entire  kingdom  of  Wessex,  from  Som- 
erset to  Kent,  was  evacuated  by  the  Danes,  who  were, 
however,  allowed  to  retain  the  greater  part  of  the  e.  coast 
of  England,  including  the  whole  of  Northumbria.  This 
district  was  called  Danelagh  or  Dane-law,  because  the  in- 
habitants were  ruled  by  Danish  and  not  by  English 
law, 

DANFORTH,  dan' forth,  Charles:  1797-1876,  Mar.  22; 
b.  Mass. ;  inventor.    In  his  youth  he  served  as  a  sailor  be- 

491 


DAKG-BANIEL. 

fore  the  mast,  and  subsequently  was  active  in  the  Mexican 
war.  In  1829  he  settled  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  where  he  be- 
came partner  in  a  machine  shop  which  afterward  extended 
its  dimensions  till  it  became  one  of  the  largest  locomotive 
manufactories  in  the  United  States,  under  the  name  of  the 
D.  locomotive  and  machine  works.  At  first  his  operations 
were  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  counter-twisters,  spin- 
ning speeders,  throstle-frames,  spinning-frames,  bobbins, 
and  flyers,  of  his  own  invention.  In  1852  he  began 
manufacturing  locomotives  and  other  pieces  of  heavy 
machinery. 

DANG,  v.  dang  [Scot,  ding,  to  drive:  Icel.  danga,  to 
beat]:  in  OE.,  to  beat  down;  to  dash  down;  to  strike  with 
violence;  to  overcome:  N.  in  slang,  an  imprecation,  a 
softened  form  of  damn.  Dang'ing,  imp.  Danged,  pp. 
ddngd, 

DANGER,  n.  ddn'jer  [F.  danger— from  OF.  dangler, 
authority,  peril:  mid.  L.  damnum,  a  fine  imposed  by  legal 
authority:  F.  damager,  to  distrain  or  seize  cattle  found  in 
trespass:  mid.  L.  domigerlum,  the  power  of  exacting  a 
damnum  or  fine  for  trespass — lit. ,  in  the  power  of  one's 
enemy  or  at  his  mercy]:  exposure  to  any  injury  or  evil; 
peril;  hazard;  risk;  jeopardy.  Dan  gerous,  a.  -lis,  unsafe; 
perilous;  full  of  danger.  Dan  gerously,  ad.  -li,  Dan'- 
GEROusNEss,  u.  the  state  of  being  in  peril.  In  danger  of, 
subjected  to  any  one;  in  the  power  of  one's  enemy;  liable 
in  a  penalty  to,  as  'in  danger  of  the  judgment.'  Note. — 
Originally  danger  meant,  the  authority,  power,  or  rights  of 
feudal  lords  in  their  various  tolls,  exactions,  and  confisca- 
tions; then  the  sense  passed  over  from  the  authority  of  the 
lord  to  the  sufferings  of  the  merchants  or  travellers,  and 
came  finally  to  signify  '  peril;  hazard  ' — see  Brachet. 

DANGLE,  V.  dang'gl  [Icel.  dengia,  to  knock:  Dan. 
dingle;  Icel.  and  Sw.  dangla,  to  dangle,  to  swing  to  and 
fro]:  to  hang  loose  and  swinging;  to  hang  on  any  one;  to 
be  a  humble  officious  follower.  Dan  gling,  imp.  Dangled, 
pp.  dang'gld.  Dan  gler,  n.  -gler,  one  who  dangles,  par- 
ticularly one  who  hangs  about  women.  Dingle-dangle, 
expresses  the  motion  of  a  thing  swaying  to  and  fro. 

DANIEL,  ddn'yel  or  ddn'i-el:  fourth  of  the  greater  He- 
brew prophets;  who  lived  about  B.C.  600.  He  was  a  contem- 
porary of  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  and  was  carried  captive  to 
Babylon  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim.  He  was  one  of 
the  youths  selected  to  be  brought  up  for  future  service  at 
the  court  of  the  conqueror,  and  received  instruction  in  all 
the  learning  of  the  Chaldseans.  His  skill  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  dreams  procured  for  him  the  royal  favor.  He 
rose  to  be  gov.  of  the  province  of  Babylon  under  Nebu- 
chadnezzar; and  under  Darius,  the  Mede,  to  be  first  presi- 
dent of  the  whole  Medo-Persian  empire,  a  dignity  inferior 
only  to  that  of  Darius  himself.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  He  was  alive,  however,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  but  did  not  return  to  Judaea 
with  his  countrymen  on  their  release  from  captivity.  Epi- 
phanius  and  others  affirm  that  he  died  at  Babylon;  but 

493 


DANIEL. 

the  common  tradition  Is  that  he  expired  at  Susa  or  Slmsan 
in  Persia,  when  upward  of  90  years  of  age;  and  at  the 
present  day,  a  tomb  bearing  his  name  is  the  only  standing 
building  among  the  ruins  of  that  ancient  city.  D.  was  the 
only  one  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  who  had  high  worldly 
prosperity.  Ezekiel  mentions  him  as  a  model  of  wisdom 
and  piety  (Ezkl.  xiv.  14;  xxviii.  3). 

Daniel,  Book  of:  generally  accepted  as  having  been 
written  by  the  prophet  whose  name  it  bears,  and  whose  his- 
tory it  records.  Porphyry,  indeed,  in  the  third  c,  and 
others  in  modern  times,  alleged  that  it  was  the  work  of 
some  unknown  author  about  B.C.  175;  after  the  events  in 
the  life  of  Antiochus  which  it  seems  to  predict.  Against 
this  assertion,  which  rests  on  no  historical  basis,  are  the 
following  facts  and  considerations. 

1.  The  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  original  was  in  the  Jewish 
canon,  as  described  by  Josephus  and  as  arranged  (we  have 
no  reason  to  doubt)  by  Ezra,  not  later  than  B.C.  450.  2. 
Written  partly  in  the  one  language  and  partly  in  the  other 
its  author  must  have  been  acquainted  with  both;  narrating 
correctly  Chaldean  modes  of  life,  he  must  have  been  familiar 
with  them;  describing  intelligently  the  career  of  successive 
monarchs,  he  must  have  been  in  favor  with  them  all.  These 
qualifications  meet  in  Daniel,  as  his  history  is  given  in  the 
book;  and  in  such  a  one  as  he  only.  3.  Alexander,  in  the 
rush  of  his  conquest,  granted  exceptional  privileges  to  the 
Jews.  These  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  way  so 
well  as  by  the  statement  of  Josephus  that  the  high  priest  in 
the  temple  showed  Alexander  the  book  of  Daniel  in  which 
the  conquest  of  Persia  by  Greece  was  foretold.  4.  The 
Greek  version  of  the  book  contained  in  the  Septuagint  was, 
in  all  probability,  made  before  the  time  of  Antiochus.  5. 
From  the  first  book  of  Maccabees  we  learn  that  Jews  in  the 
very  days  of  Antiochus  drew  comfort  and  strength  from  the 
book  of  Daniel,  as  from  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
6.  From  the  fact  that  Berosus  in  his  list  of  Babylonian  kings 
does  not  mention  Belshazzar.  Objectors  argued  that  there 
was  no  such  king;  and  consequently  that  Daniel's  statements 
concerning  him  are  false.  But  in  1854  Sir  Henry  Rawlin- 
son  found  a  Babylonian  tablet  which  speaks  of  Bilsharuzar 
as  associated  on  the  throne  with  his  father  Nabonidus.  This 
not  only  confirms  the  Scripture  narrative,  but  puts  also  in  a 
striking  light  the  fact  that  when  Belshazzar  made  Daniel 
the  third  ruler  in  the  kingdom,  he  placed  him  next  to  him- 
self. 7.  The  authority  of  Christ  establishes  the  book  as 
having  been  written  by  Daniel,  and  as  containing  prophecies 
about  to  be  fulfilled.  The  book  contains  both  prophecy  and 
history;  and  some  of  the  history  is  prophecy  fulfilled. 

The  prophecies  are,  in  outline,  as  follows:  1.  Four  king- 
doms are  represented  by  the  parts  of  the  image  in  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's dream;  to  be  followed  and  destroyed  by  a  fifth, 
represented  by  a  stone  cut  out  of  a  mountain  without  nands. 
2.  Daniel's  vision  of  four  wild  beasts  coming  up  out  of  the 
sea;  representing,  probably,  the  same  four  kingdoms  as  ris- 
ing out  of  tumults  and  wars.  3.  The  overthrow  of  the 
Persians  by  the  Greeks,  under  the  emblem  of  a  ram  attacked 


DANIEL -DAKIELL. 

by  a  goat  rushing  from  the  west  without  touching  the  ground 
4.  The  70  weeks;  70  times  7  days,  signifying  490  years,  from 
the  command  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  to  the  coming  and  death 
of  the  Messiah.  5.  A  revelation  (given  to  Daniel  by  the  Son 
of  God)  beginning  from  the  time  then  present,  and  extend- 
ing to  the  tinal  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

DANIEL,  John  Moncure:  1825,  Oct.  24—1865,  Mar. 
30;  b.  Stafford  co.,  Va.:  editor.  He  was  educated  by  his 
father,  studied  law,  and  became  a  librarian  in  Richmond 
1845.  In  1847  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  the  Rich- 
mond Examiner,  a  democratic  newspaper  just  started,  and 
with  few  interruptions  remained  its  editor  till  death.  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  fought  several  duels  with  parties  offended 
with  his  extreme  radicalism  and  invectives.  He  was  U.  S. 
minister  to  Italy  1853-60,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war  hastened  home  and  engaged  in  held  service  on  the 
staff  of  Gen.  A.  P.  Hill  till  his  right  arm  was  shattered 
by  a  bullet.  He  then  resumed  the  editorship  of  the 
Examiner,  attacked  the  Confederate  pres.  and  treas.,  was 
challenged  to  a  duel  by  the  latter  and  accepted,  though 
imable  to  use  his  pistol  arm,  and  was  shot  in  the  leg,  1864. 
He  was  an  early  advocate  of  secession  in  Va.,  and  one  of 
the  first  to  predict  the  downfall  of  the  Confederacy. 
■  DANIEL,  dan' y el  or  dan' el,  Samuel:  English  poet: 
1562-1619,  Oct.  14;  b.  near  Taunton,  Somersetshire;  son  of 
a  music-master.  He  entered  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  1579, 
but  quitted  the  university  without  taking  a  degree.  For 
some  time  he  acted  as  tutor  to  Anne  Clifford,  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Cumberland.  In  1603,  he  Avas  appointed  mas- 
ter of  the  queen's  revels,  and  inspector  of  the  plays  to  be 
represented  by  the  juvenile  performers.  Subsequently,  he 
held  other  offices  about  the  royal  household.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  life,  he  retired  to  his  farm  at  Beckington,  in 
his  native  county,  where  he  died.  D.  is  an  elegant  though 
not  a  great  poet.  His  writings  are  pervaded  by  a  moral 
thoughtfulness  and  purity  of  taste  which  are  remarkable, 
but  they  lack  that  vital  energy  of  movement  and  memo- 
rableness  of  expression  which  result  from  genuine  inspira- 
tion. The  *  well-languaged  Daniel '  is  therefore  not  the 
most  interesting  of  the  Elizabethans,  though  his  style  is 
quite  modern.  His  works  include  sonnets,  epistles,  masks 
and  dramas;  but  his  chief  production  is  a  poem  in  eight 
books,  entitled  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  between  York  and 
Laacasier. 

DANIELTTE,  n.  dan'yel-U:  a  member  of  an  order 
founded  1876  by  a  lifelong  abstainer  and  vegetarian,  T.  W. 
Richardson,  to  bring  about  a  non-animal  diet.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  circumstance  that  the  prophet  Daniel  re- 
fused to  eat  the  'king's  meat.'    See  Dan.  i.  8-16. 

DAN'IELL,  John  Fkederick,  d.c.l  :  1790,  Mar.  12 
— 1845,  Mar.  13;  b.  London:  pupil  of  Prof.  Brande,  with 
whom  he  made  several  scientific  tours;  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Soc.  1814,  and  in  1816  started,  in  connection  with 
Prof.  Brande,  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science  and  Art. 
From  this  period,  D.  gave  almost  his  whole  time  to  chemis- 

494 


DANIELL-DANIELL'S  CELL. 


try  and  meteorology.  In  1823,  be  published  Meteorological 
Essays,  still  the  standard  work  on  meteorology;  in  1824,  tbe 
Horticultural  Soc.  awarded  bim  their  silver  medal  for 
Essay  on  Artificial  Climate.  In  1831,  he  was  appointed 
prof,  of  chemistry  in  King's  College,  London;  and  in  1839, 
published  Introduction  to  Chemical  Pfdlosopliy.  In  1843,  he 
received  tbe  degree  d.c.l.  from  tbe  Univ.  of  Oxford.  He 
had  the  great  honor  of  being  the  only  person  who  ever 
obtained  all  the  three  medals  in  the  gift  of  tbe  lioyal 
Society.  Besides  his  professorship  in  King's  College,  D. 
held  also  tbe  post  of  lecturer  at  Addiscombe,  and  of 
examiner  in  chemistry  to  tbe  Univ.  of  London.  D.'s 
Meteorological  Essays  was  tbe  tirst  attempt  to  account,  in  a 
truly  philosophical  manner,  for  tbe  known  phenomena  of 
the  atmosphere.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of  interesting 
and  valuable  papers  for  the  lioyal  Society.  For  an  account 
of  his  new  hygrometer,  see  Hygrometek. 

DAOTELL,  Thomas:  1749-1840,  Mar.  19;  b.  Kingston- 
on-Thames,  England:  painter.  After  serving  an  apprentice- 
ship with  a  heraldic  painter,  be  entered  the  schools  of  tbe 
lioyal  Acad.  1773,  and  contributed  landscapes  and  flower- 
pieces  to  its  exhibitions  1774-84.  In  the  latter  year  he 
went  to  India,  taking  with  bim  his  nephew,  William  D., 
and  tbe  two  worked  togeiber  there  10  years.  On  their 
return  to  London  they  began  tbe  publication  of  their' 
Oriental  Scenery,  completed  in  6  vols.,  1808.  Thomas  exhib- 
ited Indian  subjects  at  the  Royal  Acad.  1795-1828;  was 
elected  an  associate  1796,  member  1797;  became  a  fellow 
of  tbe  Royal  Soc,  of  the  Asiatic  Soc,  and  of  the  Soc.  of 
Antiquaries;  and  published  Views  in  Egypt,  Hindoo  Excam- 
tions  in  Ellora,  and  Picturesque  Voyage  to  China  by  way  of 
India. 

DANTELL'S  CELL,  n.  [after  tbe  inventor  J.  F.  Daniell]: 
a  galvanic  battery  consisting  of  copper  and  zinc  elements, 
the  former  placed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  tbe 
latter  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  which  solutions  are 
separated  by  a  porous  partition,  and  thus  an  action  of  re- 
markable constancy  is  maintained.  Daniell's  pyrometer, 
pyrometer  for  measuring  very  high  temperatures  by  the  ex- 
pansion of  a  metallic  rod. 

495 


DANISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

DANISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE:  of 
ScandiDavian  origin,  but  so  changed,  by  various  foreign 
admixtures,  largely  German,  that  its  original  character  is 
scarcely  recognizable.  The  Danish  language,  which,  with 
slight  modifications,  is  common  to  the  three  Scandinavian 
kingdoms,  is  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Gothic,  and  has  been 
retained  in  Iceland  almost  in  its  original  form.  The  oldest 
memorials  of  the  Danish  are  codes  of  laws,  as  the  Skaamke 
Lov,  and  the  old  and  new  ^iellandske  Lov,  promulgated  by 
Valdemar  the  Great  1162  and  71;  but  these,  no  less  than 
the  writings  of  Harpestreng,  canon  of  Roeskilde  (1244), 
already  show  marked  deviations  from  the  Icelandic,  in 
consequence  of  the  intermixture  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Eng- 
lish, and  Norman  elements,  due  to  the  Danish  occupation 
of  England,  and  the  immigration  of  monks  and  artisans 
into  Denmark  from  Britain.  The  influence  of  the  English 
dialect  was  again  modified  toward  the  close  of  the  12tli  c. 
by  the  influx  of  Germans  into  the  country.  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus,  father  of  Danish  history  (d.  1204),  wrote,  like 
almost  all  his  ecclesiastical  brethren  at  that  day,  in  Latin, 
as  did  also  his  contemporary,  the  knight  Svend  Aagesen. 
The  Danish  Kc^mpeviser  are  the  richest  poetical  remains  of 
the  folk-lore  of  the  middle  ages  in  Europe,  and  consist — 1. 
Of  narratives  and  songs  of  giants,  demigods,  and  other 
supernatural  creatures  of  the  Scandinavian  mythology;  2. 
Of  romantic  songs  and  tales  connected  with  these  mythical 
beings;  and,  3.  Of  historical  verses,  referring  to  a  later 
period.  The  names  of  the  writers  are  unknown,  and  these 
compositions  seem  rather  the  expression  of  the  entire 
people  than  the  production  of  individual  poets.  Many 
have,  from  time  immemorial,  been  associated  with  certain 
national  melodies,  which  have  secured  them  a  permanent 
place  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  whose  disposition  leads 
them  to  dwell  with  fondness  on  the  memory  of  by-gone 
times  and  events,  and  to  seek  in  the  glory  of  the  past  a 
compensation  for  the  national  humiliation  and  reverses  of 
the  present.  The  first  printed  collection  of  the  Ksempeviser 
is  due  to  the  royal  historiographer,  Vedel,  and  appeared  at 
Ribe,  1592;  another  edition  (Copenh.  1695)  by  Peter  Syv 
found  its  way  to  almost  every  peasant's  cottage;  but  the 
most  coiQplete  of  any  is  probably  that  by  Nyerup  and 
Rabek,  5.  vols.  (Copenh.  1810-14).  After  the  Reformation, 
the  national  literature  was  comparatively  neglected,  for  the 
composition  of  poor  theological  treatises  and  bald  versions 
of  the  Psalms.  Among  the  best  w^riters  in  this  department 
were  Christian  Pedersen  (b.  1480),  who,  after  having  made 
a  metrical  version  of  the  ancient  national  chronicles, 
devoted  himself  to  the  dilfusion  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  and 
made  Danish  translations  of  the  New  Testament;  and  the 
reformer  Hans  Taussen  (b.  1494),  who  composed  cate- 
chism, and  translated  the  Pentateuch  into  Danish.  The 
Danish  language  acquired  stability  and  new  life  by  the 
translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  which,  by  order  of  King 
Christian  III.,  was  effected  1550  by  Palladius  and  other 
professors  of  the  university.  The  close  of  the  16th  c.  was 
memorable  for  many  admirable  writers  on  history  whicli 

496 


DANISH  LAKGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

it  produced  in  Denmark.  Among  those  who  edited  and 
annotated  the  ancient  Danish  and  Icelandic  historical 
chronicles  were  Peder  Claussen,  A.  S.  Yedel,  and  Axil 
Hvitfeldt,  whose  respective  works  supply  invaluable 
materials  to  the  historical  inquirei*.  These  men  were 
contemporaries  of  the  great  astronomer,  Tycho  Brahe,  and, 
like  him,  experienced  the  caprices  of  court-favor.  The 
17th  c.  shows  a  large  number  of  able  writers,  among  whom 
were  Longomontanus,  pupil  of  Tycho  Biahe;  the  family 
of  Bartholin,  numbering  17  in  three  generations,  all  known 
for  the  ability  of  their  writings  on  medical,  philosophical, 
and  mathematical  subjects  in  Latin,  German,  and  Danish; 
the  family  of  the  Pontoppidas,  11  in  number,  all  of  whom 
have  left  memorials  of  proficiency  in  philology  and  history, 
and  of  acquaintance  with  the  theology  and  natural  history 
of  the  times;  Arreboe,  father  of  Danish  poetry,  who  wrote 
on  sacred  subjects,  and  in  his  principal  work,  Hexameron, 
described  in  epic  verse  the  events  of  the  first  six  days  of 
creation;  Steno,  the  anatomist;  and  the  lyrical  poet,  T. 
Kingo.  A  new  era  began  with  the  genial  and  versatile 
Ludvig  Hoi  berg  (b.  1684),  who  wrote  in  Latin,  French, 
German,  and  Danish,  and  has  left  very  numerous  works 
on  history,  biography,  and  topography,  but  whose  fame 
among  his  countrymen  will  ever  rest  on  his  inimitable 
comedies,  farces,  and  satirical  compositions.  His  genius 
and  his  writings  gave  an  impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
Danish  language,  which  not  all  the  studied  neglect  of  the 
court-party,  and  their  persistence  in  the  use  of  German, 
could  check.  The  18th  c.  produced  many  good  historical 
critics — for  instance,  Torfoeus,  Langebek,  Schoning,  and 
Suhm,  Magnteus,  the  Icelandic  scholar,  Thorlacius,  and 
Thorkelin,  learned  in  ancient  northern  lore,  and  Rosen- 
vinge,  the  jurist.  Among  the  epic  and  dramatic  poets  of 
that  age,  Ewald  stands  foremost,  whose  national  lyrics 
evince  true  poetic  genius.  The  close  of  the  century  was, 
however,  unfavorable  to  mental  development  and  freedom 
of  thought;  and  the  best  writers,  as  in  the  case  of  Malte- 
Brun  and  the  poet  Heiberg,  were  either  compelled  to  leave 
the  country,  or  to  abstain  from  giving  expression  to  their 
opinions.  Among  the  more  recent  writers  are  the  poet 
Oehlenschlager, — whose  national  tragedies  and  lyrical 
legends  of  Scandinavian  mythology  have  rekindled  the 
long  slumbering  fire  of  Danish  patriotism, — Baggesen, 
Wiuther,  Hauch,  F.  P.  Muller,  Heiberg,  Hertz,  H.  C. 
Andersen,  Rosenhoff,  Hoist,  and  Overskou.  Ingemann, 
who  stands  first  as  a  writer  of  historical  novels,  also  wrote 
good  lyrics,  and  his  subjects  were  generally  taken  from 
the  national  history.  Short  tales  or  novelettes  seem, 
however,  to  be  more  congenial  to  the  taste  of  the  Danes, 
and  most  of  their  best  writers  of  fiction  have  adopted 
this  form — for  instance,  Blicher,  Heiberg,  Trane,  Andersen, 
Winther,  Carit  Etlar.  etc.  The  names  of  Oersted,  Schouw, 
Forchhammer,  Rask,  Finn  Magnussen,  Worsaa,  Grundtvig, 
Petersen,  and  Eschricht,  sufficiently  attest  the  stand  that 
the  physical  sciences,  philology,  and  archeology  have 
attained  in  Denmark  in  the  present  day.  ThorwaldsQg, 

497 


DAMTES— DANNECKER. 

by  the  gift  of  his  works  to  the  nation,  has  created  a  taste 
and  appreciation  for  sculpture  and  the  arts  generally 
among  his  countrymen,  to  which  they  were  previously 
strangers,  and  has  thus  given  a  new  direction  to  the  men- 
tal culture  of  the  Danes. 

The  Danish  language  is  peculiarly  soft,  from  the  great 
number  (ten)  of  its  distinct  vowel- sounds,  the  absence  of 
gutturals,  and  the  softening  of  all  the  consonants.  It  may 
be  said  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  ancient  tongue,  the 
Norrcma  or  Bonsk  Tunga,  that  Italian  does  to  Latin,  force 
and  precise  intlections  having  been  sacrificed  for  melody 
and  simplicity. 

DANITES,  ddn  'Us  or  dd'n'ds:  among  the  Mormons  in 
western  America,  a  secret  order,  either  controlled  or  used 
by  the  highest  officials  of  the  Mormon  Church  ;  openly  ac- 
cused, and  with  evidence  w^hich  has  not  been  successfully 
met,  of  numerous  murders  in  behalf  of  their  peculiar  politi- 
cal system. 

DANK,  a.  dank  [synonymous  with  damp:  prov.  Sw. 
dank,  a  moist  place  in  a  field:  Dut.  donker;  AS.  duncor; 
Ger.  dunkel,  dark,  obscure]:  close  and  damp;  very  humid: 
N.  humidity;  moisture.  Dankish,  a.  -M,  somewhat 
damp.    Dank  isHNESS,  n. 

DANKALI,  ddn-kd-le  :  independent  state  of  Abyssinia, 
extending  along  thes.  w.  border  of  the  Red  Sea,  between  lat. 
13° — 50°  30'  n. — a  range  of  mountains  almost  parallel  to  the 
coast,  and  about  50  m.  from  it,  forming  its  inland  boundary. 
D.  is  a  sterile  territory,  almost  destitute  of  water.  The  heat 
is  excessive,  often  reaching  11 0""  F.  The  inhabitants  are  of 
various  Arab  tribes,  indolent,  treacherous,  and  cruel.  They 
number  about  70,000. 

DAN'NEBROG :  see  Danebrog. 

DANNECKER,  ddn'nek-er:  Joiiann  Heinrich  von: 
1758,  Oct.  15—1841,  Dec.  8 ;  b.  Waldenbuch,  dist.  of 
Stuttgart :  German  sculptor.  His  parents  were  in  the  hum- 
blest circumstances  ;  but  through  the  favor  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg,  he  received  a  good  education  at  the  military 
acad.  at  Ludwigsburg.  His  artistic  talents  were  rapidly 
developed.  In  1780,  he  obtained  the  prize  for  the  best 
model  of  Milo  of  Croton  destroyed  hy  the  Lion;  and  in 
1783  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  two  years  under  Pajou  ; 
after  which,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  met  Goethe,  Her- 
der, and  Canova,  to  the  last  of  whom  he  was  indebted  for 
instruction  in  his  profession.  At  Rome,  D.  remained  till 
1790,  and  executed  in  marble  his  statues  of  Geres  and 
Bacchus.  On  his  return  to  Germany,  the  Duke  of  Wiir- 
temberg appointed  him  prof,  of  sculpture  in  the  acad.  at 
Stuttgart,  in  which  city  he  resided  till  his  death.  D.  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  of  modern  sculptors.  His  forte 
lay  in  expressing  individual  characteristics,  in  which  respect 
he  has  not  been  surpassed.  This  gives  great  value  to  his 
busts  of  distinguished  persons,  such  as  Schiller,  Lavater, 
Gluck,  and  the  kings  Frederick  and  William  of  Wiirtem- 
berg. His  perceptions  of  the  beautiful  and  the  delicate, 
especially  in  the  female  form,  also  are  considered  by  his 

49S 


DANTE. 

countrymen  to  be  more  exquisite  and  true  than  those  even 
of  Canova.  His  earlier  works  are  chiefly  pagan  in  their 
subjects,  while  his  later  ones  are  Christian,  and  are  per- 
vaded by  a  pensive  idealism.  Of  the  former,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  the  principal  are  Sappho,  Love,  Psyche, 
and  Ariadne  as  the  Bride  of  Bacchus  riding  on  a  Leopard  (at 
Frankfurt);  of  the  latter,  Christ,  John  the  Baptist,  and  Faith, 
DANTE,  (properly.  Durante)  ALIGHIERI,  dmte.  It. 
ddn'td  d-le-ge-are  :  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  all  time,  in- 
comparably the  greatest  among  Italians :  1265-1321, 
Sep.  14,  b.  Forence.  The  circumstances  and  fortunes 
of  his  life  are  mostly  involved  in  uncertainty.  His  fam- 
ily was,  by  his  own  account,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
in  the  city.  His  father  dying  while  D.  was  young, 
his  education  devolved  upon  his  mother,  Bella.  In  this 
duty,  in  which  she  displayed  great  fidelity  and  judg- 
ment, she  seems  to  have  been  counselled  and  aided  by  the 
statesman,  scholar,  and  poet,  Brunetto  Latini.  The  ele- 
ments of  knowledge  D.  probably  acquired  in  Florence  ;  in 
riper  years,  he  studied  philosophy  at  Bologna,  and  Padua. 
After  his  banishment,  he  pursued  theology  for  a  time  at 
Paris,  and,  if  Boccaccio  were  to  be  believed,  even  visited 
England.  His  studies  did  not  prevent  him  from  discharg- 
ing the  public  duties  of  a  citizen.  He  fought  in  the  suc- 
cessful battle  with  the  Aretines  at  Campaldino  1289,  and 
was  present  at  the  taking  of  th3  fortress  of  Caprona  1290. 
What  civil  offices  he  first  held,  is  not  known,  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  he  was  sent  on  several  embassies,  and  at  last,  1300, 
rose  to  the  highest  dignity  ot  the  city,  being  chosen  one  of 
the  Priori  for  two  months,  an  office  which  was  the  source 
of  his  subsequent  unhappy  fortunes.  Florence,  on  the 
whole,  belonged  to  the  party  of  the  Guelphs  (q.  v.),  but 
was  divided,  into  the  two  factions  of  the  Neri  and  Bianchi 
(the  blacks  and  whites).  The  Neri  were  the  unconditional 
^adherents  of  the  pope,  and  this  of  course  gave  to  the  other 
faction  a  more  Ghibelline  leaning  :  See  Guelphs  and  Giri- 
BELLiNES.  A  tumult  in  the  city,  occasioned  by  the  heads 
of  the  ultra-Guelphic  or  black  party,  caused  their  temporary 
expulsion  from  Florence.  They  hurried  to  Rome,  to  lay 
their  complaints  before  the  Pope.  D.,  who  belonged  to 
the  Bianchi,  was  sent  by  his  party  to  Rome,  to  counteract 
their  machinations;  but  Boniface  Yin.,  in  concert  with 
the  Neri,  induced  Charles  of  Valois,  brother  of  Philip  IV. 
of  France,  to  come  to  Florence  and  restore  peace  under  the 
title  of  peacemaker.  This  explains  the  deadly  enmity  of 
D.  to  Boniface.  The  peace  established  by  Charles  of  Valois 
consisted  in  recalling  the  banished  leaders  of  the  Neri,  in 
giving  up  the  houses  and  property  of  the  Bianchi  to  be 
plundered,  and  banishing  many  of  them,  and  among  others 
Dante.  D.  never  entered  his  native  city  again,  and  his  whole 
subsequent  life  was  unsettled,  spent  in  various  places,  and 
imder  various  protectors,  at  Arezzo,  Verona,  Padua,  etc. 
In  1304,  the  Bianchi  made  a  final  attempt  to  return  to  Flor- 
ence by  force  of  arms,  which  failed  ;  and  probably  on  this 
occasion  it  was  that  D.  went  to  Paris.  The  march  of  Henr}^ 
VII.  to  Rome  lolO  recalled  D  to^italy,  and  he  endeavored, 
m 


DAKTE. 

by  addressing  ardent  letters  to  the  Italian  princes,  to 
promote  the  cause  of  the  empire,  which  had  now  become 
his  own.  It  was  probably  with  this  view  and  at  this  time, 
that  his  work  I)e  Monarchia  was  written.  The  unsuccess- 
ful siege  of  Florence,  and  the  death  of  the  emperor,  which 
followed  in  1313,  annihilated  the  last  hopes  of  D.,  and  he 
spent  the  closing  years  of  his  life  at  Ravenna,  imder  the 
protection  of  Guido  ISTovello  .da  Polenta.  He  went  on  a 
mission  for  this  prince  to  Venice,  returned  sick  and  died. 

As  it  is  often  with  distinguished  men,  an  incident  in  D.'s 
early  youth  had  made  an  indelible  impression  on  the  soul  of 
the  poet,  and,  as  he  himself  expresses  it,  awakened  in  him  a 
*new  life.'  At  a  family  festivity,  he  had  seen  Beatrice 
Portinari,  then  eight  years  old,  daughter  of  a  rich  citizen, 
and  the  love  that  sprang  up  in  the  heart  of  the  nine  years' 
old  boy  became  the  fountain  of  the  poetical  inspiration  of 
his  life.  How  pure,  chaste,  and  tender  his  love  was,  is 
testified  by  the  Vita  Nuom,  his  first  work,  which  appeared 
about  1300.  It  is  a  collection  of  poems  or  canzoni,  bearing 
upon  this  youthf  ul  love,  and  with  each  piece  is  given  a  his- 
tory of  its  origin  and  a  minute  analysis.  The  best  edition 
of  this  collection  is  that  prepared  by  the  Marquis  Trivulzio 
(Mil.  1827).  Beatrice  married  a  nobleman,  Simone  Bardi, 
and  died  young  about  1290.  D.  himself  afterward  married 
a  lady  named  Gemma,  of  the  powerful  house  of  Donati. 

His  immortal  work,  the  Dimna  Commedia,  depicts  a 
vision,  in  which  the  poet  is  conducted  first  by  Virgil^  rep- 
resentative of  human  reason,  through  hell  and  purgatory; 
and  then  by  Beatrice,  representative  of  celestial  revelation; 
and  finally  by  St.  Bernard,  through  the  several  heavens, 
where  he  beholds  the  triune  God.  The  name  Commedia 
was  given  to  the  work  by  the  poet  himself — because,  be- 
ginning with  the  horrible,  it  ends  cheerfully;  and  because, 
in  respect  of  style,  it  is  lowly,  being  written  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  The  epithet  Bimna  was  added  by  the  admiration 
of  after-times.  Hell  is  represented  in  the  poem  as  a  fun- 
nel-shaped hollow,  formed  of  gradually  contracting  circles, 
the  lowest  and  narrowest  of  which  is  at  the  earth's  centre. 
Purgatory  is  a  mountain  rising  solitary  from  the  ocean  on 
the  side  of  the  earth  opposite  to  us;  it  is  divided  into  ter- 
races, and  its  top  is  the  terrestrial  paradise,  the  first  abode 
of  man.  From  this,  the  poet  ascends  through  the  seven 
planetary  heavens,  the  heaven  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  the 
primum  mobile,  to  the  empyrean,  or  fixed  seat  of  God. 
In  all  parts  of  the  regions  thus  traversed,  there  arise  con- 
versations with  noted  personages,  for  the  most  part  recently 
deceased.  At  one  time,  the  reader  is  filled  with  the  deep- 
est sorrow;  at  another,  with  horror  and  aversion;  or  the 
deepest  questions  of  the  then  philosophy  and  theology  are 
discussed  and  solved;  and  the  social  and  moral  condition 
of  Italy,  with  the  corruptions  of  church  and  state,  are  de- 
picted with  a  noble  indignation. 

Fifty-two  years  after  the  poet's  death,  the  republic  of 
Florence,  at  the  instigation  of  Boccaccio,  set  apart  an  an- 
nual sum  for  public  lectures  to  explain  the  Divine  Comedy 
to  the  people  in  one  of  the  churches,  and  Boccaccio  him- 


DANTOK 

self  was  appointed  first  lecturer.  The  example  was  imi- 
tated in  several  other  places  of  Italy.  The  works  of  these 
men  are  among  tlie  earliest  extant  commentaries  on  D. 
The  number  of  editions  of  the  work  amounts  by  this  time 
to  about  300.  Only  a  few,  in  addition  to  the  commentaries 
above  mentioned,  deserve  notice.  They  are:  that  printed 
at  Fuligno  in  1472— earliest  of  all;  the  INidobeatine  edition 
at  Milan  (1478);  the  first  Aldine  edition  (1502);  the  first 
Cruscan  edition  (1695);  that  of  Volpi  (1727);  of  Venturi 
(1732);  of  Lombardi  (1791),  and  with  additions  and  illus- 
trations in  1815-21,  and  22;  of  Dionisi  (1795);  of  Ugo  Fos- 
colo  (Lond.  1842-3).  A  reprint  of  the  Fuligno  edition 
above  mentioned,  together  with  those  printed  at  Jesi  (1472), 
at  Mantua  (1472),  and  at  Naples  by  Francisco  del  Tuppo 
(about  1478),  appeared  at  London  1858,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  Sir  Antonio  Panizzi,  and  at  the  expense  of 
Lord  Vernon. 

The  Bimna  Commedia  has  been  translated  into  almost  all 
European  languages.  Two  translations  of  the  whole  into 
Latin  have  been  printed,  one  by  Carlo  d'Aquino  (1728), 
and  lately  by  Piazza  (1848).  In  French,  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  translations  both  in  prose  and  in  verse.  The  earli- 
est, by  Grangier,  1596,  is  still  nearest  the  original  in  form, 
but  none  is  good.  The  German  translations  are  numer- 
ous, and  such  as  no  other  modern  language  can  equal  in 
faithfulness.  Kannegiesser  has  translated  the  whole  in  the 
measure  and  rhyme  of  the  original  (4th  ed.  Leip.  1843); 
King  John  of  Saxony's  translation  is  said  by  some  to  be 
the  best.  The  chief  English  translations  are  Boyd's  (1785) 
and  Gary's  (1814),  in  blank  verse  (see  CJiandos  Classics 
London,  Warne  &  Co  );  Wright's  (1833)  in  triple  rhymes; 
Cayley's  in  the  original  ternary  rhyme  {the  Inferno,  1851, 
the  Purgatory^  1853,  the  Paradiso  1854,  with  notes  1855); 
Dr.  John  Carlyle's,  the  Inferno  in  prose,  with  commen- 
tary (1849);  Fred.  Pollock's  in  blank  verse  (1854);  Henry 
W.  Longfellow's  (1867)  in  blank  verse,  with  D.'s  ternary 
arrangem  ent  of  lines.    D.  wrote  other  works. 

DANTON,  dan' ton,  Fr.  dbng  tvng\  Geoeges- Jacques: 
1759,  Oct.  28—1794,  Apr.  5;  b.  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  France. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  prac- 
ticing as  an  advocate  in  Paris,  but  was  in  low  repute  for 
dissolute  habits.  The  fierce,  half-savage  nature  of  the 
man,  however,  immediately  found  a  fitting  sphere  for  its 
action  in  the  chaos  into  which  France  then  fell.  Mirabeau 
quickly  detected  his  genius,  and  hastened  to  attach  D.  to 
himself.  President  of  the  district  of  the  Cordeliers,  D. 
ruled  it  at  his  will.  With  Marat  and  Camille  Dcsmoulins, 
he  instituted  the  Cordeliers'  Club  (see  Coedeliers),  an 
exaggerated  copy  of  that  of  the  Jacobins.  It  soon  became 
the  rallying- point  of  all  the  hotter  revolutionists.  There 
the  tall  brawny  man,  with  harsh  and  daring  countenance, 
terrible  black  brows,  and  a  voice  of  enormous  power, 
thundered  against  the  aristocrats,  till  the  passions  of  the 
populace  rose  into  ungovernable  fury.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, till  after  the  flight  of  Louis  that  the  political  role  of 
i).  commenced.    1791,  July  17,  he  and  others  assembled 


DANTON. 

the  people  of  Paris  in  the  Champ-de-Mars,  and  goaded 
them  on  by  furious  declamation  to  sign  a  petition  for  the 
deposition  of  the  king.  Some  time  afterward  be  became 
procureur-suhstitut  for  the  city  of  Paris.  The  court,  which 
found  that  it  could  not  frighten  I).,  now  attempted  to 
bribe  him.  It  is  not  certain  that  he  proved  venal,  but  the 
evidence  undoubtedly  leaves  a  strong  suspicion  of  his  ve- 
nality. Be  that  as  it  may,  he  soon  broke  off  his  secret  in- 
tercourse with  the  royalist  agents,  and  became  more  the 
implacable  enemy  of  the  monarchy  than  before.  It  was 
D.  who  excited  to  action  the  wild  sanguinary  rabble  that, 
1792,  Aug.  10,  stormed  the  Tuilei'ies,  and  butchered  the 
faithful  Swiss.  The  reward  of  his  fatal  eloquence  was  the 
officer  of  rainiste]-  of  justice,  and  here  the  gigantic  person- 
ality of  the  man  seemed  to  overshadow  all  the  surround- 
ing figures.  He  stood  forth  as  the  incarnate  spirit  of  the 
Revolution,  manifesting  alike  its  heroic  audacity  in  the 
presence  of  danger  from  without,  and  its  maniacal  terror 
in  the  presence  of  danger  from  within.  The  advance  of 
the  Prussians  seemed  for  a  moment  to  inspire  France  with 
a  panic.  On  Sep.  2,  D.  mounted  the  tribune,  and  ad- 
dressed the  legislative  assembly  in  a  speech  of  tremen- 
dous power,  probably  the  most  effective  during  the  whole 
Revolution.  It  closed  with  these  words  regarding  the 
enemies  of  France:  Pour  les  mincre,  pour  les  aiterrer, 
que  faiU-il?  Be  Vaudace,  encore  de  Vaudace  et  toujours 
de  Vaudace.  France  quivered  to  its  core  with  enthusiasm. 
'In  a  few  weeks,  14  republican  armies  stood  upon  the  field 
of  battle,  and  repelled  with  unexampled  bravery  the 
aggressions  of  the  allied  forces.'  But  unhappily  that  'au- 
dacity,' by  which  alone  D.  thought  it  possible  for  France 
to  save  herself,  required  for  its  perfection  the  immolation 
of  the  imprisoned  royalists.  On  the  very  evening  when  D. 
spoke,  the  frightful  September  Massacres  began.  D.  pub- 
licly thanked  the  assassins,  *  not  as  the  minister  of  justice, 
but  as  the  minister  of  the  Revolution.'  Elected  by  the 
city  of  Paris  one  of  its  deputies  to  the  national  conven- 
tion, he  resigned  his  judicial  function,  and  zealously  hur- 
ried on  the  trial  of  the  king.  As  a  proof  of  his  ferocious 
decision  of  character  when  pressed  by  difficulties,  it  is 
recorded  that  one  of  his  friends  having  pointed  out  that 
the  convention  could  not  legally  try  the  king,  '  You  are 
right,'  instantly  replied  Danton.  '  So,  we  will  not  try  him; 
we  will  kill  him!  '  In  the  mean  time,  D.  was  sent  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  army  of  the  north,  commanded  by  Dumourier, 
with  whom  he  was  soon  on  close  terms  of  intimacy — too 
much  so,  indeed,  for  the  suspicious  soul  of  his  old  friend 
Marat.  The  defection  of  Dumourier  was  the  signal  for 
Marat  to  give  vent  to  his  suspicions.  It  therefore  became 
necessary  for  D.  to  throw  himself  again  into  the  van  of  the 
revolutionary  movement.  1793,  Mar.  10,  he  established 
the  *  extraordinary  criminal  tribunal,'  which  was  at  liberty 
to  make  what  arrests  it  pleased,  and  from  whose  deadly 
decisions  there  was  no  appeal.  He  also  became  pres.  of 
the  *  Committee  of  Public  Safety.'  D.  now  set  himself  to 
crush  the  Girondists,  or  moderate  party,  alleging,  with 


DANTZIG-DANUBE. 

singular  candor,  that  '  in  a  revolution  the  authority  ought 
to  belong  to  the  greatest  scoundrels.'  In  this  he  was  sup- 
ported by  Robespierre,  now  gliding  into  power  swiftly  and 
silently  like  a  serpent.  After  he  had  effected  his  purpose, 
however,  a  species  of  remorse  seems  to  have  seized  him. 
He  objected  to  the  institution  of  the  guillotine.  This  trait 
of  moderation  lost  him  the  favor  of  the  Jacobins  or  Moun- 
tain party,  whose  murderous  instincts  led  them  to  select 
Robespierre  as  a  chief,  on  the  permanence  of  whose  cruelty 
more  reliance  might  be  placed.  Several  other  indications 
of  returning  humanity  lessened  his  intiuence  still  more, 
and  at  the  close  of  1798,  D.  felt  that  a  crisis  was  approach- 
ing. A  fruitless  attempt  was  made  to  reconcile  Robes- 
pierre and  him.  They  had  an  interview,  but  parted  on 
worse  terms  than  ever.  It  was  now  a  struggle  for  life  be- 
tween them;  but  D.,  sick  of  the  Revolution,  and  conscious 
that  it  was  rapidly  becoming  a  sham  (a  thing  which  D., 
with  all  his  faults,  could  not  abide),  gave  himself  up  to  a 
sort  of  reckless  apathy,  which  enabled  the  sleepless  Robes- 
pierre to  ruin  him.  His  friends  endeavored  to  rouse  him. 
*I  would  rather  be  guillotinod  than  guillotine,'  he  an- 
swered. Blinded  by  the  consciousness  of  his  own  inherent 
power,  he  also  declared  that  his  enemies  *  would  not  dare  ' 
to  lift  their  finger  against  him.  But  men  of  the  stamp  of 
Robespierre — though  essentially  cowards,  and  incapable 
of  facing  danger  with  honest  straightforwardness— have  a 
certain  furtive  audacity  that  emboldens  them  to  attack  a 
greater  than  themselves,  if  circumstances  are  favorable. 
So  Robespierre  sprang  at  D.,  and  so  the  great  anarch  per- 
ished. On  the  night  of  1794,  Mar.  30,  he  was  arrested, 
and  brought  before  that  Revolutionary  Tribunal  which  he 
himself  had  established,  summarily  condemned,  and,  with 
Camille  Desmoulins  and  others,  w^as  guillotined  six  days 
later.  He  predicted  the  fate  of  Robespierre,  calling  him 
*  an  infamous  poltroon,'  and  immediately  added,  'I  was 
the  only  person  who  could  have  saved  him.'  D.  was  an 
atheist — not  a  calm,  thoughtful,  dispassionate  disbeliever 
in  the  existence  of  God,  but  one  who,  by  his  ow^n  vices, 
and  the  general  godlessness  of  the  times  in  wiiich  he  lived, 
had  been  robbed  of  the  spirit  and  power  of  faith  in  the  Un- 
seen. When  formally  interrogated  regarding  his  name 
and  dwelling,  he  replied:  'My  dwelling-place  will  soon  be 
annihilation,  and  my  name  will  live  in  the  Pantheon  of 
history. ' 

DANT  ZIG:  see  Danzig. 

DANUBJ],  dan' lib  (Ger.  Donau)\  second  of  European 
rivers,  inferior  only  to  the  Volga.  It  has  its  origin  in  the 
Brege  and  Brigach,  two  mountain-streams  rising  in  the  e. 
part  of  the  Black  Forest,  in  Baden,  2,850  ft.  above  sea- 
level;  in  lat.  48°  6'  n.,  and  in  long.  8°  9'  e.  The  total  length 
of  the  D.  is  about  1,750  m. ;  the  area  which  it  drains  is  es- 
timated at  250,000  sq.  m.,  comprising  countries  widely 
varying  in  climate  and  productions.  The  average  fall  of  the 
D.  is  18  inches  per  mile.  At  Ulm,  it  attains  a  breadth  of 
108  ft.,  and  before  its  junction  with  the  Sereth  the  mean 

503 


DANUBE. 

breadth  is  6,000  ft.,  and  the  depth,  Uhn,  0  ft.,  and  at  Pas- 
sau  16,  is  here  on  an  average  20  ft.  The  D.  is  joined  in  its 
course  by  60  navigable  rivers,  and  falls  into  the  Black  Sea, 
pouring  into  it  a  volume  of  water  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
all  the  other  rivers  that  empt}^  themselves  there.  From  its 
source,  it  tiows  n. -easterly  through  Wiirtemberg  and  Bava- 
ria. Passing  Ulm,  at  which  point  the  river  becomes  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  100  tons,  it  receives  from  the  s.  the 
Lech  and  the  Iser,  with  some  unimportant  streams  from 
then.;  tiows  rapidly  past  Ingolstadt,  and  onward  to  Re- 
gensburg  (Ratisbon);  then  suddenly  altering  its  course,  it 
proceeds  s. -easterly,  passing  Straubing  and  Passau,  where 
it  enters  the  Austrian  dominions.  With  little  variation  of 
course,  the  D.  tiows  e.  from  Passau  to  Presburg,  receiving 
from  the  s.  the  Inn  and  the  Ens,  and  from  the  n.  the 
March  or  Morava,  through  a  tract  of  country  rich  in  min- 
erals, well  peopled,  and  highly  cultivated.  Near  Linz, 
and  also  in  the  picturesque  neighborhood  of  Vienna,  the 
w^aters  of  the  D.  frequently  divide,  and  inclose  large  tracts 
of  soil,  forming  islands,  among  which  are  the  Great  and 
Little  Scliiitt,  called  also  the  Golden  Gardens.  Hurry- 
ing past  Presburg,  the  D  alters  its  course  to  s  e.,  and  such 
is  its  velocity  here,  that  barges  can  navigate  it  only  down- 
ward. Passing  Pesth,  and  Howing  directly  s.,  it  enters 
upon  the  Hungarian  plain,  a  vast  sandy  and  alluvial  flat, 
in  which  it  is  continually  forcing  new  channels  and  silting 
up  old  ones,  sometimes  sweeping  away  towns,  or  capri- 
ciously removing  its  waters  to  a  distance  of  several  miles 
from  such  as  were  formerly  built  upon  its  banks.  Here  it 
receives  from  the  n.  the  Waag  and  the  Gran,  while  the  Drave 
from  the  w,  adds  considerably  to  its  volume.  After  this 
accession,  the  river  turns  tow-ard  the  e,,  and  joined  by  the 
waters  of  the  Theiss  and  Temes  from  the  n.  sweeps  past 
Belgrade,  forming  the  boundary  between  Servia  and  Hun- 
gary. Still  tiowing  e.,  the  D.,  leaving  Orsova,  passes  the 
famous  Iron  Gate,  a  broad  plateau  of  rock  1,400  yards 
wide,  over  which  the  water  formerly  rushed  with  an  over- 
powering noise.  This  rapid,  wiiich  was  follow^ed  by  a 
series  of  whirlpools,  eddies,  and  shallow  falls,  formed  an 
effectual  bar  to  the  upward  progress  of  vessels,  no  craft 
drawing  more  than  2^  ft.  of  water  being  able  to  pass  it. 
In  1847-49,  the  obstruction  formed  by  the  Iron  Gate  was 
to  some  extent  removed  by  blasting,  so  that  now  vessels  of 
eight,  and  even  nine  ft.  draught,  can  pass  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  though  the  majority  of  vessels  engaged 
on  this  part  of  the  river  draw  no  more  than  four  ft.  of 
water.  A  few  miles  further  on,  it  enters  a  plain,  and 
proceeding  uninterruptedly,  forms  the  boundary  between 
Walachia  and  Bulgaria.  From  the  Carpathians  it  receives 
the  Schyl  and  the  Aluta,  and  from  Mount  Balkan  the 
Morava.  Increased  by  these  rivers  and  by  numberless 
streams,  it  flows  through  a  district  fertile  indeed,  but 
badly  cultivated  and  thinly  peopled,  occasionally  broaden- 
ing like  a  sea,  as  at  Hirsova,  and  encircling  many  islands. 
After  being  joined  by  the  Sereth  and  the  Pruth  from  the 
n.,  and  after  dividing  into  several  branches  forming  del- 

504 


BANUBIAN— DANVILLE. 

toid  islands,  it  flows  e.  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  principal 
mouth  is  the  Sulina,  by  which  the  greater  number  of  ships 
enter.  The  D.,  which  is  the  chief  natural  highway  for 
European  commerce,  is,  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
its  course,  surrounded  by  picturesque  and  impressive 
scenery — at  one  time  flanked  Avith  lofty  mountains,  again 
having  on  each  side,  dense  and  far-extending  forests.  At 
the  peace  of  Paris,  1856,  the  navigation  of  the  Danube  was 
declared  free  to  all  nations,  and  its  management  was  in- 
trusted to  two  commissions,  one  representing  the  European 
powers,  another  named  by  the  states  on  the  banks  of  the 
river.  At  the  Berlin  Congress,  1878,  it  was  stipulated 
that  no  ships  of  war  should  navigate  the  D.  below  the 
Iron  Gates.  The  Danube  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
which  has  done  much  to  increase  the  commerce,  has 
upward  of  150  steamers  and  600  tow-boats. 

.  DANUBIAN,  a.  dan  u'hi-dn:  pertaining  to  the  river 
Danube. 

DANU  BIAN  PRINCIPAL  ITIES:  see  Moldavia  and 
Walachia. 

DAN  VERS,  dan'mrz:  town  of  Essex  co.,  Mass.,  19  m. 
n.  by  w.  of  Boston,  on  the  Essex  and  the  Salem  and  Lowell 
and  a  branch  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  George  Peabody  who  gave  $30,000  to 
found  an  institute  and  library  there,  1852,  to  which  he 
subsequently  added  $170,000,  with  a  further  gift  of  $50,- 
000  for  a  similar  institution  in  north  D. ;  and  is  the  resting 
place  of  his  mortal  remains,  which  the  British  nation  had 
desired  should  repose  in  Westminster  Abbey.  D.  was  a 
portion  of  Salem  till  1756,  and  embraces  the  famous  Salem 
village  parish  where  the  disastrous  witchcraft  excitement 
broke  out.  The  state  has  here  erected  a  noble  insane  asy- 
lum at  a  cost  of  over  $2,000,000,  The  town  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  shoes,  bricks,  and  carpets,  an  iron  foun- 
dry, a  rolling  mill,  several  tanneries,  10  churches,  1  na- 
tional and  1  savings  bank,  a  high  school,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers.  South  D.,  incorporated  as  a  separate  town 
1855,  has  been  known  as  Peabody  since  1870.  Pop.  of  D. 
5,600. 

DANVILLE,  dan' ml:  city,  cap.  of  Vermilion  co..  111., 
on  the  Vermilion  river,  4  m.  w.  of  the  Ind.  state  line,  33 
m.  e.  of  Champaign,  73  m.  e.n.e.  of  Decatur,  125  m.  s.  of 
Chicago;  on  the  Chicago  D.  and  Vincennes  railroad,  the 
Paris  and  D.  railroad,  at  the  crossing  of  the  Wabash  and 
the  Indianapolis  Bloomington  and  Western  railroads,  and 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Evansville  Terre  Haute  and  Chicago 
railroad.  Its  chief  industry  is  coal  mining,  which  is  car- 
ried on  extensively  on  the  bluffs  of  the  river.  It  also  has 
large  railroad  car  and  machine  shops,  2  iron  foundries,  2 
planing  mills,  5  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  an  organ 
factory,  and  a  furniture  factory.  Its  buildings  include  a 
CO.  court  house,  3  public  halls,  13  churches,  a  high  school, 
and  an  opera  house.  There  are  one  national  and  two  sav- 
ings banks,  one  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1870)  4,751;  (1880)  7,735. 

505 


DANVILLE— DANZIG. 
DANVILLE:  town,  cap.  of  Boyle  co.,  Ky.;  36  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Lexington,  96  m.  s.e.  of  Louisville.  114  m.  s.  of  Cincin- 
nati; on  the  Cincinnati  Southern  and  a  branch  of  the 
Louisville  and  Great  Southern  railroads.  It  contains  a  num- 
ber of  noted  educational  institutions  such  as  the  D.  Theol. 
Seminary  of  the  Presb.  Church,  founded  1819,  the  South- 
ern Collegiate  Institute,  the  Caldwell  Female  Institute,  and 
Centre  College:  is  the  seat  of  a  state  asylum  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb;  has  13  churches,  a  co.  court  house,  1  national 
and  1  savings  bank,  and  1  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1870) 
2,542;  (1880)  3,074. 

DANVILLE:  town,  cap.  of  Montour  co.,  Penn  ;  on 
the  n.  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  and  the  Lacka- 
wanna and  Bloomsburg,  Philadelphia  and  Reading,  and  D. 
Hazleton  and  Wilkesbarre  railroads;  30  m.  s.e.  of  Williams- 
port,  50  m.  w.s.w.  of  Wilkesbarre,  67  m.  n.  by  e.  of  Har- 
risbiirg.  D.  is  in  a  district  abounding  with  iron-ore,  lime- 
stone, and  anthracite  coal,  contains  the  lirst  establishment 
erected  in  the  United  States  for  the  manufacture  of  railroad 
iron  and  still  among  the  most  exteosive  in  the  country;  7 
blast  furnaces,  5  iron  foundries,  and  4  rolling  mills;  16 
churches,  2  national  banks,  the  D.  Institute,  a  state  asylum 
for  the  insane,  1  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  D.  was 
settled  1768.    Pop.  (18 rO)  8,436;  (1880)  7,839. 

DANVILLE:  town  of  Pittsylvania  co.,  Va.;  on  the 
falls  of  Dan  river  and  in  an  unusually  rich  tobacco  region; 
65  m.  s.  of  Lynchburg,  141  m.  w.s.w.  of  Richmond,  236  m. 
s.w.  of  WashiDgton;  on  the  Richmond  and  D.  railroad  and 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Va.  31idland  railroad.  Its  industrial 
establishments  comprise  an  iron  foundry,  9  tobacco  ware- 
houses, 75  tobacco  factories,  and  75  assorting  factories;  the 
chief  trade  is  in  yellow  leaf  tobacco,  the  sales  of  which  in 
1880  amounted  to  $3,775,500;  the  leading  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  D.  Acad.,  D.  Female  College,  and  Roan- 
oke Female  College.  It  has  1  national  and  2  other  banks, 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1870)  3,463;  (1880)  7,526 

DANZIG,  ddnt'sich  (Polish  Gdansk):  important  seaport 
of  Prussia,  and  fortress  of  the  tirst  rank,  in  the  province  of 
Prussia;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  w.  branch  of  the  Vistula, 
about  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic.  D.  is  an  ancient 
place,  in  existence  at  least  as  early  as  the  10th  c,  and  its  pos- 
session was  long  an  object  of  ambition  to  the  Danes,  Swedes, 
Pomeranians,  and  Teutonic  knights,  the  last  of  whom  ob- 
tained, and  held  it  for  a  considerable  period.  In  1454,  it 
became  a  free  city  under  Poland,  and  remained  so  until 
1793,  when  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Prussia,  in  whose 
hands,  except  1807-14,  when  it  existed  as  a  separate  duke- 
dom under  Napoleonic  rule,  it  has  since  continued.  D.  is 
surrounded  by  ramparts  and  wet  ditches,  and  is  otherwise 
strongly  fortified,  and  the  garrison  possesses  the  means  of 
laying  the  surrounding  country  under  water  on  three  sides. 
The  city  is  traversed  by  the  Motlau  and  Radaune,  tribu- 
taries of  the  Vistula,  the  former  of  which  is  deep  enough  to 
admit  vessels  of  eight  or  nine  ft.  draught  up  to  the  town. 
The  principal  port,  however,  is  at  Ncuf ahrwasser,  at  the 

506 


DAOUDNUGUR— DAPHNE. 

mouth  of  the  Vistula,  which  river  cannot  be  entered  by 
large  vessels  on  account  of  the  sand-bars  across  it.  Many 
of  the  streets  of  D.  are  narrow  and  crooked,  but  the  prin- 
cipal street,  intersecting  it  from  e.  to  w.,  abounds  in  fine 
specimens  of  antique  architecture,  and  has  altogether  a  most 
picturesque  appearance.  Among  most  noteworthy  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  a  line  structure,  commenced  1343,  but 
not  finished  until  1503,  and  possessed  of  a  noble  and  widely 
celebrated  picture  of  the  Last  Judgment  (the  painter  of 
which  is  unknown),  the  Church  of  St.  Catharine,  Trinity 
Church,  the  line  old  Town-hall  (which  has  lately  been  re- 
stored at  a  cost  of  60,000  thalers),  the  Exchange,  etc.  D. 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  is 
still  one  of  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  n.  Europe.  To 
provide  for  its  immense  trade  in  grain,  it  has  enormous 
granaries,  capable  of  containing  500,000  quarters  of  corn, 
and  built  on  an  island  forming  one  of  the  parts  of  the  town 
where,  in  order  to  prevent  tire,  no  person  is  permitted  to 
live,  nor  lights  allowed.  In  1880,  105,034  tons  (of  1,000 
kilos.)  of  wheat  and  other  grain  were  exported,  of  which 
39,939  tons  went  to  Great  Britain.  The  value  of  timber  ex- 
ported 1879  was  $2,868,770;  (1880)  14,044,000;  the  largest 
quantity  going  lo  Great  Britain.  Beside  grain  and  timber, 
there  are  minor  articles  of  export,  as  black  beer,  amber, 
spirits,  etc.  The  annual  value  of  the  exports  is  about  $15,- 
000,000;  of  the  imports  about  twice  as  much.  In  1880, 
1,894  vessels  entered,  and  1,876  cleared  the  harbor.  Pop., 
the  majority  Protestants  (1880),  108,551. 

DAOUDNUGUR,  dd-od-nug  gar :  town  in  the  province 
of  Behar,  India,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sone;  about  90 
m.  e.  of  Benares;  lat.  25°  3'  n.,  and  long.  84°  27'  e.  It  is  a 
wretched-looking  place,  most  of  its  thoroughfares  being 
mere  passages.  It  has  considerable  trade,  manufacturing 
coarse  fabrics  both  of  wool  and  of  cotton.    Pop.  11,000. 

DAOURIA,  dd-ore-d:  country  of  Asia,  partly  in  the 
Russian  govt,  of  Irkutsk,  and  partly  belonging  to  the  Chi- 
nese territory  of  Mantchuria.  Its  limits  are  not  exactly  de- 
fined. The  Daourian  Mountains,  offsets  of  the  Yablonoi 
mountains,  traverse  it  from  n.e.  to  s.w.,  and  separate  it 
from  the  region  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  mountains  are  fer- 
tile in  minerals. 

DAP,  V.  dap  [from  Dip]:  in  angling,  to  drop  the  bait 
gently  into  the  water,  or  to  raise  it.  Dap  ping,  imp. 
Dapped,  pp.  ddpt. 

DAPEDIUM,  n.  ddp-ed'i-tcm,  or  Daped'ius,  -us  [Gr. 
dapidion,  dim.  from  dapedon,  the  floor  of  a  chamber]: 
genus  of  fossil  fishes,  family  Dapedidca.  They  are  peculiar 
to  the  Lias.  The  arrangement  of  the  scales  resembles  a 
tesselated  pavement. 

DAPHNE,  dafne  [from  the  fabled  nymph  DapJme]: 
magnificent  grove  and  sanctuary  in  ancient  times,  near  An- 
tioch  (q.v.).  The  grove  w^as  finally  laid  out  in  walks  of 
cypress  and  bay  trees,  and  as  the  chief  resort  of  all  the 
dissolute  persons  in  the  city,  became  the  scene  of  the  great- 
est debauchery.   In  the  centre,  surrounded  by  the  luxuries 

507 


DAPHNE. 

of  nature  and  art,  glorious  gardens,  fountains,  baths,  colon- 
nades, stood  the  temple  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  invested  with 
the  privileges  of  an  asylum,  and  for  centuries  a  place  of 
heathen  pilgrimage.  The  progress  of  Christianity  grad- 
ually revived  in  the  Antiochenes  the  purer  instincts  of  vir- 
tue and  decorum,  and  the  grove  was  finally  abandoned. 
Julian  the  Apostate,  in  his  vain  endeavor  to  resuscitate  the 
corpse  of  paganism,  visited  D.,  and  made  the  altars  of  the 
temple  smoke  once  more  with  incense;  but  on  his  depart- 
ure they  were  again  neglected,  until  one  night  the  altars 
and  the  statues  were  discovered  to  be  in  tiames.  They 
wore  consumed  to  ashes;  and  so  perished  for  ever  the  gods 
of  Daphne. 

D.  owed  its  origin  to  Seleucus  Nicator.  He  planted  the 
grove,  built  the  temple,  and  gave  the  place  a  mythological 
history  in  connection  with  the  river  Peneus  and  the  nymph 
Daphne,  fabled  to  have  been  turned  here  into  a  laurel  or 
bay  tree,  whence  the  grove  received  its  name.  Modern 
travellers  are  not  agreed  as  to  its  site.  Pococke  and  Kich- 
ter  decide  in  favor  of  Beit-el-Maa,  about  5  m.  from  Antioch; 
while  Forbiger  and  Kinneir  consider  Babylas  the  true  posi- 
tion. 

DAPHNE,  n.  daf  ne  [Gr.  and  L.  ,the  daughter  of  the  river- 
god  Peneus,  changed  into  a  laurel-tree]:  genus  of  plants  of 
the  nat.  ord.  Thymeleacece,  having  a  4-cleft  funnel-shaped 


Daphne  Mezereon. 


perianth,  the  throat  of  which  is  destitute  of  scales,  eight 
stamens,  and  a  one-seeded  succulent  fruit.    All  the  species 

508 


DAPHNEPHORIA— DAPHNIS. 

are  shrubs  or  small  trees,  some  having  deciduous,  and  some 
evergreen  leaves,  all  of  them  possessing  in  all  their  parts 
more  or  less  acridity,  which  in  some  is  so  great  that  they 
are  even  caustic;  and  the  berries  are  poisonous  to  all  ani- 
mals except  birds,  while  the  tlowers  of  some  al-e  deliciously 
fragrant.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  Daphne  Mezereon, 
well  known  both  for  ihe  fragrance  of  its  flowers  and  for  its 
medicinal  uses.  The  Garou  bush  {B.^nidium),  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  less  hardy  than  the  mezereon,  has 
the  same  medicinal  properties  and  uses,  which  is  in  some 
measure  the  case  with  many  other  species.  The  Spukoe 
Laukel  (i>.  laureola)  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  3-4  ft.  high, 
with  obovate-lanceolate  leaves,  which  grow  in  tufts  at  the 
end  of  the  branches,  and  give  it  a  remarkable  appearance. 
It  grows  well  under  the  shade  of  trees. — D.  Japonica,  a  spe- 
cies recently  introduced  from  Japan,  has  exquisitely  lemon- 
scented  leaves.  From  the  bark  of  some  species  of  D.,  and 
of  the  most  nearly  allied  genera,  paper  is  made  in  dilferent 
parts  of  the  East,  particularly  Nepaul  paper  from  that  of 
I),  cannahina.  Slips  of  the  inner  bark  are  boiled  in  a  lye 
of  wood-ashes  for  half  an  hour  till  quite  ^ft,  are  then  re- 
duced to  a  homogeneous  pulp  by  beating  with  a  wooden 
mallet  in  a  mortar,  churned  with  water  into  a  thin  paste, 
and  poured  through  a  coarse  sieve  upon  a  cloth  stretched 
on  a  frame.  The  paper  is  subsequently  polished  by  fric- 
tion, with  a  shell  or  a  piece  of  hard- wood,  and  is  remark- 
able for  toughness,  smoothness,  and  durability.  Most  of 
the  paper  used  in  Tibet  is  made  from  the  bark  of  different 
species  of  D.  and  allied  genera,  particularly  of  Edgeworthia 
Oardneri,  a  beautiful  shrub,  with  globes  of  waxy,  cowslip- 
colored,  deliciously  fragrant  flowers,  growing  on  the  Him- 
alaya, at  an  elevation  of  6,000-7,000  ft.  ^  The  bark  of  Dais 
Madagascar iensis  also  is  made  into  paper  in  Madagascar,  and 
that  of  Gnidia  daplmoides  into  ropes. 

DAPHNEPHORIA,  daf-ne-forl-d :  festival  in  honor  of 
Apollo,  celebrated  at  Thebes  once  in  nine  years. 

DAPH'NIA:  see  Water-Flea. 

DAPII'NIN,  or  Daphnine:  bitter,  astringent,  crystalline 
substance  present  in  different  species  of  Daphne,  and  ob- 
tained from  the  bark.  It  is  analogous  to  asparagine:  see 
Asparagus. 

DAPHNIS,  dafnls :  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Mer- 
cury and  of  a  nymph,  who  became  a  shepherd  on  Mount 
^tna,  fell  in  love  with  Chlot^,  a  naiad  who  through  a  sus- 
picion of  his  lack  of  fidelity  caused  blindness  to  come  upon 
him.  In  his  distress  he  ])rayed  to  his  father  for  relief, 
and  Mercury  took  him  to  heaven.  He  was  esteemed  a 
youth  of  great  beauty,  and  the  first  to  compose  pastoral 
poetry.  His  story  is  outlined  in  the  first  idyl  of  Theoc- 
ritus, Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd,  and  St.  Pierre's 
Paul  and  Virginia, 

509 


DAPIFER— DAKBOY. 

DAPIFER,  n.  dap'i-fer  [L.  dapes,  a  feast;  fero,  I  hear 
or  carry]:  one  who  carried  the  meat  to  the  table;  a  steward; 
afterward  the  chief  steward  or  bailiff  of  any  honor  or 
manor. 

DAPPER,  a.  dapper  [Dut.  dapper,  active,  smart:  Low 
Ger.  dobbers,  sound,  good:  Ger.  tapfer,  brave]:  httle  and 
active;  nimble;  neat;  clean-made. 

DAPPLE,  a.  dap)'l,  or  Dappled,  a.  dap'ld  [from  dab, 
a  lump  of  something  soft,  a  blotch  or  spot:  Icel.  depill,  a 
spot  on  ground  of  a  different  color]:  spotted  of  various 
colors;  marked  with  spots;  mottled:  Y.  to  mark  or  variegate 
with  spots.  Dap  PLiNG,  imp.  -ling.  Dap  pled,  pp.  -Id: 
Adj.  .mottled. 

DARABGHERD,  dd-rab-gerd' ,  or  Darab,  dd'rdb:  town  of 
Persia,  province  of  Farsistan;  lat.  29'  n.,  long.  54°  30'  e. ; 
on  a  small  river  in  an  extensive  plain,  and  surrounded  by 
lemon  and  orange  groves.  Formerly  it  was  a  place  of  great 
extent  and  importance,  but  most  of  it  is  now  in  ruins.  Pop. 
considerably  less  than  20,000. 

DARAGUNJ,  dd-rd-ghnj  :  town  of  British  India  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  opposite  Allahabad.    Pop.  9,000. 

D'ARBLAY,  dar'bld,  ddr-bld',  Madame  Frances:  noveh 
ist:  1752,  June  13—1840,  Jan.  6;  b.  Lynn-Regis,  England; 
daughter  of  Dr.  Charles  Burney,  an  eminent  musician.  She 
received  a  very  limited  education,  but  gained  much  geneml 
and  literary  information  from  the  distinguished  men  and 
women  of  letters  who  frequented  her  father's  house  in  Lon- 
don to  listen  to  his  concerts.  Her  tirst  novel  Evelina  was 
published  anonymously  1778,  and  had  great  success.  It 
received  the  praise  of  Burke,  Gibbon,  Johnson,  and  Sheri- 
dan, and  when  the  name  of  its  author  was  disclosed  she 
found  herself  at  once  famous.  She  brought  out  Cecilia 
1782,  was  appointed  second  keeper  of  the  robes  to  Queen 
Charlotte  1786,  married  Count  D'A.,  an  exiled  French 
officer,  1793,  and  resided  in  France  1802-16.  She  wrote 
Camilla  and  other  works  of  fiction,  and  left  interesting 
material  for  a  Diary  and  Letters,  7  vols.  (1842-46).  She  died 
in  Bath,  England. 

DARBOY,  dar-bwd' ,  Georges,  Archbishop  of  Paris: 
1813,  Jan.  6—1871,  May  24;  b  Le  Fayl-Billot.  He  was  or- 
dained to  the  Rom.  Cath.  priesthood  1836;  was  appointed 
teacher  of  philosophy  1839,  and  theology  1841,  in  the  semi- 
nary of  Langres;  consecrated  bp.  of  Nancy  1859,  and  ele- 
vated to  the  archiepiscopate  of  Paris  1863.  He  attended 
the  Yatican  council  1869-70,  and  first  opposed,  then  acqui- 
esced in  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility.  During  the  reign 
of  the  communists  in  Paris,  1871,  he  was  arrested  by 
them  as  a  hostage,  and  when  the  govt,  troops  captured  the 
city,  he  with  five  other  hostages  were  shot  in  the  prison  of 
La  Roquette,  May  24,  before  the  soldiers  could  rescue 
them.  The  communists  were  deaf  to  all  appeals  for  mercy 
toward  the  hostages,  to  secure  which  U.  S.  minister  Wash- 
burne  exerted  all  his  great  influence;  and  the  bullet  did  its 
fatal  work  while  the  archbishop  was  in  the  act  of  blessing  his 
murderers.    He  was  author  of  Holy  Women  (1850);  Women 

510 


DARBUNG— DARDEN. 
of  the  Bible,  2  vols.,  of  which  a  5th  ed.  was  published  1859; 
and  a  Life  of  St.  T/mnas  d  Becket,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.  (1860). 

DARBUNG,  ddr-bang' :  mountain -torrent  of  Bussahir, 
Hindustan,  with  a  course  of  only  27  m.  It  rises  about 
15,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  lat.  31°  57'  n.,  and  long.  78°  25' 
e.,  and  loses  itself  in  the  Sutlej,  the  most  easterly  of  the 
five  rivers  of  the  Punjab,  in  lat.  81"  43'  n.,  and  long.  78^"  85' 
e.  About  7  m.  above  the  point  of  confluence — having  al- 
ready descended  6,000  ft.  in  20  m. — the  D.  is  crossed  by  a 
wooden  bridge  of  38  ft.  in  length;  and  even  somewhat  fur- 
ther up,  it  is  bordered  by  several  villages.  Its  source  has 
been  described  as  a  scene  of  terrific  desolation,  consisting 
of  fields  of  snow  and  ice  half -hid  under  stones  and  rub- 
bish. 

DAR'BYITES:  see  Plymouth  Brethren. 

DARDANELLES,  ddr-da-nelz'  (anc.  Hellespont):  narrow 
channel  separating  Europe  from  Asia,  and  uniting  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  with  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  It  extends 
from  n.-e.  to  s.-w.,  between  lat  40° — 40°  80'  n.,  and  long. 
26°  10' — 26°  40'  e;  length  about  40  m.,  breadth  varying 
from  less  than  1  to  4  miles.  From  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  a 
strong  current  runs  through  the  straight  to  the  Archipela- 
go. To  prevent  an  attack  on  Constantinople  from  the  Ar- 
chipelago, the  D.  is  strongly  fortified  on  both  sides,  with 
many  guns  of  immense  calibre.  A  treaty  concluded  be- 
tween the  five  great  powers  and  Turkey  in  1841  arranged 
that  no  ship  of  war  belonging  to  any  nation  save  Turkey 
should  pass  the  D.  without  the  express  consent  of  Turkey; 
all  merchant  ships  being  also  required  to  show  their  pa- 
pers to  the  Ottoman  authorities.  These  provisions  were 
confirmed  at  London  1871  and  at.  Berlin  1878.  The  D.  is 
celebrated  in  ancient  history  on  account  of  Xerxes  and 
Alexander  having  crossed  it,  the  former  b  c.  480,  to  enter 
Earope;  and  the  latter  b.c.  334,  to  enter  Asia.  The  point 
at  which  Xerxes  crossed,  by  two  separate  bridges,  was  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Abydos,  on  the  Asiatic  shore,  oppo- 
site Sestos.  Alexander  crossed  at  nearly  the  same  place; 
and  here  also  young  Leander  nightly  swam  across  to  visit 
Hero — a  feat  performed  in  modern  times  by  Lord  Byron 
for  '  glory.' 

DARDAlSrUS,  ddr'da-nus:  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Electra,  who  killed  his  brother  Jasius  to  obtain 
the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  and  afterward  fled  to  Asia  Minor. 
He  married  Batia,  daughter  of  Teucer,  King  of  Teucria, 
and  after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  ascended  the  throne 
and  reigned  over  60  years.  He  built  the  city  of  Dardania, 
and  was  believed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Troy.  One  of  the  two  statues  which  he  erected  to  the 
goddess  Minerva  became  known  as  the  Palladium. 

DAR'DEN,  Miles:  1798-1857,  Jan.  23 ;  b.  N.  C:  giant. 
When  41  years  old  he  was  so  large  that  his  coat  could  be 
buttoned  around  three  men  of  200  pounds  each;  and  at  the 
age  of  47  he  had  attained  a  height  of  7  ft.  6  in.,  and  a 
weight  of  871  lbs.  He  was  active  and  able  to  work  till  his 
58th  year,  and  at  his  death  weighed  somewhat  over 1,000  lbs. 

511 


DARE— DARGAN. 

DARE,  V.  ddr  [AS.  dearran,  to  dare:  Scot,  dour,  bold, 
obstinate:  Gael,  dur,  stubborn:  Icel.  cZm^/?',  bold :  L.  duruSy 
hard:  W.  dewi\  strong,  bold]:  to  have  courage,  strength  of 
mind,  or  hardihood  to  undertake  anything;  not  to  be  afraid; 
to  venture;  to  provoke;  to  challenge;  to  defy:  N.  in  OE., 
defiance;  challenge.  Daring,  imp.:  Adj.  bold;  fearless; 
audacious:  N.  boldness,  or  a  bold  act.  Dared,  pp.  ddrd. 
Dared,  pt.  defied.  Durst,  pt.  derst,  ventured.  Da  ringly, 
ad.  -li.  Da'ringness,  n.  boldness;  courage.  Dare-devil, 
an  audacious  reckless  fellow:  Adj.  fearlessly  reckless. 
Dareful,  a.  dor'fid,  in  OE.,  defiant.— Syn.  of  'daring': 
brave;  venturesome;  courageous;  intrepid;  undaunted; 
valiant;  gallant;  heroic. 

DARE,  V.  dtlr  [Scot,  daur,  to  stun,  to  be  stupefied:  Sw. 
dare,  a  fool:  AS.  Thor,  the  god  of  thunder:  Low  Ger. 
hedaren,  to  be  still  and  quiet — lit. ,  to  lurk  or  lie  close  from 
fear]:  to  daunt;  to  terrify;  to  daze.  Daring,  imp.  Dared, 
pp.  ddrd. 

DARE,  Virginia:  b.  1587,  Aug.,  Roanoke,  Ya.:  first 
child  born  of  English  parents  in  America:  granddaughter 
of  Gov.  John  White  and  daughter  of  one  of  his  official  staff. 
Gov.  White's  expedition  to  establish  an  agricultural  colony 
left  Plymouth,  England,  1587,  Apr.,  and  reached  Roanoke 
Island  in  July.  A  few  days  after  her  birth  her  grandfather 
returned  to  England,  and  coming  back  in  the  following 
year  was  unable  to  see  or  learn  anything  of  the  colony  or 
the  child, 

DARFUR,  dCir-fvr' :  country  of  Africa,  e.  of  Sudan,  gen 
erally  said  to  be  in  lat.  10°*-16°  n.,  and  in  long.  22^—28''- 
e. ;  but  its  limits  are  not  clearly  defined.  D.  toward  the  s. 
is  hilly,  the  principal  elevation  being  a  mountainous  ridge 
called  Murrah,  which  traverses  the  country  longitudinally, 
and  is  the  source  of  numerous  streams.  Toward  the  n.  D. 
is  level,  sandy,  and  almost  destitute  of  water.  During  the 
rainy  season  (June — Sep.)  it  exhibits  a  rich  vegetation. 
The  principal  products  are  w^ieat,  millet,  rice,  maize,  and 
sesame.  Tobacco,  w^hich  is  used  by  the  natives  in  every 
form,  abounds.  Water-melons,  also,  are  abundant  during 
the  rainy  season.  Among  the  fruits  are  tamarinds  and 
dates.  The  minerals  are  chiefly  copper  and  iron.  The 
wealth  of  the  inhabitants  of  D.  consists  chiefly  in  cattle. 
Horses,  sheep,  camels,  and  game  abound.  D.  has  consid- 
erable trade  with  Egypt,  Mecca,  and  the  inland  countries 
of  Africa;  it  was  formerly  a  notorious  centre  of  the  slave- 
trade.  The  Furani  are  an  intelligent,  well-built  race,  and 
have  long  been  Mohammedans.  D.  was  annexed  to  Egypt 
1874-5,  and  the  country  organized  into  four  provinces  (Um- 
shanga,  Fasher,  Dara,  and  Kakkabia).  But  in  1884  it  was 
found  necessary  that  Egypt  should  renounce  her  hold  of  D. 
The  residence  of  the  gov.  was  Fasher;  Kobe  is  the  chief 
trading  town. — Pop.  of  D.  variously  estimated  at  three  to 
four  millions. 

DARGAN,  ddr'gan,  William:  born  about  the  beginning 
of  the  present  c.  in  county  Carlow,  Ireland,  w^here  his  fa- 
ther was  a  large  farmer;  died  1887,  Feb.  7.    He  received  a 

612 


DARGUE— DARIEN. 
good  education,  and  after  spending  some  time  in  the  office 
of  a  surveyor,  where  he  acquired  a  reputation  for  integrity 
and  industry,  he  went  to  England,  and  was  employed  un- 
der Telford,  then  constructing  the  Holyhead  Road.  D. 
resolved  to  carve  out  a  similar  path  for  himself  in  his  own 
country,  and  having  returned  to  Ireland,  obtained  some 
small  'jobs,'  the  beginnings  of  a  career  which  led  to  splen- 
did success— for  he  became  one  of  the  first  capitalists  in 
Ireland.  He  contracted  for  the  first  railway  ever  executed 
in  Ireland  (the  Dublin  and  Kingstown),  and  he  was  after- 
ward connected  with  most  of  the  great  undertakings  in 
that  country,  such  as  the  making  of  railways,  canals,  tun- 
nels, and  embankments.  He  was  also  an  extensive  holder 
of  railway  stock,  a  steamboat  proprietor,  tiaxgrower,  and 
farmer.  He  planned  the  Industrial  Exhibition  of  Dublin 
(1853),  with  the  view  of  developing  the  resources  of  his 
country;  and  as  a  help  toward  its  realization,  placed  £20,- 
000  in  the  hands  of  a  working-committee.  This  sum  was 
gradually  increased  to  about  £100,000.  The  Exhibition 
was  opened  1853,  May  12,  by  the  lord-lieut.;  and  was  vis- 
ited by  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert,  when  the  honor  of 
knighthood  was  offered  to  D.,  but  was  declined.  So  far 
as  the  Industrial  Exhibition  was  a  personal  speculation  on 
the  part  of  D.,  it  was  a  failure,  for  he  lost,  it  is  said,  £20,- 
000  by  it;  but  in  every  other  respect  it  was  highly  gratify- 
ing to  him,  and  to  every  genuine  lover  of  his  country.  D. 
was  an  Irish  patriot  in  the  genuine  sense. 

DARGUE,  or  Dakg,  n.  ddrg  [Scot,  darg  or  daurTc  —  a 
day  werk  or  day  work]:  a  day's  work;  a  certain  quantity  of 
work.    Darger,  n.  ddr'ger,  a  day-laborer. 

DAR'IC  [from  the  King  Daruis  Hystaspes]:  a  gold  coin 
of  ancient  Persia,  used  also  in  neighboring  Asiatic  lands, 
and  in  Greece;  value  in  gold  of  the  present  da}^  abt.  seven 
dollars. 

DARIEN,  dd'rl-en  ov  dd-re-en' :  province  in  the  republic 
of  New  Granada,  corresponding  to  what  is  now  the  state 
of  Panama  in  Colombia.  One  of  the  earliest  Spanish 
settlements  on  the  mainland  was  in  D.,  the  region  being 
then  called  also  by  the  Spaniards  Castilla  de  Oro  ('the 
Golden  Castile')  and  forming  the  best  known  part  of  their 
Tierra  Flrma.  In  1513,  the  conquis:tador  Balboa,  gov.  of 
the  Darien  settlement,  crossed  the  isthmus  with  290  men, 
and  on  Sep.  26,  first  caught  sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
As  early  as  1528  the  idea  of  a  ship  canal  across  the  isthmus 
was  entertained;  in  1826  a  line  for  such  a  canal  v/as  traced 
between  Panama  and  Portobello;  and  between  1843-74 
repeated  surveys  have  been  made  by  French,  English, 
and  American  engineers  with  the  same  view.  The  Inter- 
oceanic  Canal  Congress  at  Paris,  1879,  under  the  auspices 
of  M.  Lesseps,  approved  a  route  nearly  parallel  to  the  rail- 
way. A  company  was  formed  1880,  under  the  auspices  of 
M.  Lesseps,  to  make  the  canal;  and  operations  were  com- 
menced 1881:  see  Inter-oceanic  Ship  Canal.  For  the 
railway  from  Aspinwall  to  Panama,  see  Panama.  The 
principal  ports  on  the  n.  shore  are  Chiriqui,  Colon  or  As- 

513 


DARIEN— DARIEN  SCHEME. 

pin  wall  on  Limou  Bay,  Portobello,  San  Bias,  and  Puerto 
Escoces,  on  Caledonia  Bay. 

DARIEN,  Gulf  of:  on  the  n.  coast  of  S.  America, 
most  southerly  portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  about  70  m. 
in  length  from  n.  to  s.,  and  25  from  e.  to  w.  The  shores 
are  in  most  places  steep,  and  are  in  many  places  fringed 
with  shoals.  The  southernmost  part  of  the  gulf  is  called 
the  Bay  of  Choco,  into  which  the  considerable  river  Atrato 
debouches. 

DARIEN,  Isthmus  of:  now  usually  called  Isthmus  of 
Panama  (q.v.). 

DARIEN  SCHEME,  The:  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
speculations  on  record,  and  one  which  caused  unprece- 
dented excitement  in  Scotland  from  1695 — in  which  year 
the  Darien  Company  was  established  by  act  of  the  Scottish, 
parliament,  sanctioned  by  royal  authority — till  1701,  when 
the  last  of  the  disappointed  adventurers  returned  home. 
The  D.  S.  was  projected  by  William  Paterson,  founder  of 
the  Bank  of  England.  Its  object  was  to  plant  a  colony  on 
the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  so  form  a 
commercial  entrepot  between  the  eastern  and  western 
hemispheres.  An  entire  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  for  a  term  of  31  years,  was  granted 
to  the  company.  At  that  time,  the  foreign  trade  of  Scot- 
land had  been  ruined  by  the  English  navigation  act  of 
1660,  which  provided  that  all  trade  with  the  English 
colonies  should  be  conducted  in  English  ships  alone,  so 
that  when  Paterson  opened  his  subscription-list,  the 
nobility,  the  gentry,  the  merchants,  and  people,  royal 
burghs,  and  public  bodies  in  Scotland  all  hastened  to  sub- 
scribe. £400,000  were  immediately  put  down  on  paper, 
of  which  £220,000  were  actually  paid  up.  Deputies  in 
England  received  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of  £300,000: 
and  the  Dutch  and  Hamburgers  subscribed  £200,000. 
The  English  parliament,  however,  actuated  by  a  feeling  of 
national  antipathy,  and  the  jealous  clamors  of  trading- 
corporations,  gave  its  unequivocal  condemnation  to  the 
scheme.  The  British  resident  at  Hamburg,  probably  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  king  (William  IIL),  also  made 
various  insinuations  against  it.  The  result  of  this  inter- 
ference was  the  almost  total  withdrawal  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  subscriptions.  It  must  now  be  admitted,  even  by 
a  Scotsman,  that  there  was  one  fatal  objection  to  the 
scheme  — viz.,  the  ganger  of  settling  on  ground  claimed  by 
Spain,  without  coming  to  a  proper  understanding  with  that 
country  beforehand.  Unable,  however,  to  see  any  sort  of 
obstacles,  incited  by  the  vehement  eloquence  of  P;;tevson, 
and  dazzled  by  the  magnificent  proportions  of  the  slii!  ine, 
the  Scotch  hurried  forward  their  arrangements.  Five 
ships,  with  1,200  men  on  board,  set  sail  "from  Leith  for 
Panama  1698,  July,  25.  They  reached  their  destin- 
ation in  four  months,  and  having  bargained  with  the 
natives  for  a  country  which  they  called  New  Caledonia, 
the  colonists  fixed  the  site  of  what  was  to  be  their  capital 
city,  New  Edinburgh,  and  built  a  fort  in  its  vicinity,  which 


DARIEN  SCHEME. 

they  named  New  St.  Andrews.  Having  tlius  constituted 
their  colony,  they  issued  a  proclamation  of  perfect  freedom 
of  trade,  and  universal  toleration  in  religious  matters  to  all 
who  should  join  them.  According  to  the  act  which  estab- 
lished their  compauy,  all  goods  imported  by  them,  with 
the  exception  of  foreign  sugar  and  tobacco,  were  free  from 
all  duties  and  impositions  for  21  years;  and  thus,  on  the 
whole,  they  seemed  for  the  first  few  months  to  be  on  the 
highway  to  success.  But  the  climate,  tolerable  in  winter, 
became  unbearable  in  summer,  and  many  sickened  under 
it;  their  supplies  also  failed  before  they  could  derive  a 
return  from  the  soil;  and  on  sending  to  the  British  colonies 
in  America  for  provisions,  they  learned  with  the  deepest 
indignation  and  despair  that  the  British  American  colonies, 
having  been  informed  that  King  William  had  not  given 
his  sanction  to  the  expedition,  had  resolved  to  hold  no 
intercourse  with  the  new  colony  at  Panama. 

Sickly  and  desponding,  they  waited  long  for  supplies 
from  the  mother-country;  but  the  company  at  home  were 
not  aware  of  their  wretched  condition,  and  none  came. 
At  length,  having  waited  eight  months  for  assistance,  the 
colony  broke  up.  In  the  mean  time,  1,300  colonists, 
including  300  Highlanders  from  the  estate  of  Captain 
Campbell  of  Finab,  who  had  charge  of  the  expedition, 
had  set  sail  from  Scotland,  but  ere  they  arrived,  the 
pioneers  had  fled.  A  Spanish  force  of  1,500  men,  and  a 
squadron  of  11  ships,  immediately  threatened  the  new- 
comers. Captain  Campbell  marched  by  night  with  a  body 
of  200  men  upon  the  Spanish  camp,  which  he  broke,  and 


Scottish  India  House. 


completely  dispersed.  On  returning  to  the  fort,  however, 
he  found  it  invested  by  the  Spanish  squadron.  The 
ammunition  of  the  colonists  had  now  become  exhausted, 
and  they  were  obliged  to  capitulate,  the  Spaniards  granting 
honorable  terms  to  all  exceiit  Captain  Campbell,  who, 


DAIill— DARIUS  I. 

however,  escaped,  and  reaching  New  York,  obtained  pas- 
sage to  Scotland.  The  remainder  of  the  colonists,  too 
\veak  to  weigh  the  anchor  of  the  vessel  which  v^as  to  carry 
them  home,  had  to  be  assisted  in  their  departure  by  the 
Spaniards.  Not  more  than  30,  among  whom  was  Paterson, 
who  w^as  rendered  for  a  time  a  lunatic  by  his  dreadful  mis- 
fortunes, ever  reached  Scotland  Of  Paterson,  who  has 
been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  a  swindler,  Lord 
Macaulay,  in  his  hfth  volume  of  the  History  of  England, 
says;  *  There  is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  he 
was  dishonest.  Indeed,  he  would  have  found  more 
ditflculty  in  deceiving  others,  had  he  not  begun  by 
deceiving  himself.  His  faith  in  his  own  schemes  was 
strong  even  to  martyrdom;  and  the  eloquence  with  which 
he  illustrated  and  defended  them  had  all  the  charm  of 
sincerity  and  enthusiasm.' 

In  Edinburgh,  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  D.  S.,  a 
building  was  erected  to  accommodate  the  officials,  and 
carry  on  the  business  of  the  company.  Known  as  the 
Scottish  India  House,  this  building,  now  removed,  recently 
existed  in  connection  with  the  establishment  for  the  poor 
of  the  city — a  melanchol}^  memorial  of  a  disconcerted 
national  enterprise.  The  books  and  other  documents 
vhich  had  belonged  to  the  company  are  in  the  Advocates' 
Library,  where  they  are  shown  as  a  curiosity.  The  most 
complete  account  of  the  D.  S.  is  that  by  J.  H.  Burton, 
printed  by  the  Bannatyue  Club. 

DAKII,  n.  ddr-i-V :  in  logic,  arbitrary  name  for  a  mode 
of  syllogisms  in  the  first  figure,  in  which  the  middle  term  is 
made  the  subject  of  the  major  and  the  predicate  of  the 
minor  premise.  By  this  mode  we  arrive  at  a  particular 
conclusion  from  a  universal  and  a  particular  premise,  e.g., 
All  men  are  mortal:  John  is  a  man:  therefore  John  is  mortal. 

DA  RIMINI,  del  reme-ne,  Fkancesca:  daughter  of 
Guido  de  Polenta,  lord  of  Rarenna,  who  to  strengthen  his 
house  politically,  after  a  series  of  wars,  gave  her  in  mar- 
riage to  Lanciotto  Malatesia,  eldest  son  and  heir  of  the  lord 
of  Rimini,  though  the  maiden  and  her  father  much  pre- 
ferred the  younger,  handsomer,  and  more  refined  brother 
Paolo.  After  the  marriage  Francesca  fell  in  love  with 
Paolo  and  began  to  loathe  her  husband,  who  suspecting  her 
fidelity,  avenged  himself  by  stabbing  both  to  death  in  his 
bed  chamber.  Her  story  has  been  told  by  Dante  in  The 
Inferno  Leigh  Hunt  in  a  poem,  Silvio  Pellico  in  a  tragedy, 
and  others  in  various  forms. 

DARIUS,  or  Dakeius,  da-rl'us,  I.,  King  of  Persia:  d. 
B.C.  485  (D.  was  the  name  of  several  Persian  kings,  and 
like  the  Egyptian  word  Pharaoh,  was  titular  and  not  per- 
sonal.) D.,  who  was  son  of  Hystaspes,  a  Persian  noble, 
leagTied  himself  with  six  other  nobles  to  murder  Smerdis, 
the  Magian,  who  had  usurped  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
Cambyses.  The  conspirators,  successful  in  their  plot,  hav- 
ing after  some  discussion  fixed  on  the  monarchical  as  the 
proper  form  of  government,  D.  contrived  to  be  elected 
king,  B.C.  52L    His  position  at  first  was  very  insecure,  but 

516 


DARIUS  II. 

his  caution,  skill,  and  energy  enabled  him  to  govern  his 
vast  dominions  for  36  years.  To  strengthen  himself,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Otanes,  who  had  been  the  head  of 
the  conspiracy,  and  likewise  took  three  wives  from  the 
royal  house — viz  ,  two  daughters  of  Cyrus,  and  one  of 
Cyrus's  son,  Smerdis.  He  then  divided  his  empire  into  20 
satrapies,  and  determined  the  exact  amount  of  taxation  to 
be  borne  by  each  In  some  of  the  remoter  provinces,  great 
confusion  seems  to  have  prevailed  after  the  death  of 
Smerdis,  the  Magiau;  and  a  proof  of  how  little  D.  could 
effect  at  first  is  afforded  by  the  conduct  of  Oroetas,  gov.  of 
Sardis,  who  for  some  time  was  quite  defiant  of  his  author- 
ity. Babylon  next  revolted,  and  D.  besieged  the  city  unsuc- 
cessfully for  two  years.  At  last^  however,  it  was  taken  by 
an  extraordinary  stratagem  of  his  general  Zopyrus,  516. 
In  513,  D.,  with  an  army  of  700,000,  crossed  the  Bosporus 
by  a  bridge  of  boats,  marched  through  what  is  now  known 
as  European  Turkey  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  crossed, 
and  advanced  against  the  Scythians.  The  expedition 
proved  a  failure.  D.  retreated,  but  detached  from  his 
main  force  an  army  of  80.000  men  under  Megabyzus,  to 
conquer  Thrace,  w^hiie  lie  himself  returned  to  Persia, 
where  he  extended  his  authority  in  the  east  as  far  as  the 
Indus.  The  assistance  given  by  the  Athenians  and  Eretri- 
ans  to  the  Ionic  states,  when  they  ventured  to  throw  off 
the  Persian  yoke,  and  the  part  which  they  took  in  the  burn- 
ing of  Sardis,  determined  D.,  who  was  influenced  thereto 
also  by  the  banished  Hippias,  to  attempt  the  subjugation 
of  the  whole  of  Greece.  In  495,  he  sent  Mardonius  with 
an  army  into  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  and  at  the  same  time 
dispatched  a  fleet  against  the  islands.  The  former  was 
routed  by  the  Brygi  in  Thrace,  the  latter  was  shattered 
and  dispersed  by  a  storm  when  rounding  the  promontory  of 
Mount  Athos.  In  490,  he  renewed  his  attempt.  His  fleet 
committed  great  ravages  in  the  Cyclades,  but  his  army  was 
entirely  defeated  at  Marathon  by  the  Athenians,  under 
Miltiades,  the  '  tyrant '  of  the  Chersonese.  In  the  midst 
of  his  preparations  for  a  third  expedition,  D.  died. 

DARIUS  II.,  called,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
Oclios,  and  after  his  succession,  NotJios  (*  the  Bastard  ') :  d. 
B.C.  405-4:  one  of  the  17  bastard  sons  of  Artaxerxes  I., 
Longimanus.  When  Sogdianus,  another  of  the  bastards, 
had  murdered  the  rightful  king,  Xerxes  11. ,  and  assumed 
the  royal  power,  Ochos  declared  war  against  him,  slew  him, 
and  secured  the  diadem  for  himself,  B.C.  424-423.  He 
now  called  himself  Darius.  His  reign  was  ignoble.  He 
was  completely  under  the  control  of  his  eunuchs  and  his 
cruel  step-sister  and  spouse  Parysatis.  Rebellions  were 
constantly  breaking  oat  among  his  satraps,  all  of  which, 
however,  were  crushed  except  that  of  Amyrtoeus,  satrap 
of  Egypt,  who  made  himself  independent,  414.  It  w^as 
during  the  life  of  D.,  and  chiefly  through  the  craft  of  Tis- 
saphernes,  satrap  of  Asia  Minor,  and  of  his  successor, 
Cyrus  the  Younger,  son  of  the  king,  that  the  Persians  exer- 
cised so  great  an  influence  over  the  affairs  of  Greece  in  the 
last  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

517 


DARIUS  III.— DARK. 

DARIUS  III.,  King  of  Persia  (called,  before  his  acces- 
cession,  Codomannus),  great  grandson  of  D.  II:  raised  to 
the  throne  through  the  help  of  Bagoas,  after  the  murder 
of  Arses,  B.C.  836.  He  was  noted  for  his  mild  disposition, 
handsome  person,  and  courageous  spirit.  But  in  spite  of 
his  superior  qualities,  he  could  otter  no  solid  opposition  to 
the  advance  of  the  Macedonians.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Issus,  333,  his  mother,  wife,  and  three  children  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Alexander;  the  victory  of  Gaugamela,  331, 
opened  to  the  latter  the  way  to  Susa  and  Persia  Proper. 
D.  now  tied  to  Ecbatana,  in  Media;  and,  on  the  approach  of 
his  opponent,  tied  to  the  n.  provinces,  where  he  was  seized 
by  Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria.  Alexander,  in  a  fit  of  gen- 
erosity, hurried  to  deliver  Darius.  Bessus  then  prepared  for 
flight,  but  D.  refusing  to  follow,  was  stabbed  by  the  bar- 
barian, and  left.  The  scouts  of  Alexander's  cavalry  found 
D.  dying,  and  administered  to  his  last  necessities.  Thank- 
ing the  Grecian  king  for  his  magnanimity,  and  commend- 
ing his  family  to  his  care,  he  expired  (330).  Alexander 
sent  the  dead  body  to  Sisygambis,  mother  of  D.,  to  be  in- 
terred in  the  tomb  of  the  Persian  kings.  With  him,  the 
Persian  empire,  that  had  so  long  overshadowed  Asia,  came 
to  a  close. 

DARJEELING,  ddr-jel'ing :  sanitary  station  of  British 
India,  cap.  of  a  dist.  in  the  Sikkim  Himalaya;  7,400  ft. 
above  the  sea,  on  a  narrow  ridge  between  deep  valleys. 
The  lieut  gov.  of  Bengal  spends  some  months  here  in 
summer.  Forest-covered  mountains  rise  above  it,  where 
the  rhododendrons  of  the  Himalaya  grow  in  great  luxuri- 
ance. It  commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  snowy 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya  to  the  n.  and  w.  Notwithstand- 
ing frequent  heavy  rains,  and  a  very  great  annual  rainfall, 
the  climate  is  very  salubrious.  It  was  obtained  by  the 
British  government  from  the  Rajah  of  Sikkim,  1835.  Tea 
culture  has  been  extensively  introduced. 

DARK,  a.  ddrh  [AS.  deorc;  Icel.  dokkv;-  Gael,  dorcli, 
dark]:  without  light;  obscure;  gloomy;  disheartening;  op 
posite  to  white;  secret;  concealed;  applied  to  a  black  or 
swarthy  complexion,  as  opposed  to  fair;  vile,  as  a  dark 
deed.  Dark,  or  Darkness,  n.  absence  of  light;  obscu 
rity;  ignorance,  or  state  of  ignorance;  secrecy.  Dark  ly, 
ad.  -U,  in  a  dark  manner;  obscurely.  Dark  ish,  a.  some- 
what dark.  Dark- browed,  stern  of  aspect;  frowning. 
Dark- COLORED,  having  a  dark  hue.  Dark-horse,  a  com- 
petitor in  a  contest  of  any  kind,  about  whose  abilities  or 
prowess  nothing  is  certainly  known.  Dark-lantern,  a 
lantern  having  a  circular  shade,  which  may  be  suddenly 
used  to  close  the  aperture  and  hide  the  light.  Dark  some, 
a.  -sum,  rather  dark;  obscure.  Darken,  v.  ddrk'n,  to  de- 
prive of  light;  to  obscure;  to  render  gloomy;  to  render  ig- 
norant or  stupid;  to  render  less  white;  to  tan;  to  grow  dark. 
Darkening,  imp.  ddrJc'nmg.  Darkened,  pp.  ddrk'end. 
Dark'ling,  a.  -ling,  in  the  dark;  without  light.  Dark 
AGES,  an  indefinite  period,  loosely  applied  to  the  period  ex- 
tending from  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  a.d.  814,  to  the  re- 
gis 


DARK  AGES— DARLING. 

vival  of  letters  about  a.d.  1460;  also  applied  to  the  period 
from  about  a.d.  600  to  1000.— Syn.  of  'dark,  a.':  dim; 
ignorant;  opaque;  mysterious;  hidden;  vile;  wicked; — of 
'  darken     to  obscure;  cloud;  perplex;  foul;  sully. 

DARK  AGES  :  indefinite  period  between  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  c,  and  the  re- 
vival of  letters  in  the  13th  c.  The  Middle  Ages  covered 
the  same  period  with  the  addition  of  the  time  before  the 
Reformation,  somewhat  before  the  middle  of  the  16th  c. 
See  Middle  Ages. 

DARK  DAY,  in  New  England:  phenomenon  of  1780, 
May  19,  extending  from  Me.  into  N.  Y.  andN.  J.,  but  most 
intense  in  Mass.  and  the  lower  portion  of  N,  H.  It  lasted 
from  10  o'clock  a.m.  till  midnight,  and  during  its  prevalence 
it  was  impossible  to  read  ordinary  print;  candles  had  to  be 
lighted  within  doors,  and  animals  mistaking  the  hour  went 
to  sleep.  A  number  of  similar  but  less  intense  phenomena 
have  been  observed  in  England,  Canada,  and  the  United 
States;  and  scientists  have  tried  to  account  for  them  by 
alleging  the  obscuration  of  the  light  of  the  sun  by  smoke 
from  vast  burning  forests,  volcanic  exhalations  of  smoke 
and  ashes,  the  escape  through  crust  fissures  of  vapors  gen- 
erated by  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  smoke  caused  by 
the  combustion  of  meteors,  cosmical  dust  from  the  regions 
of  outer  space,  and  dust  raised  in  clouds  from  deserts  and 
moved  great  distances  by  atm^ospheric  currents.  Prof. 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard  dissented  from  these  theories  and  ascribed 
the  phenomenon  simply  to  the  presence  of  ordinary  cJouds 
of  unusual  volume  aud  density. 

T)AIiKE,ddrk,  William:  1736-1801,  Nov.  26;  b.  Phila- 
delphia CO.,  Penn. :  revolutionary  officer.  He  removed 
with  his  parents  to  va.  when  four  years  old,  entered  the 
army  when  19,  was  with  Braddock  at  his  defeat,  1755,  ap- 
pointed capt.  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  was  a  col.  at  the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis.  After 
the  war  he  was  elected  to  the  Ya.  legislature  several  times, 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  ratified  the  federal 
constitution,  lieut.col.  commanding  the  left  wing  of  Gen. 
St.  Clair's  army  when  defeated  by  the  Miami  Indians,  1791, 
Nov.  4,  had  a  son  killed  and  was  seriousl}^  wounded  him- 
self in  the  battle,  and  became  maj.gen.  of  state  militia. 

DARKHAN,  Mount,  ddr-clidn' :  lofty  granite  mountain 
in  Mongolia;  lat.  47°  36'  n.,  long.  110°  10'  e. ;  interesting 
as  the  place  whither  annually  repair  large  numbers  of 
Mongolians,  to  do  honor  to  the  memory  of  Genghis  Khan 
(q.v.y,  to  whom  a  monument  has  been  erected  here. 

DARLASTON,  dar  las-tun  :  town,  Staffordshire,  Eng- 
land, IJ  m.  n.n.w.  of  Wednesbury,  4  m.  s.e.  of  Wolver- 
hampton. It  has  large  coal  and  iron  mines  ;  manufact- 
ures several  kinds  of  iron  from  the  ore;  and  does  an  exten- 
sive business  in  the  production  of  articles  of  iron  ware. 
Pop.  (1871)  12,841;  (1880)  14,416. 

DARLING,  n.  ddr'Ung  [AS.  deorling,  dim.  of  deor,  dear]; 
a  much  loved  one;  a  favorite:  Adj.  dear;  dearly  beloved; 
favorite. 


DARLING— DARLINGTON. 

DARLING,  ddr'Ung:  moge  of  mountains  in  w.  Austra- 
lia, parallel  to  the  w.  coast,  10  to  25  m.  inland;  from  the 
s.w.  corner  of  the  colony  to  a  point  abt.  250  m.  farther 
north.  The  range  has  a  height  of  1,500  to 2,000  ft.;  and  in 
Mount  William  attains  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet. 

DxiRLING  [from  Lieut. Gen  Sir  Ralph  Barling,  gov.  of 
New  South  Wales  1825-31]:  river  in  Australia,  tributary 
of  the  Murray  river;  formed  by  the  union  of  several  head- 
streams,  all  of  which  rise  in  the  great  Dividing  Range. 
The  chief  of  these  head-streams  are  the  Barwon  and  Gwydir. 
The  name  Darling  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  Barwon  es- 
pecially; usually  it  refers  to  the  united  waters  of  several 
streams,  above  or  just  below  the  confluence  of  the  Castle- 
reagh  and  the  Macquarie.  Farther  down  the  Darling  re- 
ceives the  Culgoa  and  the  Warrego  from  the  n.,  and  the 
Bogan  from  the  south.  Its  length  is  stated  at  850  m.,  and 
it  and  its  tributaries  are  estimated  to  drain  198,000  sq.  m. 
It  joins  the  Murray  at  Wentworth,  having  received  no  trib- 
utary in  its  lower  course.  Much  of  the  district  traversed 
by  it  is  an  arid  plain,  save  near  the  river  bank;  the  river  is 
subject  to  floods. 

DARLING:  district  at  the  s.w.  corner  of  New  South 
Wales,  scantily  watered;  50,000  sq.  miles. 

DARLING,  Grace:  1815,  Nov.  24—1842,  Oct.  20;  b.  , 
Bamborough,  England;  daughter  of  William  D.,  light- 
house keeper  on  Longstone,  one  of  the  Farne  Islands.  On 
the  morning  of  1838,  Sep.  7,  the  Forfarshire,  which,  with 
63  persons  on  board,  had  been  wrecked  among  the  Farne 
Islands,  was  seen  by  Darliijg  from  his  light-house,  lying 
broken  on  the  rocks.  At  the  solicitation  of  his  daughter, 
then  in  her  22d  year,  he  put  ofl:  through  the  storm  to  the 
wreck,  his  only  companion  the  girl  who  prompted  the  noble 
act.  By  wonderful  strength  and  skill,  they  brought  their 
boat  to  where  the  sufferers  (nine  in  number)  were  crouched 
in  momentary  expectation  of  a  watery  grave,  rescued  them, 
and  bore  them  safely  to  Longstone.  The  undertaking,  so 
daring  and  successful,  drew  public  admiration.  The  light- 
house at  Longstone,  no  longer  solitary  and  peaceful,  was 
visited  by  many  of  the  wealthy  and  the  great.  Presents, 
testimonials,  and  money  were  heaped  at  the  feet  of  the 
heroine;  but  she  did  not  long  survive  her  change  of  circum- 
stances. She  died  of  consumption,  after  a  year's  illness. 
See  Grace  Barling ,  by  E.  Hope  (1876). 

DARLING  DOWNS:  lands  in  Australia,  forming  the 
richest  pastoral  district  of  Queensland,  in  the  s.  part  of  the 
colony.  This  is  an  upland  district  on  and  about  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Dividing  Range;  6,080  sq.  m.  It  was  discovered 
by  Allan  Cunningham,  the  botanist,  1827.  There  is  also 
much  tine  agricultural  land  in  which  the  cereals,  potatoes, 
and  all  kinds  of  vegetables  grow  well. 

DARLINGTON,  ddr'lmg-ton,  or  Darnton,  ddrn'ton: 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  in  the  south  of  the 
county  of  Durham,  England,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  over- 
looking the  Skerne  near  its  junction  with  the  Tees.  The 
chief  iuduiiiy  of  the  place  is  connected  with  the  extensive 

520 


DARLINGTONIA— DARK. 

locomotive  works.  Brewing  and  tanning  are  carried  on; 
and  there  are  wool-mills.  D.  's  prosperity  dates  from  the 
opening,  1825,  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  railway, 
mainly  for  carrying  coals,  and  the  first  on  which  locomo- 
tive engines  were  employed.  From  the  11th  c.  the  town 
belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Durham,  and  till  1867  a  borough 
bailiff,  appointed  by  the  bishop,  managed  its  affairs;  in  that 
year  it  obtained  a  charter  of  incorporation.  Near  D.  was 
the  seat  of  George  Allan  the  antiquary.  St.  Cuthberts,  the 
beautiful  parish  church,  built  in  the  12th  c,  has  three 
carved  stone  stalls,  and  a  tower  180  ft.  high.  At  Oxen-le- 
field,  3  m.  from  D.,  are  curious  cavities  of  unknown 
origin,  called  Hell  Kettles.  Many  of  the  people  of  D.  be- 
long to  the  Society  of  Friends,  long  prominent  in  the  place. 
—Pop.  (1881)  35,102. 

DARLINGTONIA,  n.  ddr-lmg-id'ni  a  [named  after  Dr. 
Darlington,  an  American  botanist] :  genus  of  pitcher-plants, 
belonging  to  the  order  Sarraceniacece.  The  D.  Galifornica 
grows  in  the  n.  part  of  California,  chiefly  in  the  district 
around  Mt.  Shasta.  It  is  found  in  boggy  places,  on  the 
slopes  of  mountains.  It  entraps  insects,  which  are  attracted 
to  the  curious  hood  or  pitcher  at  the  extremity  of  the  tubular 
leaves;  and,  once  inside,  are  prevented  by  the  fine  hairs 
which  point  downward  from  again  returning.  Sometimes 
the  leaf -stems  at  their  base  are  filled  to  the  depth  of  four  or 
five  inches  with  insect  remains.  The  larva  of  a  small  moth, 
Xanthoptera  semicrocea,  preys  on  the  plant,  and  that  of  a 
dipterous  insect,  Sarcophaga  sarracenim,  feeds  on  the  dead 
insects  which  it  incloses. 

DARMSTADT,  ddrm'stdt:  town  of  Germany,  cap.  of 
the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  residence  of  the 
grand  duke,  and  seat  of  govt. ;  on  the  river  Darm,  15  m. 
s.  of  Frankfurt-on-the-Main.  It  consists  of  an  old  and 
new  town,  both  surrounded  by  walls  and  ditches.  The 
streets  of  the  former  are  narrow  and  squalid;  those  of  the 
latter  present  many  imposing  specimens  of  architecture. 
D.  has  five  public  squares,  from  the  centre  of  one  of  which 
a  fine  Doric  column  rises  to  height  of  134  ft.,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  Grand  Duke  Louis  who 
founded  the  new  town.  Besides  the  arsenal,  the  barracks, 
and  the  various  religious  edifices,  one  of  which  is  crowned 
by  a  dome  supported  upon  28  large  columns,  D  has  two 
palaces;  one  of  these,  the  old  ducal  palace,  contains  the 
museums  of  painting — comprising  700  pictures,  some  of 
them  by  the  most  famous  of  the  old  masters — and  natural 
history,  in  which  are  shown  fossil  remains  of  the  dino- 
therium.  The  palace  contains  also  a  public  library  of  380,- 
000  vols.  D.  is  more  dependent  upon  its  ducal  court  and 
the  government,  which  holds  its  seat  there,  than  upon  its 
commerce  or  manufactures,  though  these  are  now  becom- 
ing more  important.    Pop.,  with  suburb  (1880),  48,153. 

DARN,  V.  darn  [originally  signified  a  patch :  OF.  dame, 
a  slice:  W.  darn,  a  piece,  a  fragment;  dyrnaid,  a  handful: 
Gael,  dbrn,  a  short  cut,  a  piece;  dornan,  a  handful]:  to 
mend  a  rent  or  hole  by  interlacing  it  with  stitchesj  to  sew 


DARNEL— DART. 


together  in  imitation  of  the  texture  of  the  stuff.  Dar'ning, 
imp.  Darned,  pp.  ddnid.  Dar  nek,  n.  one  who.  Darn- 
ing-ball, n.  an  egg-shaped  ball,  made  of  hard  wood,  ivory, 
cocoa-nut  shells,  or  glass,  and  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
the  hand  in  the  darning  of  stockings;  a  darning  last.  Darn- 
ing-last, a  potato,  a  small  gourd,  or  anything  similar,  used 
to  stretch  a  portion  of  a  stocking  while  being  darned. 
Darning-needle,  a  long  strong  needle  for  mending  holes 
or  rents. 

DARNEL,  n.  darnel  [Lith.  durnas,  foolish,  crazy:  Sw. 
dare;  Ger.  tho7%  a  fool— from  the  supposed  effects 
of  the  plant  when  eaten],  {Lolium  temulentum): 
grass  of  the  same  genus  with  the  valuable  Rye- 
grass (q.v.),  an  annual,  common  in  grain-fields 
ill  many  parts  of  Europe.  It  has  no  tufts  of 
'Ivjavesfrom  the  root,  the  glumes  are  as  long  as 
the  spikelets,  or  longer,  the  spikelets  contain  5-7 
liorets  which  are  awued.  This  grass  has  from 
ancient  times  been  reputed  to  have  a  narcotic 
poisonous  seed,  to  which  many  bad  effects  were 
ascribed,  which,  in  years  of  bad  harvest,  w^ere  ob- 
served to  ensue  upon  the  eating  of  bread  or  the 
feeding  of  horses  upon  oats.  Even  Lindley,  in  his 
Medical  and  (Economical  Botany,  1849,  ascribes 
narcotic  and  acrid  qualities  to  D.  seed,  and  speaks 
of  fatal  consequences  as  produced  by  it  when 
mixed  with  flour,  saying  that  it  '  is  the  only  au- 
thentic instance  of  unwholesome  qualities  in  the 
order  of  the  Grasses.'  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
asserted  that  very  recent  researches  on  the  conti- 
nent have  completely  established  the  perfect 
harmlessness  of  this  grass  and  of  its  seed;  and  the 
effects  which  have  been  ascribed  to  it  must  there- 
fore be  attributed  to  grain  injuriously  affected  in 
some  way  by  bad  weather. 

DARNETAL,  ddr-ne-tdl':  town  of  France, 
dept.  of  Seine-Inferieure,  about  2|m.  e.  of  Rouen. 
It  is  well  built,  and  has  two  Gothic  churches. 
Situated  at  the  top  of  a  narrow  valley,  and  inter-  Darnel, 
sected  by  two  streams,  D.  possesses  unusual  facilities  for 
cloth  and  other  woolen  manufactures.    Pop.  (1881)  6,154. 

DARNLEY,  ddrn'li,  Henry  Stewart,  Lord:  1546- 
1567,  Feb.  10;  b.  England;  cousin  and  husband  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  (q.v.). 

DARRAIGN,  orDARRAiN,  v.  ddr-rdn'  [OF.  desrener  and 
derainer,  to  deny  very  strongly — from  mid.  L.  derationdre, 
to  settle  the  legal  account]:  in  OE.,  to  answer  an  accusation; 
to  settle  a  controversy  by  battle;  to  arrange  an  army  in  order 
of  battle. 

DART,  n.  ddrt  [F.  dard;  OF.  dai^t,  a  dart:  Bret,  tarz,  a 
clap:  W.  tarddu,  to  spring  forth  or  appear,  as  the  dawn:  It. 
dardo:  AS.  darath]:  a  short  lance;  a  sharp-pointed  weapon 
to  be  thrown  by  the  hand:  V.  to  throw  a  pointed  weapon 
with  a  sudden  thrust;  to  shoot;  to  send  rapidly;  to  emit,  as 
the  sun;  to  spring  or  run  with  celerity;  to  start  suddenly  and 


DAETARS-DARTFORD  WARBLER, 
run.    Dart'ing,  imp.:  Adj  throvv^ing out  or  sendiDg  forth 
darts,  rays,  and  the  like.    Dart  ed,  pp.    Dart  er,  n.  one 
who;  a  bird  of  the  pelican  family  inhabiting  Africa  and 
America.    Dart'ingly,  ad.  -U. 

DARTARS,  n.  dart'erz  [F.  dartre,  ringworm,  tetters]: 
an  ulcer  on  the  skin,  to  which  lambs  are  subject. 

DART'ER  iPlotus):  genus  of  birds  very  nearly  allied  to 


Darter  (Plotus  Anhingd). 


cormorants  (q.v.),  but  having  a  bill  longer  than  the  head, 
perfectly  straight,  slender,  and  sharp-pointed;  remarkable 
also  for  the  great  length  of  the  neck,  which  has  obtained 
for  them  the  name  of  Snake-birds.  They  derive  the  name 
D.  from  darting  forward  their  bill  at  their  prey  by  means 
of  their  long  tlexible  neck.  They  are  very  voracious,  and 
eat  great  quantities  of  fish,  which  they  swallow  entire. 
They  are  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  Africa  and  America. 

DARTFORD,  dart' ford  (Saxon,  Barentford):  town  in 
the  n.w.  of  Kent,  17  m.  e.s.e.  of  London  by  rail,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Darent,  which  is  navigable  for  barges.  It 
lies  in  a  narrow  valley  between  two  steep  hills.  It  has 
large  corn-mills,  cotton  and  silk  printing-works,  large 
powder  and  paper  mills;  also  manufactures  of  oil,  iron,  and 
machinery.  Near  D.  stood  the  first  rolling,  slitting,  and 
wire-drawing  mill  in  England,  as  well  as  the  first  paper- 
mill,  built  by  Spielman  (d.  1607).  Here  stand  the  ruins 
of  a  nunnery,  founded  1355  by  Edward  III.,  with  12  acres 
of  walled  orchards  and  gardens.  This  king  held  a  tourna- 
ment here  1331.  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection,  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.,  broke  out  at  D.  1381.  Watling  street,  an 
ancient  Roman  road,  crossed  the  river  here.  Near  D.  Heath 
are  many  ancient  chalk  hollows  and  pits,  with  deep  shafts 
leading  to  numerous  chambers  and  galleries,  excavated 
probably  for  sepulture,  for  retreat,  or  to  procure  the  chalk. 
Pop.  (1881)  10,567. 

DARTFORD  WARBLER,  n.  dart'ferd  waicr'  bier:  the 
Sylvia  provincialis, 

^23 


DARTMOOR. 

DARTMOOR,  dart'mor:  granitic  table-land  in  the  s.w. 
part  of  the  county  of  Devon,  England,  remarkable  for  its 
wild  and  rugged  scenery,  its  towering  rock-capped  hills,  the 
numerous  streams  that  have  their  source  in  its  boggy  soil, 
and  the  many  cyclopean  relics  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
scattered  over  its  solitary  wastes,  where  the  deep  silence  is 
broken  only  by  the  sudden  flight  of  the  ring-ouzel,  the 
screams  of  the  curlew,  or  the  shrill  whistle  of  the  lapwing, 
dotterel,  or  stone-plover.  D.  Proper  (or  the  ancient  and 
royal  forest  of  that  name)  and  its  adjuncts,  including  the 
outlying  common  lands  that  present  the  same  physical 
features,  extend  about  20  m.  from  e.  to  w.,  and  22  m.  from 
n.  to  s.,  occupying  one-fifth  of  the  entire  area  of  the  county 
of  Devon,  or  more  than  130,000  acres.  This  moorland 
region,  encircled  by  a  natural  rampart,  moated  by  deep 
valleys,  has  a  very  considerable  elevation  above  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  culminates  in  Yes  Tor,  2,050  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Its  broken  uneven  surface  has  been  com- 
pared, not  inaptly,  to  '  the  long  rolling  waves  of  a  tempes- 
tuous ocean,  fixed  into  solidity  by  some  instantaneous  and 
powerful  impulse.' 

The  most  important  rivers  that  rise  in  northern  D.  are 
the  Dart,  the  Teign,  the  Taw,  the  West  Ockment  or  Oke- 
ment,  the  Lyd,  the  Tavy,  and  the  Walkham;  while  from 
the  swamps  of  southern  D.  spring  the  Plym,  the  Yealm, 
the  Erme  or  Aime,  and  the  Avon,  Aven,  or  Aune. 

Geologically,  D.  is  formed,  for  the  most  part,  of  granite 
rock,  protruded  through  the  shales,  slates,  and  sandstones 
of  the  Devonian  system.  Large  masses  of  trap  occur  at 
White  Tor,  Cock's  Tor,  and  other  localities.  Tin,  copper, 
and  manganese  are  found  among  the  granite,  of  which  four 
varieties — common,  finer,  red,  and  compact —are  distin- 
guished. These,  as  well  as  the  several  kinds  of  trap-rock,  are 
much  used  for  building,  etc.  At  Wheal,  Duchy,  and  Birch 
Tor  are  productive  tin  mines.  The  soil  of  D.  is  chiefly  of 
peat,  which  in  the  bottoms  has  accumulated  in  some  places 
to  the  depth  of  25  ft. ;  it  rests  on  a  subsoil  of  fine  sand. 
Many  of  the  well-watered  dells  and  ravines  are  fertile,  while 
the  whole  moor  affords  pasturage  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses.  Among  the  mosses  and  lichens,  with  which  the 
region  abounds,  are  the  Lecanora  j^erella  and  the  L.  tartarea, 
or  Cudbear  Lichen:  see  Cudbear.  Some  years  ago,  both 
these  lichens  were  largely  exported;  and  it  is  said  that, 
from  1762  to  67  inclusive,  nearly  100  tons  of  the  L.  tartarea 
were  collected  from  the  tors  of  the  moor.  Wistman's 
Wood,  a  grove  of  stunted  oak-trees,  averaging  about  10  ft. 
in  height,  is  of  venerable  antiquity.  It  stands  on  a  rocky 
declivity  about  400  yards  in  length,  and  measures  less  than 
100  yards  across  the  widest  part.  The  ornitlioloqy  of  D.  is 
more  limited  than  formerly;  the  progress  of  cultivation  and 
the  preservation  of  game  are  dri\ing  away  the  eagle,  the 
bustard,  the  crane,  and  the  kite,  which  are  now  rarely  seen. 
The  blackcock  is  likewise  becoming  extinct.  Dr.  Moore 
says:  'The  frequenters  of  the  uncultivated  parts  are  now 
chiefly  the  sparrow-hawk,  the  hobby,  the  goshawk,  the 
hen-harrier,  the  brown  or  marsh  harrier,  and  the  buzzard. 


DARTMOUTH. 

The  antiquities  of  D.,  as  illustrating  ancien  periods  of 
British  history,  are  worth  attentive  study;  of  these,  the 
Grey  Wethers,  below  Sittaford  Tor — a  tine  specimen  of 
what  is  usually  styled  a  Druidical  circular  temple— the  ves- 
tiges of  a  large  aboriginal  village  at  Grimspound,  the  crom- 
lech at  Drewsteignton,  the  logan-stones  and  stone-avenues, 
the  kistvaens,  barrows,  cairns,  rock-pillars,  and  ancient 
trackways,  whose  story  the  old  tors  alone  could  tell,  are 
examples.  Many  legends  and  stories  of  moorland  adventure 
are  related;  but  the  most  famous  is  that  of  the  bold  hunter, 
Childe  of  Plymstock,  whose  fate  Carrington  has  celebrated 
in  a  spirited  ballad.  See  Carrington's  Poems,  Mrs.  Bray's 
Taraar  and  Tavy,  and  Murray's  Handbook  for  Devon  and 
CormcalL 

During  the  long  war  with  France,  consequent  on  the 
great  revolution  and  the  career  of  Napoleon,  a  prison  was 
erected  in  the  centre  of  the  w.  quarter  of  D.,  at  about  1,400 
ft.  above  sea -level,  for  the  accommodation  of  prisoners  of 
war.  The  first  stone  was  laid  1806,  Mar.  20,  and  the 
building  was  finished  at  a  cost  of  £127,000.  Prince  Town 
sprang  up  close  by,  and  soon  beoame  a  thriving  place. 
The  prison  is  now  used  as  a  depot  for  convicts,  who  are 
employed  in  cultivating  the  adjacent  moor. 

The  castle,  manor,  and  forest  of  D.  were  granted  by 
Henry  III.,  to  his  brother  Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall;  an& 
since  1337,  D.  has  been  permanently  annexed  to  the  Duchy 
of  Cornwall. 

See  De  la  Beche's  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Cornwall, 
Dewn,  and  West  Somerset  (Lond.  1839);  and  for  a  full  ac- 
count of  D.,  A  Perambulation  of  the  Ancient  and  Boyal 
Fm'est  of  Dartmoor,  etc.,  by  Rev.  S.  Rowe  (1856);  which 
contains  valuable  Papers  on  the  Geology y  Soil,  Botany,  and 
Ornithology  of  Dartmoor,  by  Ed.  Moore,  m.d. 

DARTMOUTH,  ddrt'muth:  municipal  borough  and 
seaport  in  the  south  of  Devonshire,  England.  It  is  built  in 
terraces  on  a  steep  slope  300  to  400  ft.  high,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  romantic  estuary  of  the  river  Dart,  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  sea.  D.  is  32  m.  s.-by-w.  of  Exeter. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  many  of  the  houses  very  old, 
with  overhanging  stories,  projecting  gables,  and  wood- 
carvings.  St.  Saviour's  Church,  of  the  14th  c,  has  a 
richly  sculptured,  painted,  and  gilt  stone  pulpit,  a  highly 
ornamented  interior,  and  a  beautifully  carved  rood-loft. 

^  A  batterer,  and  the  remains  of  a  castle  built  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII,  stand  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  Many 

.of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  pilchard  and  Lab- 
rador fisheries.  The  chief  exports  are  w^oolens,  cider, 
and  barley.  D.  is  a  quarantine  port  of  the  English 
Channel,  and  has  considerable  trade  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean. In  1880,  945  vessels,  of  81,355  tons,  entered,  and 
887,  of  71,499  tons,  cleared  the  port.— At  D.,  in  1190,  the 
crusaders,  under  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  embarked  for 
the  Holy  Laud.  The  French  burned  the  town  in  the  time 
of  Richard  I,  but  were  repulsed  in  a  third  attack  on  it 
1404.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  D.  furnished  31  ships 
for  the  siege  of  Calais.    In  1643,  Prince  Maurice  besieged 


DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE. 

and  garrisoned  D.  for  Charles  I;  but  in  1646,  Fairfax 
stormed  and  took  it.  Newcomen,  inventor  of  the  steam- 
engine,  w^as  an  ironmonger  here.    Pop.  (1881)  5,580. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  dart  math:  at  Hanover, 
N.  H. ;  fourth  oldest  of  the  New  England  colleges.  It  is 
the  outgrowth  of  a  school  for  the  education  of  Indian  chil- 
dren established  hy  Eleazar  Wheelock,  d  d.,  at  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  1754,  and  named  Moor's  Charity  School  in  honor  of 
Joshua  Moor,  a  farmer,  who  presented  it  a  building  and 
two  acres  of  land.  Subsequently  Samson  Occom,  one  of 
Dr.Wheelock's  brightest  Indian  pupils,  and  the  Rev.  Nathan- 
iel Whitaker,  went  to  England,  presented  the  cause  toiutlu- 
ential  people,  received  subscriptions  of  nearly  $50,000,  and 
organized  a  board  of  trustees,  of  which  Lord  Dartmouth  was 
elected  pres.  In  the  meantime  the  success  of  the  institution 
through  its  popularity  among  the  Indians  had  created  a 
necessity  for  larger  accommodations.  Of  the  many  sites 
offered  Dr.  Wheelock  he  chose  that  of  Hanover,  and  was 
granted  about  44,000  acres  of  land.  Through  the  efforts 
of  its  English  friends  a  charter  for  a  college  to  be  connected 
With  the  school  was  obtained  from  George  IIL,  and  issued 
by  John  Wentworth,  the  last  royal  gov.  of  N.  H.,  1769, 
Dec.  13.  In  1770  Dr.  Wheelock  removed  his  family  and 
school  to  Hanover,  and  in  the  following  year  graduated  his 
first  college  class,  four  in  number.  On  the  organization 
of  the  college.  Dr.  Wheelock  was  elected  its  first  pres  ,  and 
Lord  Dartmouth's  name  was  given  it  in  recognition  of  his 
valuable  services.  Pres.  Wheelock  died  1779,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  John  Wheelock,  ll.d.,  who  served  as 
pres.  till  1815,  when  he  was  removed  by  the  trustees  in  con- 
sequence of  radical  differences  of  opinion  concerning  ques- 
tions of  administration.  In  1816  the  legislature  of  N.  H. 
claimed  the  right  to  amend  the  royal  charter,  and  passed  acts 
changing  the  title  of  the  college  to  Dartmouth  University, 
creating  a  new  corporation,  and  vesting  the  college  prop- 
erty in  it.  The  trustees  opposed  the  act,  and  with  a  view  of 
testing  its  constitutionality  began  a  suit  in  the  supreme 
court  for  the  recovery  of  the  college  property.  This  court 
sustained  the  action  of  the  legislature,  and  the  trustees  ap- 
pealed to  the  U  S.  supreme  court,  of  which  John  Marshall 
was  then  chief -justice,  where  the  cause  of  the  college  wtiis 
successfully  argued  by  Daniel  AVebster.  The  corporation 
created  by  the  legislature  chose  ex-pres.  Wheelock  as  pres. 
of  the  univ. ,  and  on  his  death  a  few  weeks  afterward  elected 
William  Allen,  d  d  ,  pres.  He  retained  the  oflSce  till  the 
decision  of  the  U.  S.  supreme  court  was  made  known,  w^hen 
Francis  Brown,  d.d.,  who  had  been  elected  by  the  old  board 
to  succeed  pres.  Wheelock  1815,  was  inaugurated.  His  suc- 
cessors have  been  Daniel  Dana,  d  d.  1820-22;  Ben  net  Tyler, 
D.D.  1822-28;  Nathan  Lord,  d.d.  1828-63;  Asa  Dodge 
Smith,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1863-77;  and  Samuel  C.  Bartlett,  d.d., 
LL.D.,  who  still  retains  the  oliice  (1888).  From  its  incep- 
tion D  C,  has  been  conducted  on  a  conservative  plan.  It 
has  aimed  at  a  high  religious  tone,  and  though  most  of  its 
tru^te^^s  nn^l  teachers  have  been  Congir^eationalists,  it  has 
never  been  sectarian  in  its  teachings,  it  holds  fast  the  old 
m 


DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE. 

idea  of  the  American  college,  whose  object  is  that  general 
and  symmetrical  training  which  should  precede  |the  par- 
ticular and  professional.  D.  C.  believes  in  a  carefully 
devised  curriculum  and  in  the  ancient  classics;  yet  readily 
admits  to  the  former  the  elective  principle,  and  encourages 
the  studies  of  science  and  modern  languages.  She  has 
already  a  number  of  options,  both  as  to  courses  and  as  to 
particular  studies,  and,  w^hile  adhering  to  the  old  college 
forms,  has  provided  several  collateral  or  post-graduate  in- 
stitutions, offering  diversified  opportunities  of  general  and 
special  culture.  These  various  depts.  as  they  now  exist  are 
as  follows:  (1)  The  old  academic  dept.,  with  its  four  years* 
curriculum,  including  the  privilege  of  a  partial  course,  and 
a  number  of  particular  options.  (2)  The  Chandler  scien- 
tific dept.  established  1851  through  a  bequest  of  $50,000 
made  by  Abiel  Chandler,  with  a  regular  four  years'  course, 
and  having,  with  the  option  of  a  partial  course  through  all 
the  years,  several  elective  lines  of  study  in  the  last  year. 
Latin  and  Greek  are  omitted,  French  and  German  in- 
cluded, scientific  branches  are  made  most  prominent,  and 
degrees  of  B.  Sci.  and  M.  Sci.  are  conferred.  (3)  The  agri- 
cultural dept.,  or  the  IST.  H.  college  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts,  established  1866  under  the  conditions  of  a 
grant  of  land  by  the  federal  govt. ,  with  a  three  years'  course, 
with  the  choice,  after  the  first  year,  of  an  agricultural  or 
mechanical  line  of  study.  The  course  embraces  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  drawing,  book-keeping,  botany,  chemistry, 
physiology,  zoology,  mechanics,  political  economy,  and 
geology.  The  college  has  an  experimental  farm  of  nearly 
200  acres,  and  confers  in  this  dept.  the  degree  of  B.  Sci. 
(4)  The  engineering  dept. ,  or  Thayer  school  of  civil  engi- 
neering, established  1871,  through  a  gift  of  $70,000  by  Gen. 
Sylvanus  Thayer.  This  is  substantially,  though  not  for- 
mally, a  post-graduate  or  professional  dept.,  with  a  two 
years'  course.  The  requisites  for  admission  are,  in  some 
important  branches,  even  more  than  a  college  curriculum 
commonly  embraces;  and  it  is  designed  to  carry  the  study 
of  civil  engineering  to  the  highest  point.  (5)  The  medical 
dept.,  or  the  old  N.  H.  medical  college,  established  1797, 
which  has  had  a  long  and  prosperous  career,  and  now  ranks 
with  the  best  medical  institutions  in  the  coimtry.  There  is 
connected  with  it,  in  addition  to  an  annual  course  of  lect- 
ures of  20  weeks,  a  good  course  of  private  medical  instruc- 
tion. (6)  Moor's  Charity  School,  though  no  longer  a  dis- 
tinct organization,  has  an  official  recognition  still  in  conse- 
quence of  a  fund  belonging  to  it,  which  is  appropriated  to 
the  education  of  Indian  children  under  the  direction  of 
of  the  pres.  of  the  college.  The  chair  of  law  antl  politi- 
cal science,  established  1885, with  James  F.  Colby  as  prof.,  is 
the  latest  addition  to  the  curriculum.  D.  C.  has  an  astro- 
nomical and  meteorological  observatory  with  numerous  val- 
able  instruments,  a  museum  of  pathological  anatomy,  a 
museum  of  geology  and  natural  bistory,  gymnasium,  chem- 
ical laboratorv,  extensive  philosophical  apparatus,  and  sev- 
eral dept.  and  general  libraries.    In  1888  there  vrere  43 


DARU. 

members  of  faculty,  418  students,  and  67,000  vols,  in  the 
several  libraries.  The  total  number  of  recipients  of  de- 
grees recorded  in  the  last  general  catalogue  (1880)  is  6,553. 

DARU,  dd-rii' ,  Pierre  Antoine  Noel  Bruno,  Comte- 
1767,  Jan.  12 — 1829,  Sep.  5;  b.  Montpellier:  author,  also 
one  of  the  ablest  of  the  first  Napoleon's  ministers.  In  his 
16th  year  he  entered  the  army.  In  1791,  he  was  appointed 
intendant  of  the  army  of  Brittany;  but  having  the  misfor- 
tune to  speak  ironically  of  the  English  as  '  omy  friends,'  the 
suspicious  revolutionists  threw  him  into  prison  as  a  royalist, 
where  he  remained  till  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He  spent 
his  time  in  translating  the  Odes  and  Epistles  of  Horace 
{Traduction  en  Vers  des  Poesies  d'llorace,  1800).  Subse- 
quently, he  translated  the  Satires.  In  the  same  year  in 
w^hich  his  version  of  Horace  appeared  (1800),  he  published 
Cleopedie,  ou  la  Theorie  des  Beputations  en  Litter aiure,  a  work 
full  of  spirit  and  felicitous  turns  of  thought.  His  hrmness, 
fidelity,  and  industry  recommended  him  to  Napoleon,  who, 
]805,  made  him  a  councilor  of  state,  and,  at  a  later  period, 
intrusted  him  wdth  the  portfolio  of  the  war-department. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  was  made  a  peer. 
Thenceforth,  he  applied  himself  exclusively  to  letters.  D. 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute  and  of  the  Acad,  of  Sciences. 
His  writings  are  numerous.  Besides  those  above  mentioned, 
the  chief  nYeHistoire  de  la  Repuhlique  de  Venise  {1  yo\^.  1819- 
21);  Histoire  de  Bretagne  (3  vols.  1826);  Eloges;  Genie  du 
Uiristianisme;  Discours  sur  les  Facultes  de  VHomme  (in 
verse);  Discours  sur  la  Liberte.  de  la  Presse. 

His  son,  Napoleon,  Count  D  ,  opposed  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Napoleon  III,  and  w-as  proscribed;  but  became  a  senator 
1876. 

528 


D'ARUSMONT— DARWm. 

D'ARUSMONT,  da-ra-indng' ,  Frances  (maiden  name, 
Fanny  Wiught):  1795,  Sep.  6—1852,  Dec.  14;  b.  Dundee, 
Scotland:  reformer.  She  was  left  au  orphan  when  nine 
years  old,  and  early  imbibed  the  ideas  of  Adam  Smith,  Dr. 
Cullen,  and  other  men  of  the  day,  for  the  improvement  of 
the  conditions  of  human  life.  She  removed  to  the  United 
States  1818  and  spent  three  years  in  travelling  and  studying 
the  phases  of  social  life,  then  passed  four  years  in  France, 
and,  returning  to  the  United  States  1825,  purchased  a  tract 
of  2,000  acres  in  Tenn.,  and  established  a  colony  of  eman- 
cipated slaves.  The  attempt  to  enlighten  and  educate  them 
proved  a  failure,  and  she  then  became  a  lecturer  on  social, 
political,  religious,  and  educational  topics,  and  had  numer- 
ous societies  of  people  who  accepted  her  advanced  views 
organized  under  her  name.  She  was  a  fervent  advocate  of 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  In  1838  she  married  M.  D'A.  in 
France,  but  soon  separated  from  him  and  made  her  per- 
manent abode  in  Cincinnati.  She  was  author  of  Views  on 
Society  and  Manners  in  America  (London  1821);  A  Few  Days 
in  Athens  (London  1822);  Lectures  on  Free  Inquiry  (New 
York  1829-36);  and  Altorf,  a  tragedy  (Philadelphia  1819). 

DARWIN,  c?6?/zo^/2,  Charles,  f.r.s.  :  English  naturalist 
of  highest  eminence:  1809,  Feb.  12—1882,  Apr.  19;  b. 
Shrewsbury;  son  of  Dr.  Robert  W.  D.,  f.r.s.,  and  grandson 
of  Erasmus  D.  (q.v.).  His  mother  was  daughter  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood,  famous  manufacturer  of  pottery.  After  attend- 
ing a  public  school  at  Shrewsbury,  he  studied  at  Edinburgh 
Univ.  for  two  sessions,  thence  proceeded  to  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  b.a.  1831.  He  then 
volunteered  to  go  as  naturalist  in  H.M.S.  Beagle,  commanded 
by  Captain  Fitzroy,  r.n.,  and  started  for  a  survey  of  S. 
America,  and  the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  1831,  Dec. 
27,  returning  to  England  1836,  Oct.  2,  His  entire  life  after- 
ward, so  far  as  his  health  permitted,  was  devoted  to  scien- 
tific researches.  D.  was  a  fellow  of  the  principal  scientific 
societies,  obtained  the  Royal  Society's  medal,  and  the  Wol- 
laston  medal  of  the  Geological  Society. — His  earliest  well- 
known  work.  The  Voyage  of  a  Naturalist  (2d  ed.  1845),  is 
interesting  and  beautifully  written.  In  1839  was  published 
his  Journal  of  Researches  into  the  Geology  and  Natural  His- 
tory of  the  mrious  Countries  visited  hy  H M.S.  Beagle;  in 
1840-43,  Zoology  of  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Beagle,  published 
by  govt.,  to  which  D.  contributed  the  introduction,  and 
many  of  the  notes;  in  1842,  The  Structure  and  Distribution 
of  Coral  Beefs;  in  1844,  Geological  Observations  on  Volcanic 
islands;  in  1846,  Geological  Observations  on  S.  America.  He 
also  wrote  many  papers  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological 
Society.  In  1851-53,  appeared  his  valuable  Monograph  of 
the  Cirripedia;  and  in  1859,  D.'s  name  became  '  familiar  as 
a  household  word '  to  the  mass  of  educated  and  semi-educated 
Englishmen  and  Americans  through  the  publication  of  his 
work,  The  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of  Natural  Selection y 
or  the  Preservation  of  Favored  Races  in  the  Struggle  of  Life. 
In  the  Origin  of  Species,  D.  contends  that  the  various  species 
of  plants  and  animals,  instead  of  being  each  specially  created 
and  immutable,  are  continually  suffering  change  through  a 


DARWIN. 

process  of  adaptation,  by  which  those  varieties  of  a  species 
that  are  in  any  way  better  fitted  for  the  conditions  of  their  life 
survive  and  multiply  at  the  expense  of  others.  So  potent  and 
universal  does  this  process  of  natural  selection  seem  to  be,  that 
D.  considers  it  capable,  with  other  less  important  causes,  of 
explaining  how  all  existing  species  may  have  descended  from 
one  or  a  very  few  low  forms  of  life.  This  theory  excited 
fierce  controversies,  awaits  complete  proof;  but  it  has  been 
embraced  by  many  of  the  ablest  naturalists,  and  has  induced 
great  changes  in  the  methods  of  biology  and  kindred 
sciences:  see  Darwinian  Theory:  Species.  Other  works 
are :  Fertilization  of  Orchids  (1862);  Variations  of  Plants  and 
Animals  under  Domestication  (1867);  The  Descent  of  Man  and 
Selection  in  relation  to  8ex{lSll)\  Expression  of  the  Emotions 
in  Man  and  Animals  (1873);  Insectivorns  Plants  (1875); 
Climbing  Plants  (1875);  The  Effects  of  Cross  and  Self  fertiliza- 
tion in  tJie  Vegetable  Kingdo7n(lS'7 6);  Different  Forins  of  Flow- 
ers in  Plants  of  the  same  Species  (1877);  The  Poicer  of  Move- 
ment in  Plants  (1880),  a  work  ia  which  it  was  proved  that 
every  growing  part  of  every  plant  is  always  moving  round 
or  '  circumDutating,'  as  D.  calls  it;  The  Formation  of  Vegeta- 
ble Mold  through  the  Action  of  Worms  (1881).  The  latter 
work,  which  excited  great  popular  interest,  showed  that  a 
part  of  the  mold  which  covers  the  globe  is  the  work  of  earth- 
worms, having  been  voided  by  them  as  worm-castings.  D.'s 
caution  in  statement  was  very  noticeable:  it  has  not  been 
imitated  by  all  his  followers.  He  received  many  high  dis- 
tinctions, such  as  the  Prussian  order  Pour  le  Merite  (1871), 
degrees  from  Ley  den  and  Cambridge,  and  the  membership 
of  the  French  Acad.  (1878).  His  death  called  forth  univer- 
sal expressions  of  respect,  and  he  was  buried  in  Westmins- 
ter Abbey. 

DAR  WIN,  Erasmus,  m.d.  :  1731,  Dec.  13  -1802,  Apr.l8; 
b.  Elton,  near  Newark,  Nottinghamshire,  England:  physi- 
cian, natural  philosopher,  and  didactic  poet.  He  studied  first 
at  Cambridge,  afterward  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  took  his  de- 
gree; and  settled  in  Derby,  where  he  died.  D.  had  formerly 
great  reputation  as  a  physiologist,  but  his  system  is,  for  the 
most  part,  inconsequential,  baseless,  and  untenable.  Yet 
many  of  his  ideas  are  original,  suggestible,  and  contain  germs 
of  important  truths.  His  strength  and  his  weakness  lay  in 
his  faculty  for  seeing  analogies  in  nature.  Sometimes  he  is 
exceedingly  happy  in  his  discoveries ;  at  other  times 
quite  fantastical.  The  same  is  the  case  with  his  verse, where, 
amid  the  frequent  extravagance  and  incomprehensibility  of 
his  notions,  there  burst  forth  strains  of  genuine  poetry.  In- 
terest in  his  speculations  has  been  revived  by  the  recognition 
of  his  partial  anticipation  of  Lamarck's  views  on  evolution, 
and  so  of  the  views  of  his  own  famous  grandson.  D.'s  chief 
works  are  Botanic  Garden,  in  verse  (1781);  Zoonomia,  or  the 
Laws  of  Organic  Life  (1793);  Phytologia,  or  Philosophy  of  Agri- 
culture (1800).  See  Krause's  Life  of  Erasmus  Darwin,  trans, 
by  Dallas  (1879). 

580 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

DARWINIAN  THEORY,  ddr-wln'i-dn:  theory  of  the 
origin  of  species,  set  forth  by  Charles  Darwin,  1859;  called 
sometimes  the  theory  of  development,  or  the  evolutionary  hy- 
pothesis. Before  presenting  the  theory  of  Evolution  of 
Plants  and  Animals  by  Natural  Selection,  as  promulgated  by 
Charles  Darwin  (q.v.),  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  scope 
and  aim  of  biological  science;  also,  the  influence  exerted 
upon  biology  by  the  progress  of  other  departments  of  knowl- 
edge. 

1.  Nature  of  Biology. — The  primary  labors  of  the  botan- 
ist and  zoologist  are  to  collect  and  preserve,  to  describe  and 
figure  the  innumerable  and  varied  forms  occurring  in  nature; 
in  this  task,  therefore,  naturalists  have  been  occupied  since 
the  earliest  times.  The  increase  of  such  knowledge  neces- 
sitated the  attempt  at  oi  dcrly  arrangement  and  intelligible 
cataloguing — problems  solved  by  Linnseus,  whose  8y sterna 
Naturce  first  satisfactorily  organized  the  natural  history 
sciences. 

The  detailed  study  of  internal  structure,  as  well  as  of  ex- 
ternal form,  commencted  by  Hunter  and  Haller,  was  enor- 
mously extended  by  Cuvier  (q.v.),  whose  labors  resulted  in  the 
conception  that  the  multitudinous  forms  of  animal  life  were 
all  organized  upon  a  few  distinct  plans,  of  which  he  defined 
the  vertebrate,  molluscan,  articulate,  and  radiate;  w^bile 
Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  and  Goethe  were  principally  instru- 
mental in  introducing  the  idea  of  homology  (see  Meta- 
morphosis). But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  analyse  the  organism 
into  its  constituent  organs,  and  to  describe  and  compare 
these;  we  must  inquire  into  their  minute  structure.  These 
organs  were  analyzed  into  tissues  by  Bichat,  and  these  again 
into  their  component  protoplasmic  \xmX^— cells — by  Schleiden 
and  Schwann,  and  thus  anatomy  acquired  the  subordinate 
province  of  Histology.  Finally,  the  mode  of  origin  of  the 
adult  organism  from  the  germ  or  egg  comes  to  be  investi- 
gated, and  after  thus  adding  to  our  previous  knowledge  that 
of  Embryology,  we  are  in  a  position  to  complete  our  summary 
of  the  structural  aspects  of  an  organism  by  defining  its  rela- 
tion to  its  fellows— in  other  words,  by  fixing  its  position  in 
the  natural  system  of  classification.  These  subjects  of  anat- 
omy, histology,  embryology,  and  Taxonomy  or  classification 
constitute  the  science  of  Morphology. 

But  an  organism  has  }et  other  aspects,  functional  as  well 
as  structural,  dynamical  as  well  as  statical ;  its  organs  have 
activities,  and  for  the  study  of  these,  a  new  department  of 
biology  must  be  con^iiiniedi— Physiology,  which  (though,  by 
reason  of  the  urgent  needs  of  the  practitioner  and  the  student 
of  medicine,  as  yet  mainly  concentrated  upon  the  study  of 
the  functions  of  the  human  body)  has  a  field  co  extensive 
with  morphology. 

To  the  consideration  of  tlie  forms  and  the  activities  of 
organisms,  a  new  line  of  inquiry  has  been  much  more  re- 
cently added,  that  referring  to  the  position  in  time  and  space 
in  which  the  organism  occurs,  and  the  answer  to  this  comes 
under  a  new  head,  that  of  Distribution,  chronological  (ge- 
ological) or  geographical,  as  the  case  may  be. 

These  three  great  divisions  of  biological  knowledge,  mor- 

8S1 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

phological,  physiological,  and  distributional,  being  consti- 
tuted, the  questions  ichat,  ho  to,  and  where  being  approximate- 
ly answered  (and  since  the  search  for  final  causes — for  the 
why — is  outside  the  field  of  merely  physical  science),  only 
one  more  possible  inquiry  remains — namely,  lohence  these 
organisms,  with  their  particular  structures,  functions  and 
positions  in  space  and  time  ?  In  other  words,  how  did  all 
these  phenomena  arise— what  is  their  origin  or  JEtiologyf 

The  necessity  for  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  plants  and 
animals  thus  coming  to  be  felt,  only  two  hypotheses  present 
themselves  since  the  suggestion  that  they  may  have  existed 
•  in  their  present  state  from  infinite  time,  is  not  only  incapa- 
ble of  support  by  positive  evidence,  but  absolutely  nega- 
tived by  geology.  The  first  and  historically  earlier  hypo- 
thesis is  that  of  Special  Creation,  which  assumes  the  sudden 
origin  of  the  existing  species,  without  reference  to  previous- 
ly existing  species,  by  the  intervention  of  supernatural 
causes;  the  second  is  that  of  Evolution,  and  assumes  the 
gradual  origin  of  the  existing  species  from  pre-existing  spe- 
cies by  ordinary  descent,  w^ith  modification  by  the  action  of 
natural  causes.  Reflection  will  show  (1)  that  the  idea  of 
cause,  though  presented  in  different  forms  by  the  two  rival 
hypotheses,  and  at  different  degrees  of  remoteness,  is  not 
excluded  by  one  more  than  by  the  other;  and  (2)  that  just  as 
the  hypothesis  of  the  original  of  solar  and  stellar  systems 
from  nebuloe  is  considered  on  its  own  merits,  without  con- 
fusion with  any  hypotheses  which  may  subsequently  arise 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  nebulae  themselves,  so  we  must  sepa- 
rate the  inquiry  as  to  the  origin  of  species,  with  w^hich  alone 
the  Darwinian  theory  is  concerned,  from  all  subsequent 
hypotheses  as  to  the  origin  or  the  nature  of  life  (see  Life: 
Generation,  Spontaneous),  thus  keeping  clear  of  the 
misunderstandings  and  misrepresentations  with  which  the 
subject  has  too  frequently  been  encumbered. 

First  in  order,  therefore,  the  argument  for  and  against 
the  theory  of  the  origin  of  species  by  special  creation  de- 
mands our  examination,  of  course  on  scientific  grounds 
alone.  From  the  naturalist's  point  of  view,  it  is  urged  that 
not  only  is  no  scientific  evidence  for  special  creation  forth- 
coming, but  that  the  theory  fails  to  explain  the  existing 
facts,  much  less  to  act  as  an  instrument  of  research;  while 
on  philosophical  grounds,  it  is  objected  that  it  tends  to  ex- 
clude scientific  explanations  of  existing  facts,  and  stands  dis- 
credited a  priori  as  the  last  survivor  of  a  series  of  universally 
diffused  pre-scientific  beliefs  in  the  irregular  and  arbitrary 
occurrence  of  phenomena,  and  so  is  destitute  of  support 
from  analogy;  that  it  neither  satisfies  the  intellectual  w^ants, 
nor  meets  the  moral  difiiculties  of  the  explanation  of  nature; 
and,  that  it  is  a  purely  verbal  hypothesis,  incapable  of  any 
definite  representation  in  thought.  Passing  to  the  second 
theory,  we  find  it  strongly  urged  in  the  first  place,  that  not 
only  is  much  evidence  forthcoming,  but  that  it  does  plaus- 
ibly explain  the  known  facts,  and  is  even  serviceable  in  the 
search  for  new  ones;  that  it  belongs  to  that  class  of  explana- 
tions in  terms  of  the  natural  order  of  things  which  have  now 
superseded  the  system  of  catastrophic  and  contra-natural 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

hypotheses  in  every  other  field  of  knowledge;  that  it  is  capa- 
ble of  clear  representation  in  thought;  and  that  it  satsifies 
not  merely  the  intellectual  wants,  bui  meets  the  moral  dith- 
culties.  For  fuii  development  on  the  naturalist's  side  of 
this  most  general  form  of  the  discussion,  see  Spencer's 
Principles  of  Biology,  vol.  i. 

2.  inflaeme  on  Biology  of  Progress  in  other  Sciences. — The 
enormous  progress  of  every  department  of  knowledge  dur- 
ing the  past  few  generations  has  lain  not  merely,  as  is  com- 
monly supposed,  in  ever-increasing  minuteness  of  specializa 
tion  upon  ever-multiplying  details,  but  rather  in  the 
concentration  of  innumerable  previously  unrelated  pheno-  * 
mena  into  few  groups,  and  of  these  again  into  fewer; 
through  the  construction  of  far-reaching  hypotheses,  which 
(as  is  claimed),  surviving  and  satisfying  scrutiny  and  criticism, 
observation  and  experiment,  have  passed  through  stages  of 
possibility  and  likelihood,  to  that  of  overwhelrhing  (or  as  it 
is  claimed  practically  infinite),  probability,  and  are  then 
termed  generalizations,  or  more  figuratively,  laws.  A  rich 
harvest  of  such  general  conceptions  has  becu  garnered  by 
astronomy,  and  such  successive  labors  as  those  of  Coperni- 
cus, Kepler,  and  Newton,  in  widening  our  knowledge  of 
the  universe,  have  widened  not  a  little  the  theoretic  range 
and  grasp  of  the  scientific  intellect.  And  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  mind,  first,  that  each  of  these  advances  consisted, 
as  every  such  advance  must  do,  first,  in  the  employment 
of  a  promising  though  yet  unverified  scientific  hypothesis; 
afterward  in  the  substitution  of  that  hypothesis  when  finally 
verified,  for  a  provisional,  though  time-honored  explanation, 
in  terms  of  the  mysterious  and  supernatural;  and,  secondly, 
that  a  theory  of  the  evolution  of  solar  and  stellar  systems 
(see  Nebular  Hypothesis)  is  largely  maintained  by  modern 
astronomers.  Thus  the  naturalist's  claim  is  that  his  hy- 
pothesis of  the  evolution  of  plants  and  animals  by  natural 
selection,  takes  equal  rank  for  evidence  with  the  law  of 
gravitation,  and  similar  modern  discoveries — a  claim  not 
conceded  by  his  opponents,  nor  even  by  many  who  concede 
that  a  general  probability  pertaining  to  one  or  another  theory 
of  evolution. 

In  chemistry,  such  conceptions  as  those  of  molecular 
constitution,  and  of  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  of  the 
similarity  in  composition  of  our  planet  with  sun  and  stars, 
and  of  the  intimate  relation  between  inorganic  and  organic 
compounds,  are  highly  instructive;  while  the  actually  ob- 
served genesis  of  many  species  of  minerals  by  the  action  of 
natural  causes,  and  the  frequent  transmutation  of  one  species 
into  another,  when  some  definite  change  takes  place  in  the 
surrounding  conditions,  are  not  without  interest.  More- 
over, to  the  theory  of  the  conservation  of  energy  (see  Force) 
unifying  as  it  has  done,  not  only  all  the  physical  sciences, 
but  these  with  physiology,  a  far  vaster  influence  upon 
biology  is  due. 

But  the  most  important  of  all  influences  on  the  organic 
sciences  has  come  from  geology.  The  discovery  that  our 
earth  dates  from  an  almost  incalculably  remote  antiquity, 
together  with  the  establishment  as  the  fundamental  axiom 

533 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

of  the  science  that  the  preseut  is  the  key  to  the  past,  and 
whence  is  drawn  the  inference,  that  tiie  present  pheno- 
mena of  the  earth's  crust  do  not  in  large  degree  result  from 
catastrophe  and  deluge,  still  less  from  special  creation,  but 
are  in  great  measure  the  product  of  a  slow  and  progressive 
evolution  (by  natural  causes  still  in  operation)  from  a  widely 
dilferent  previously  existing  state  of  things,  furnish  the 
evolutionist  with  the  most  primary  of  his  data.  To  the  es- 
tablishment of  this  new  theoiy  of  geologic  evolution,  revo 
lutionary  yet  unif ormitarian,  of  which  the  theoiy  of  organic 
evolution  is  but  the  complement  and  corollary,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  after  Hutton  and  Lyell,  perhaps  no  more 
important  service  has  been  rendered  by  any  geological 
works  than  by  the  ^me^  {Geological  Obsermtions,  1844;  Coral 
Reefs,  1842;  Earthworms,  1881;  and  the  essay  on  the  Imper- 
fection of  the  Geological  Record,  summarized  below),  which 
we  owe  to  Darwin. 

Nor  is  it  only  the  preliminary  sciences  which  have  in- 
fluenced biologists,  and  have  aided  them  in  their  inquiries 
as  to  the  origin  of  their  set  of  phenomena.  The  human 
and  social  sciences — psychology  and  philology,  anthropol- 
ogy and  history,  have  all  contributed  their  oetiological 
example  and  results,  so  that  it  might  almost  be  debated 
whether  the  biological  evolutionist  has  not  been  more  in- 
debted to  all  the  other  sciences  for  his  theory,  than  they  to 
him  for  theirs. 

Origin  of  the  Idea  of  Evolution  in  Biology. — No  doubt 
largely  intluenced  by  such  as  existed  of  the  scientific  con- 
ceptions outlined  above,  as  well  as  by  the  Cartesian  doctrine, 
that  the  universe  is  a  mechanism,  and  is  therefore  to  be 
explained  on  mechanical  principles,  the  evolutionary  hy- 
pothesis made  its  first  distinct  appearance  in  the  work  of 
De  Maillet  {Telliamed,  written  1735,  published  1758),  and 
was  expounded  in  more  or  less  varying  form  by  more  than 
30  writers  before  Darwin,  among  whom  the  most  notable 
were  Erasmus  Darwin,  Goethe,  Lamarck,  and  Geoffroy  St. 
Hilaire.  Their  hypotheses,  although  based  on  masses  of 
biological  evidence  drawn  from  homologies  and  rudimen- 
tary organs,  from  classification  and  development,  from 
geological  and  geographical  distribution,  and  so  on,  never 
succeeded  in  gaining  general  acceptance  among  naturalists 
— a  failure  which  has  been  attributed  to  established  preju- 
dice, aided  as  it  was  by  the  authority  of  Cuvier.  Yet, 
while  rendering  it  extremely  probable  that  modification 
had  occurred,  they  all  came  short,  as  Darwin  has  pointed 
out,  in  one  most  important  particular,  that  of  showing  how 
the  modification  of  one  species  from  another  could  take 
place,  *  so  as  to  acquire  that  perfection  of  structure  and  co- 
adaptation  which  justly  excites  our  admiration;  '  since  the 
hypotheses  of  the  potency  of  external  conditions,  of  habit, 
or  of  the  volition  of  the  organism  itself,  alike  successively 
broke  down. 

Darwin,  in  his  turn,  struck  especially  by  the  distribu- 
tional phenomena  he  witnessed  during  his  'Naturalists' 
Voyage, '  devoted  himself  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of 
the  origin  of  species,  specially  concentrating  his  efforts 

534 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

upon  this  weakest  point  of  the  preceding  theories.  After 
21  years'  continuous  work,  he  was  compelled,  on  receiving 
a  paper  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace  (then  exploring  the  Malay 
Archipelago),  in  which  views  identical  with  his  own  were 
expressed,  to  proceed  to  the  publication  of  his  results,  first 
in  brief  outline  {Jouni.  Linn.  Soc,  1858),  and  the  follow- 
ing year  in  that  fuller  abstract,  TJie  Origin  of  Species  by 
ineans  of  Natural  Selection,  which  may  now  be  briefly 
summarized,  so  far  as  further  compression  of  such  '  intel- 
lectual peramican '  is  possible.  For  details  and  explana- 
tions, see  the  original  work  (sixth  ed.  1875). 

Outline  of  '  Oiigin  of  Species.' — In  order  to  gain  insight 
into  the  means  of  modification,  Darwin  commences  with 
a  study  of  the  variation  of  plants  and  animals  under  do- 
mestication (later  expanded  into  a  separate  w^ork;  second 
ed.  1870). 

Variation  and  Heredity. — While  all  plants  and  animals 
exhibit  some  degree  of  variation,  this  is  greatest  among 
domesticated  species,  owing  to  theii-  new  and  less  uniform 
conditions  of  life.  These  may  act  directly  on  the  whole 
organization,  or  on  separate  parts,  and  the  variation, 
though  rarely,  is  sometimes  definite,  as  when  size  in- 
creases with  quantity  of  food,  or  color  changes  with  its 
quality;  or  the  conditions  may  act  indirectly  by  influenc- 
ing the  reproductive  system,  which  is  peculiarly  sensitive. 
Changed  habits  produce  an  inherited  effect,  e.g.,  the  leg- 
bones  of  the  common  duck  weigh  proportionately  more, 
and  its  wing-bones  less,  than  in  the  wild  variety,  because 
it  flies  less  and  walks  more.  So,  too,  tame  mammals  ac- 
quire drooping  ears,  since  these  are  rarely  pricked  in 
alarm.  One  variation  is  usually  correlated  with  others, 
thus  long-beaked  pigeons  have  small  feet,  and  conversely. 
All  variations  tend  to  be  inherited.  The  popular  belief 
that  domestic  races  revert  to  the  aboriginal  stock  is  unsup- 
ported by  facts. 

Save  that  domestic  varieties  are  less  uniform  than  wild 
species,  often  differ  more  widely  in  some  single  part,  and 
are  fertile  when  crossed,  there  is  no  well-marked  distinc- 
tion between  these  and  so-called  true  species.  If,  there- 
fore, such  varieties  as  of  the  dog  can  be  shown  to  be  de- 
scended from  a  single  wild  species,  there  necessarily  arises 
great  doubt  as  to  immutability  of  closely  allied  natural 
species,  such  as  the  foxes.  While  the  many  breeds  of  dog 
appear  to  have  arisen  from  several  wald  species,  and  those 
of  cattle  also  from  two  or  three,  fowls,  ducks,  rabbits,  etc., 
all  certainly  arise  from  a  single  ancestral  species.  The 
case  of  pigeons  is  of  peculiar  importance,  since  pouter, 
carrier,  fantail,  and  tumbler  differ  so  thoroughly,  exter- 
nally and  internally,  that  any  ornithologist  w^ould  be  com- 
pelled to  assign  to  them,  not  merely  specific  but  generic 
distinctness,  if  he  had  discovered  them  in  the  w^ild  state. 
There  is  at  least  as  much  difficulty  in  believing  that  such 
breeds  can  have  proceeded  from  a  common  ancestor,  as 
in  the  case  of  any  group  of  birds  in  nature;  and  every 
breeder  of  these  and  other  domestic  animals  has  been 
firmly  convinced  of  their  descent  from  distinct  species. 

635 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

Yet  these  are  proved  to  arise  from  the  common  rock-dove 
{Columha  lwia)(see  Columbid^),  and  thus  those  who  admit 
the  unity  of  domestic  races  should  he  cautious  in  deriding 
the  unity  of  wild  ones. 

Domestic  races  all  exhibit  adaptations  to  man's  use  or 
fancy,  rather  than  their  own  good.  The  key  to  this  is 
man's  power  of  selection;  nature  gives  successive  varia- 
tions, man  accumulates  them,  so  making  for  himself  use- 
ful breeds,  and  often  (e.g.,  sheep,  cattle,  roses,  dahlias) 
profoundly  modifying  their  character  even  in  a  single  life- 
time; so  that  in  all  characters  to  which  he  attends,  they 
may  differ  more  than  the  distinct  species  of  the  same  gen- 
era. Again,  more  even  than  conscious,  that  unconscious 
selection  which  results  from  every  one  trying  to  possess 
and  breed  the  best  animals,  is  important.  Two  tiocks  of 
Leicester  sheep,  equally  kept  pure,  appeared  of  quite  dif- 
ferent varieties  after  50  years.  Such  slowly  accumulated 
change  explains  why  we  know  so  little  of  the  origin  of  do- 
mestic races;  and  its  absence  in  regions  inhabited  by  un- 
civilized man,  explains  why  these  yield  no  plants  worth 
immediate  culture.  Human  selection  is  facilitated  by  the 
keeping  of  large  numbers,  since  variations  will  be  more 
frequent,  and  by  preventing  crosses;  some  species  vary, 
however,  more  than  others. 

Variation  under  Nature. — All  like  organisms  in  nature 
present  individual  ditfereuces,  more  considerable  than  is 
usually  supposed;  no  two  blades  of  grass  are  alike,  and  far 
more  marked  differences  often  occur,  several  castes  or 
varieties  sometimes  existing  in  the  same  sex.  Between  these 
castes,  and  much  more  frequently  between  forms  which 
systematic  botanists  and  zoologists  rank  as  true  species, 
perfectly  intermediate  forms  may  occur.  No  agreement 
about  the  detinition  of  species  (the  amount  of  difference 
necessary  to  give  any  two  forms  specific  rank)  has  ever 
been  come  to;  thus,  in  the  British  flora  alone,  there  are 
nearly  two  hundred  disputed  forms,  and  individual  opin- 
ion is  in  these  cases  the  only  criterion.  As  long  as  a  genus 
is  imperfectly  known,  and  its  species  founded  upon  few 
specimens,  they  appear  clearly  limited.  But  with  better 
knowledge,  intermediate  forms  flow  in,  and  doubts  as  to 
specific  limits  augment.  The  terms  species  and  variety  are 
thus  arbitrarily  given  to  sets  of  individuals  more  or  less  close- 
ly resembling  each  other.  See  Variety:  Species:  Genus. 

Individual  differences  are  thus  of  the  highest  importance, 
as  the  first  steps  toward  the  slightest  varieties  worth  record- 
ing, these  toward  more  distinct  and  permanent  varieties, 
and  these  again  toward  sub-species,  and  these  to  species; 
though  extinction  may  often  stop  the  progress. 

The  species  which  present  most  varieties  are  those  which 
have  the  greatest  geographical  range,  or  the  widest  diffu- 
sion in  their  own  territory,  or  possess  the  greatest  number 
of  individuals;  and  in  the  larger  genera  of  each  country 
the  species  vary  more  frequently  than  in  the  smaller  gen- 
era; and  in  many  respects  the  species  of  large  genera  pre- 
sent a  strong  analogy  with  varieties,  which  analogy  is  alone 
intelligible  on  the  view  that  they  once  existed  as  such. 
5a<> 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

Struggle  for  Existence— M\  organic  beings  tend  to  in- 
crease with  extreme  rapidity,  so  that  if  not  destroyed,  the 
earth  would  soon  be  covered  by  the  progeny  of  a  single 
pair.  This  is  evidenced  not  merely  by  calculation,  but  by 
actual  observation  of  the  extraordinary  rapidity  with 
which  plants  and  animals  have  spread,  when  introduced 
into  new  and  favorable  circumstances. 

Since  organisms  then  are  reproducing  themselves  so  rap- 
idly, and  since  all  their  offspring  cannot  escape  their  ene- 
mies, get  food,  and  live,  much  less  leave  progeny  in  turn, 
— since,  in  other  words,  the  doctrine  of  Malthus  applies  to 
animals  and  plants  with  manifold  force  (for  these  can  have 
no  artificial  increase  of  food,  and  no  prudential  restraints 
on  marriage, — there  must  in  every  case  be  a  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, either  of  one  individual  with  another  of  the  same 
species,  or  with  the  individuals  of  distinct  species,  or  with 
the  physical  conditions  of  life;  often,  indeed,  with  all 
these  at  once,  and  that  more  or  less  intensely  through  the 
whole  of  life. 

The  checks  to  increase  are  most  obscure,  and  vary  in 
each  case.  In  all  cases  the  amount  of  food,  of  course, 
gives  the  extreme  limit.  The  youngest  organisms  gener- 
ally sutler  most;  seedlings,  for  instance,  are  destroyed  in 
vast  numbers,  thus,  even  in  a  patch  of  ground  purposely 
dug  and  cleared,  where  no  choking  from  other  plants  could 
take  place,  295  out  of  357  seedling-weeds  were  destroyed, 
chietly  by  slugs  and  insects.  So,  too,  the  stock  of  game 
on  an  estate  depends  chiefly  on  the  destruction  of  vermin. 
Climate  also  is  highly  important,  and  periodic  seasons  of 
extreme  cold  and  drought  seem  the  most  effective  of  all 
checks — a  severe  winter  sometimes  destroying  four-fifths 
or  more  of  the  birds  of  a  locality.  Epidemics,  too,  may 
occur,  especially  where  numbers  have  inordinately  in- 
creased. On  the  other  hand,  a  large  stock  of  individuals  of 
the  same  species  is  essential  for  its  preservation. 

The  complex  relations  of  all  animals  and  plants  to  each 
other  require  illustration.  The  plantation  of  part  of  a  heath 
with  Scotch  fir  leads  to  the  profound  alteration  of  its  flora 
and  fauna,  while  the  growth  of  these  firs  again  is  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  exclusion  of  cattle.  Many  flowers 
depend  for  fertilization  on  the  visit  of  a  special  insect,  e.g., 
red  clover  on  humble-bees.  But  bees  are  destroyed  by 
field-mice,  and  consequently  protected  by  cats;  hence,  not 
only  no  bees,  no  clover,  but  also  the  more  cats,  the  more 
clover  !  The  struggle  for  life  is  most  severe  between  in- 
dividuals and  varieties  of  the  same  species,  and  between  the 
species  of  the  same  genus,  since  these  tend  to  fill  the  same 
place  in  the  economy  of  nature;  hence  we  see  the  brown 
rat  supplanting  the  black,  and  the  hive-bee  supplanting  its 
Australian  congener.  The  structure  of  every  being  is  re- 
lated to  that  of  the  others  with  which  it  competes,  or  from 
which  it  seeks  to  escape,  or  on  wdiich  it  preys;  as  is  alike 
evident  in  the  structure  of  the  tiger,  and  of  the  parasite 
which  clings  to  his  hair.  So,  too,  the  albumen  of  a  seed 
is  useful  chiefly  in  favoring  the  young  plant's  struggle  for 
light  and  air  against  the  adult  plants  around. 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

Natural  Selection. — But  how  will  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence act  with  regard  to  variation  ?  Can  the  principle  of 
selection,  so  potent  in  the  hands  of  man,  apply  under  na- 
ture? Most  efficiently  so.  Let  us  bear  in  mind  (1)  the 
constant  occurrence  of  variation ;  (2)  t  he  infinite  complexity 
of  the  relations  in  which  organisms  stand  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  physical  conditions  of  life;  and  consequently  (8) 
what  infinitely  varied  diversities  of  structure  might  be  use- 
ful to  each  being  under  changing  conditions  of  life.  Can 
it  then  be  thought  improbable  (whatever  may  be  said  as  to 
its  actual  occurrence)  seeing  that  variations  useful  to  man 
have  undoubtedly  occurred,  that  other  variations  useful  in 
some  way  to  each  being  in  the  great  and  complex  battle  of 
life,  should  also  occur  in  the  course  of  many  generations  ? 
And  if  such  do  occur,  can  we  doubt  (remembering  that 
many  more  individuals  are  born  than  can  possibly  survive) 
that  individuals  having  any  advantage,  however  slight, 
would  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  and  of  procreating 
their  kind,  while  injurious  variations  would  be  destroyed? 
This  preservation  of  favorable  variations,  and  destruction 
of  injurious  ones,  is  termed  Natural  Selection,  or,  less  fig- 
uratively, the  Survival  of  the  Fittest. 

Taking  the  case  of  a  country  undergoing  a  change  of 
climate,  the  proportional  numbers  of  its  inhabitants  would 
change,  some  species  probably  also  becoming  extinct — and 
these  changes  would  in  many  ways  affect  the  survivors.  A 
further  disturbance  would  come  from  the  immigration  of 
new  forms;  or,  if  that  were  prevented,  we  should  have 
places  in  the  economy  of  nature  which  might  be  better 
tilled  up.  Any  slight  favorable  modification  of  the  old 
species  would  tend  to  be  preserved,  and  we  have  seen  that 
changed  conditions  increase  variability. 

Nor  are  such  changes,  often  though  they  have  occurred, 
necessary  in  order  to  leave  places  for  natural  selection  to 
fill  by  improving  some  of  the  varying  forms.  No  country 
can  be  named  where  the  native  inhabitants  are  perfectly 
adapted  to  their  conditions  and  competitors,  for  as  some 
foreigners  have  taken  firm  possession  in  every  country,  we 
may  safely  conclude  that  the  natives  might  have  been  mod- 
ified with  advantage  to  resist  them. 

And  when  human  selection  has  produced  such  great  re- 
sults, why  may  not  natural?  The  former  acts  only  for 
man's  own  good,  on  mere  external  and  visible  characters, 
and  irregularly  thoughout  a  short  period;  the  latter  acts  for 
the  good  of  the  being  itself,  on  the  whole  machinery  of  its 
life,  and  incessantly  throughout  almost  infinite  time.  (It 
is  important  here  to  remember  that  the  objection  to  this 
agency  on  the  ground  of  its  presumed  insignificance  is 
identical  with  that  so  long  and  unsuccessfully  employed 
against  Ly ell's  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  physical 
features  of  the  globe  by  summing  up  the  existing  natural 
changes.) 

Natural  selection  thus  leads  to  the  improvement  of  each 
creature  in  relation  to  its  organic  and  inorganic  conditions 
of  life,  and  consequently  in  most  cases  to  what  must  be  re- 
garded as  an  advance  in*^  organization.    Nevertheless,  low 
m 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

and  simple  forms  will  long  endure,  if  well  fitted  for  their 
simple  conditions. 

Natural  selection  may  modify  the  egg,  seed,  or  young, 
as  easily  as  the  adult,  and  these  modihcations  may  eli'ect 
through  correlation  the  structure  of  the  latter,  and  con- 
versely. 

Besides  Natural,  we  have  to  consider  Sexual  Selection, 
i.e.,  not  merely  do  individuals  struggle  for  existence,  but 
the  males  struggle  for  the  females,  and  the  most  vigorous 
thus  tend  to  leave  most  progeny.  Special  weapons,  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  like  the  cock's  spurs,  the  stag's  horns, 
or  the  lion's  mane,  are  used  iu  this  struggle,  and  the  most 
useful  variations  are  thus  those  which  are  transmitted. 
Again,  as  man  can  in  a  short  time  give  beauty  to  his 
domestic  birds,  so  there  is  no  good  reason  to  doubt  that 
female  birds  in  thousands  of  generations,  by  selecting,  as 
they  are  observed  to  do,  the  most  melodious  or  beautiful 
males,  might  produce  a  marked  etfect,  and  many  sexual 
differences  are  thus  explained. 

The  theory  of  natural  selection  may  be  applied  in  special 
cases,  e.g.,  (1)  to  explain  the  evolution  of  swift  greyhound- 
like varieties  of  wolves;  (2)  the  origin  and  the  excretion  of 
nectar  in  flowers,  its  use  to  insects,  and  their  action  in 
transferring  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  and  its  advantage 
in  intercrossing;  and  the  resultant  modification  and  adap- 
tation of  flower  and  insect  to  each  other  by  the  preservation 
of  advantageous  variations. 

The  circumstances  favorable  to  the  production  of  new 
forms  through  natural  selection  are  also  reviewed.  These 
are  chiefly,  great  variability,  large  numbers  of  individuals; 
the  complex  effects  of  intercro  sing;  isolation  in  small  areas, 
yet  also  extension  over  continental  ones,  especially  if  these 
oscillate  in  level;  and  considerable  lapse  of  time.  Rare 
species  are  shown  to  be  in  process  of  extinction.  The  di- 
mrgence  of  character  in  domestic  breeds,  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  '  fanciers  do  not,  and  will  not,  admire  a  medium 
standard,  but  like  extremes,'  applies  throughout  nature, 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  more  diversified  the  descen- 
dants from  any  one  species  become  in  structure,  constitu- 
tion, and  habits,  by  so  much  will  they  be  better  enabled  to 
seize  on  many  and  widely  diversified  places  in  nature,  and 
so  to  increase  in  numbers.  Thus,  taking  a  carnivorous  ani- 
mal, which  has  reached  the  average  numbers  which  its  ter- 
ritory will  support,  it  is  evident  that  it  can  succeed  in  in- 
creasing only  by  its  varying  descendants  seizing  places  hith- 
erto occupied  by  other  animals,  thus  changing  their  food  or 
habitat.  This  must  hold  equally  of  all  species,  and  is  sep- 
arately demonstrated  for  plants.  The  greatest  amount  of 
life  can  be  supported  by  great  diversification  of  structure; 
hence,  in  small  areas  where  competition  is  severe,  the  in- 
habitants are  extremely  varied. 

The  probable  effects  of  the  action  of  Natural  Selection, 
through  divergence  of  character  and  extinction,  on  the 
descendants  of  a  common  ancestor  are  then  discussed  in 
detail  with  an  illustrative  diagram.  This  takes  the  form  of 
a  genealogic-al  tree  — *  the  great  tree  of  life,  which  fills  with 

531 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

its  dead  and  broken  branches  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and 
covers  the  surface  with  its  ever-branching  and  beautiful 
ramilications  ' 

Laws  of  Vanation. — The  following  is  a  very  brief  sum- 
mary. Of  the  cause  of  most  variations  we  are  still  ignorant, 
but  the  same  laws  appear  to  have  acted  in  producing  the 
lesser  differences  between  varieties  of  the  same  species,  and 
the  greater  differences  between  species  of  the  same  genus. 
Changed  conditions  sometimes  induce  delinite  and  per- 
manent effects  :  habit,  use,  and  disuse  are  potent  in  their 
effects.  Specific  characters  are  more  variable  than  generic, 
and  varietal  than  either.  Rudimentary  organs  and  secon- 
dary sexual  characters  are  highly  variable.  Species  closely 
related,  of  similar  constitution  and  similarly  intluenced, 
present  analogous  variations,  and  frequently  exhibit  char- 
acters which  can  be  explained  only  as  reversions  to  those 
of  their  ancient  progenitors  ;  e.g.,  zebra-like  stripes  on 
horses,  or  wood -pigeon's  markings  on  fantails,  tumblers, 
etc. 

BificuUies  and  Objections. — In  four  chapters  all  the  mis- 
cellaneous objections  raised  against  the  theory  between 
1859,  and  the  appearance  of  the  latest  edition,  are  succes- 
sively stated,  weighed,  discussed,  and  met  as  well  as  the 
more  serious  difficulties  pointed  out  b}^  DarAvin  himself. 
These  latter  are,  (1)  the  detiniteness  of  species  and  the 
rarity  of  transitional  forms  ;  (2)  the  enormous  degree  of 
modification  in  habits  and  structure  which  the  theory  as- 
sumes, and  the  power  of  Natural  Selection  to  produce  on 
the  one  hand  an  organ  of  such  trifling  importance  as  the 
tail  of  a  giraffe,  and  on  the  other,  an  organ  so  wonderful 
as  the  eye  ;  (3)  the  acquirement  and  modification  by  Natural 
Selection  of  such  marvellous  instincts  as  those  of  the  bee  ; 
(4)  the  sterility  of  crossed  species,  and  the  fertility  of 
crossed  varieties.  For  these  discussions,  see  the  original 
work. 

Imperfection  of  the  Geological  Recm^d. — On  the  doctrine  of 
the  extermination  of  an  enormous  number  of  intermediate 
varieties,  the  links  between  existing  and  remote  ancestral 
forms — why  is  not  every  geological  formation  charged  with 
such  links  ?  Why  does  not  every  collection  of  fossils 
afford  plain  evidence  of  the  gradation  and  mutation  of  the 
forms  of  life  ?  Geology,  assuredly,  does  not  reveal  any 
such  finely  graduated  organic  chain,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
most  obvious  and  plausible  objections  to  the  theory.  The 
explanation  offered  lies  in  the  extreme — the  almost  in- 
credible— imperfection  of  the  geological  record.  Only  a 
small  portion  of  the  globe  has  been  geologically  explored 
with  care,  only  certain  classes  of  beings  have  been  fossil- 
ized, and  the  number,  both  of  specimens  and  species  yet 
discovered,  is  absolutely  as  nothing  compared  with  the 
number  which  must  have  passed  away  during  even  a  single 
formation.  The  Malay  Archipelago  is  about  the  size  of 
Europe,  and,  therefore,  equals  in  area  the  formations  best 
known  to  us  ;  its  present  condition  represents  that  of 
Europe,  while  its  strata  were  being  deposited  ;  its  fauna  and 
flora  are  among  the  richest  on  the  globe,  yet,  even  if  all  the 

140 


DARAVINIAN  THEORY. 

species  were  to  be  collected  which  ever  lived  there,  how 
imperfectly  would  they  represent  the  natural  history  of  the 
world  !  Only  few  of  these  are  preserved  at  all,  and  most 
of  these  in  an  imperfect  ma^nner  ;  moreover,  subsidence 
being  almost  necessary  for  the  accumulation  of  rich  de- 
posits, great  iotervals  of  time  must  have  elapsed  between 
successive  formations,  so  that,  during  periods  of  elevation, 
when  variation  would  be  most  frequent, the  record  is  least 
perfect.  Moreover,  single  formations  have  not  been  con- 
tinuously deposited  ;  the  duration  of  specific  forms  prob- 
ably exceeds  that  of  each  formation  ;  migrations  have 
largely  taken  place  ;  widely  ranging  species  are  most  vari- 
able, and  of tenest  give  rise  to  new  species  ;  varieties  have 
been  at  first  local  ;  and  finally,  it  is  probable  that  periods 
of  modification  are  short  as  compared  with  periods  of  per- 
manence. Hence  we  cannot  find  interminable  varieties,  and 
any  linking  variety  between  two  forms  is,  of  course,  ranked 
as  a  distinct  species,  for  the  whole  chain  cannot  be  perma- 
nently restored.  Thus  the  geological  record  is  a  history  of 
the  world  indeed,  but  one  imperfectly  kept,  and  written  in  a 
changing  dialect ;  of  this  history  we  possess  the  last  volume 
only,  relating  to  two  or  three  countries.  Of  this  volume, 
only  here  and  there  a  short  chapter  has  been  preserved,  and 
of  each  page  only  here  and  there  a  few  lines.  The  form 
which  this  explanation  necessarily  takes  has  led  to  the  re- 
joinder that  it  amounts  to  the  plain  concession  of  a  lack  of 
evidence  from  the  geological  record.  Against  this  re- 
joinder, however,  statements  are  advanced  whose  drift  is 
indicated  in  the  paragraph  [in  brackets]  below. 

Geological  Succession  of  Organic  Beings  (Distribution  in 
Time). — The  preceding  diflaculties  excepted,  the  facts  of 
paleontology  agree  admirably  with  the  theory.  New 
species  come  in  slowly  and  successively  ;  they  change  in 
different  rates  and  degrees  ;  old  forms  pass  through  rarity 
to  extinction,  and  never  reappear  ;  dominant  forms  spread 
and  vary,  their  descendants  displacing  the  inferior  groups, 
so  that  after  long  intervals  of  time  the  productions  of  the 
world  appear  to  have  changed  simultaneously.  The  most 
ancient  forms  differ  most  widely  from  those  now  living, 
yet  frequently  present  characters  intermediate  between 
groups  now  widely  divergent,  and  they  resemble  to  a  re- 
markable extent  the  embryos  of  the  more  recent  and  more 
highly  specialized  animals  belonging  to  the  same  classes. 
These  laws,  and  above  all,  the  important  law  of  the  succes- 
sion of  the  same  types  within  the  same  areas  during  the 
later  geological  periods,  and  most  notably  between  the 
Tertiary  period  and  the  present  time  (e.g.,  fossil  and  recent 
marsupials  in  Australia,  and  edentates  in  South  America), 
cease  to  be  mysterious,  and  become  at  once  intelligible  on 
the  principle  of  inheritance,  and  on  that  alone. 

[Since  the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species  (1859), 
paleontological  research  has  been  constantly  furnishing 
verification  of  these  views.  The  imperfection  of  the  geo- 
logical record  was  so  far  from  over-estimated,  that  Huxley 
(Science  and  Culture,  1880),  in  comparing  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  mammalian  Tertiary  fauna  with  that  of 

HI 


DARWIKLAN  THEORY. 


1859,  states  that  the  results  of  the  investigations  of  Gaudry, 
Marsh,  and  Filhol,  are  '  as  if  zoologists  were  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  a  country  hitherto  unknown,  as  rich  in  novel 
forms  of  life  as  Brazil  or  s.  Africa  once  were  to  Europeans.' 
Gaudry  found  the  intermediate  stages  between  civets  and 
hyenas  ;  Filhol  disinterred  still  more  remote  ancestral  car- 
nivores ;  w^hile  Marsh  obtained  a  complete  series  of  forms 
intermediate  between  that,  in  some  respects,  most  anom- 
alous of  mammals,  the  horse,  and  the  simplest  tive  toed 
ungulates  (see  Mammalia).  Again,  the  belief  of  Darwin  that 
the  distinctness  of  birds  from  all  other  vertebrates  was  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  extinction  of  a  long  line  of  progenitors 
connecting  them  with  reptiles,  was  in  1859  a  mere  as- 
sumption ;  but  in  1862,  the  long-tailed  and  intensely  reptilian 
bird  Arcliceopteryx  (q.v.)  was  discovered  ;  and  in  1875  the 
researches  of  Marsh  brought  to  light  certain  cretaceous  birds, 
one  {Hesperornis)  with  teeth  set  in  a  groove,  the  other 
{Ichthyorms)  with  teeth  in  sockets,  and  with  bi-concave  ver- 
tebrae. Besides  these  reptilian  birds,  bird-like  reptiles  have 
similarly  been  forthcoming,  and  the  hypothesis  of  Darwin 
(it  is  claimed)  is  thus  admirably  veritied.  Considerable  light, 
too,  has  been  thrown  on  the  pedigree  of  crocodiles  ;  am- 
monites, trilobites,  and  other  invertebrates  have  been  ar- 
ranged in  series,  while  important  collateral  evidence  is 
furnished  by  '  persistent  types  '  such  as  Ceratodus,  Beryx, 
Nautiliis,  Lingula,  etc.,  which  have  survived — w^e  must 
assume  by  ordinary  generation — almost  completely  un- 
changed since  remote  geological  periods.  On  such  grounds, 
Huxley  proceeds  to  claim  {op.  cit.)  that  *  on  the  evidence  of 
paleontology,  the  evolution  of  many  existing  forms  of 
animal  life  from  their  predecessors  is  no  longer  an  hy- 
pothesis, but  a  historical  fact  ;  it  is  only  the  nature  of  the 
physiological  factors  which  is  still  open  to  discussion.] 

GeograpJdcal  Distrihution. — Neither  the  similarity  nor  the 
dissimilarity  of  the  inhabitants  of  various  regions,  whether 
of  land  or  sea,  can  be  accounted  for  by  differences  in  cli- 
mate, or  other  physical  conditions,  but  are  related,  in  the 
most  striking  degree,  to  the  absence  or  presence  of  barriers 
to  migration  between  those  regions.  Within  the  same  area 
there  exists  the  most  marked  athnity  among  the  species, 
though  these  ditfer  from  point  to  point.  Species  appear  to 
have  arisen  in  separate  definite  centres,  the  few^  apparent 
exceptions  being  accounted  for  by  migration  and  dispersal, 
followed  by  climatal  and  geographical  changes.  But  for  a 
summary  of  our  knowledge  of  the  existing  mode  of  dis- 
tribution of  organic  life,  and  of  the  way  in  which  that  dis- 
tribution has  been  effected,  as  well  as  of  the  very  impor- 
tant bearing  of  these  facts  upon  the  theory  of  evolution, 
which  they  maybe  said  indeed,  more  than  any  other  class  of 
facts,  to  have  suggested,  see  Geographical  Distribution. 

Morphological  Arguments. — The  physiological  and  dis- 
tributional lines  of  argument  being  simimarized,  those  fur- 
nished by  morphology,  though  not  less  numerous  and 
highly  important,  can'be  only  briefly  outlined.  These  are 
mainly  four,  and  are  derived  from  {a)  Classiticatiou,  (5) 
Homologies,  (c)  Embryology,  {d)  Rudimentary  Organs. 

54-2 


DARWIKIAK  THEORY. 

{a)  Classification. — Naturalists  arrange  the  species,  gen- 
era, and  families  in  each  class,  on  what  is  called  the  Nat- 
ural System.  But  what  is  meant  by  this  system?  Is  it, 
after  all,  merely  an  artiticial  scheme  for  enunciating  gen- 
eral propositions,  and  of  placing  together  the  forms  most 
like  each  other— or  does  it,  as  many  believe,  reveal  the 
plan  of  creation?  The  grand  fact  of  classification  is,  that 
organic  beings,  throughout  all  time,  are  arranged  in  groups 
subordinated  vmder  other  groups,  individuals  under  varie- 
ties, and  these  again  under  species;  species  under  genera; 
those  under  sub-families,  families,  and  orders,  and  all  un- 
der a  few  grand  classes.  The  nature  of  all  these  relation- 
ships,— the  rules  followed  and  the  difficulties  met  by  natur- 
alists in  their  classifications, — the  high  value  set  upon  con- 
stant and  prevalent  structures,  whether  these  be  of  great  or 
little  use,  or,  as  with  rudimentary  organs,  of  no  use  at  all; 
the  wide  opposition  in  value  between  such  misleading  re- 
semblances of  adaptation,  as  for  instance  the  fish-like  form 
of  whales,  and  such  characters  of  true  afiinity  as  are  af- 
forded by  the  structure  of  their  circulatory  or  respiratory 
system — all  these  receive  a  simple  and  natural  explanation 
on  the  view  of  the  common  descent  of  allied  forms  with 
modification  through  variation  and  natural  selection;  while 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  no  other  explanation  has  ever  even 
been  attempted.  The  element  of  descent,  too,  is  already 
used  in  linking  all  the  sexes,  ages,  forms,  and  varieties  of 
the  same  species,  widely  though  these  (e.g.,  cirripedes, 
etc.)  may  differ  from  each  other  in  structure:  and  we  have 
only  to  extend  it  to  understand  the  meaning  and  origin  of 
the  Natural  System. 

{h)  Homology. — The  members  of  the  same  class,  independ- 
ently of  their  habits  of  life,  resemble  each  other  in  their 
general  plan  of  organization;  thus,  the  hand  of  man,  the 
digging-paw  of  the  mole,  the  leg  of  the  horse,  the  paddle  of 
the  porpoise,  and  the  wing  of  the  bat,  all  are  constructed  on 
the  same  pattern,  bone  corresponding  to  bone;  and  simi- 
larly with  the  hind  limb.  Again,  the  mouths  of  insects 
are  of  innumerable  varieties  of  form  and  use — witness  the 
long  spiral  trunk  of  a  moth,  and  the  great  jaws  of  a  beetle 
— yet  these  are  formed  by  modifications  of  an  upper  lip, 
mandibles,  and  two  pairs  of  maxillae.  And  so  it  is  with 
the  limbs  of  crustaceans,  or  the  flow^ers  of  plants;  in  fact, 
with  the  organs  of  every  class  of  beings. 

This  conformity  to  type  is  *  powerfully  suggestive  of  true 
relationship,  of  inheritance  from  a  common  ancestor;'  it 
admits,  in  short,  as  no  one  indeed  denies,  of  a  simple  ex- 
planation in  terms  of  the  evolutionary  theory,  and  thus 
strengthens  that  theory  not  a  little.  It  has  been  attempted 
to  explain  this  unity  of  plan  in  two  other  ways — first,  by 
assuming  it  due  to  utility,  which  is  negatived  by  the  facts, 
since  organs  of  identical  use  (e.g.,  the  wings  of  a  bird  and 
those  of  a  butterfly)  very  frequently  do  not  conform  to  the 
same  type  at  all;  secondly,  by  attributing  it  to  a  unity  of 
design,  which  unity,  however,  {a)  instead  of  being  always 
maintained  as  on  the  theory  it  should  be,  is  not  unfre- 
quently  quite  lost  in  highly  specialized  forms;  and  which, 

543 


DARWINIAN  THEORY. 

even  if  it  always  existed,  [b)  would  directly  suggest  the 
uuity  of  descent,  the  design  thus  serving  only  to  mislead 
the  anatomist. 

Serial  Homology,  too,  has  to  be  accounted  for — that  unity 
of  type  which  is  found  on  comparing  the  different  parts 
and  organs  in  the  same  individual,  so  that  the  wonderfully 
com4)lex  and  varied  jaws  and  legs  of  a  lobster,  or  the  widely 
different  leaves— sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and  pistils  of  a 
flower,  are  all  found  to  be  modifications,  respectively  of  a 
simple  limb,  and  of  a  simple  leaf  organ.  Not  only  are  such 
metamorphoses  apparent  on  comparison,  but  they  can  be 
actually  observed  to  occur  during  the  development  of  each 
individual;  is  then  the  term  metamorphosis  to  have  a  mere 
metaphorical  meaning  when  applied  to  the  species,  or  has 
it  not  actually  arisen  in  past  time,  through  the  natural  se- 
lection and  transmission  of  advantageous  variations? 

(c)  Development. — It  has  been  already  indicated  that  the 
serially  homologous  parts  in  the  same  individual  are  alike 
during  an  early  embryonic  period,  as  are  also  the  homolo- 
gous organs  in  animals  which,  like  bat,  horse,  and  por- 
poise, may  be  widely  differentiated  in  adult  life.  80 
closely,  too,  do  the  embrj^os  of  the  most  distinct  species 
belonging  to  the  same  class  resemble  each  other,  that  even 
Von  Baer  was  unable  to  distinguish  whether  two  unlabelled 
specimens  were  lizards,  birds,  or  mammals.  This  law  of 
embryonic  resemblance  holds  very  widely,  e.g.,  young 
crustaceans.  The  embryo  often  retains  within  the  egg  or 
womb  structures  which  are  of  no  service  to  it,  either  at 
that  or  at  a  later  period  of  life,  like  the  transitory  gill-arches 
of  birds  or  mammals;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  larvje 
which,  like  those  of  insects,  have  to  provide  for  their  own 
wants,  undergo  complete  secondary  adaptation  to  the  sur- 
rounding conditions.  The  process  of  development  goes 
from  the  general  to  the  special,  thus  there  is  generally  an 
advance  in  organization.  In  peculiar  conditions,  however, 
degeneration  may  occur.  All  these  facts  are  readily  ex- 
plained on  the  principle  of  successive  slight  variations  not 
necessarily  or  generally  supervening  very  early  in  life,  and 
being  inherited  at  a  corresponding  period;  and  it  is  thus  in 
the  highest  degree  probable  that  most  embryonic  stages 
show  us  more  or  less  completely  the  progenitor  of  the 
group  in  its  adult  state;  and  embryology  thus  rises  greatly 
in  interest  (see  Development  of  the  Embryo). 

{d)  Budimeniary  Organs. — Rudimentary,  atrophied,  and 
aborted  organs,  bearing  the  plain  stamp  of  inutility,  and  so 
extremely  common  that  it  is  impossible  to  name  a  higher 
animal  in  which  none  occurs.  The  mammae  of  male  mam- 
mals, the  hindlegs  of  boas,  the  wings  of  many  birds,  or  the 
teeth  of  fetal  whales,  and  the  upper  incisors  of  unborn 
calves,  are  familiar  instances.  Such  organs  are  intelligible 
on  the  evolutionary  theory,  and  have  not  been  explained 
on  any  other. 

Recapitulation  and  conclusion. — After  tersely  summing  up 
the  preceding  mass  of  evidence,  Darwin  concludes  by 
pointing  out  {a)  that  the  theory  of  evolution  by  natural 
selection  is  no  more  inimical  to  religion  than  that  of  gravi- 
544 


DARWm  MOUNT-DASH  KG  V. 

tation,  to  which  the  same  objection  was  strongely  raised; 
{b)  its  revolutionary  intiuence  on  the  study  of  all  depart- 
ments of  natural  history;  (c)  on  ph^ycholog}^  (U-v.);  (d)  on  the 
origin  of  man  and  his  history  (see  DiisCE^sT  of  Man);  {e)on 
our  thejries  of  future  progress. 

Envoy. — '  It  is  interesting  to  contemplate  a  tangled  bank 
clothed  with  many  plants  of  many  kinds,  with  birds  sing- 
ing on  the  bushes,  with  various  insects  tlitting  about,  and 
with  worms  crawling  through  the  damp  earth,  and  to  re- 
flect that  these  elaborately  constructed  forms,  so  difl'erent 
from  each  other,  and  dependent  on  each  other  in  so  com- 
plex a  manner,  have  all  been  produced  by  laws  acting 
around  us.  These  laws,  taken  in  the  largest  sense,  being 
growth  with  reproduction;  inheritance,  which  is  almost 
implied  by  reproduction;  variability  from  the  indirect  and 
direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life,  and  from  use  and 
disuse;  a  ratio  of  increase  so  high  as  to  lead  to  a  struggle 
for  life,  and  as  a  consequence  to  natural  selection,  entailing 
divergence  of  character  and  the  extinction  of  less  im- 
proved forms.  Thus,  from  the  war  of  nature,  from  fam- 
ine and  death,  the  most  exalted  object  which  we  are  capa- 
ble of  conceiving,  namely,  the  production  of  the  higher 
animals,  directly  follows.  There  is  grandeur  in  this  view 
of  life,  with  its  several  powers,  having  been  originally 
breathed  by  the  Creator  into  a  few  forms,  or  into  one;  and 
that,  while  this  planet  has  gone  cycling  on  according  to  the 
flxed  law  of  gravity,  from  so  simple  a  beginning  endless 
forms  most  beautiful  and  most  wonderful  have  been,  and 
are  being,  evolved. ' 

DAR' WIN  MOUNT:  elevation  of  nearly  7,000  ft,  on  the 
s.w.  side  of  King  Charles' South  Land,  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Daiiwin  Sound,  is  the  portion  of  the  sea  near  the  Mount. 

DASCILLID^,  n.  plu.  das-sil'li-de  [Gr.  daskillos,  the 
name  of  a  fish] :  family  of  pentamerous  beetles;  chief  genera: 
Dascillus,  Oi/phon,  and  Helodes.  Dascillus,  -lus,  is  the 
typical  genus. 

DASH,  V.  dash  [imitation  of  the  sound  of  a  blow,  the 
beating  of  the  waves  upon  the  shore,  etc. :  Bav.  dossen,  to 
sound  as  heavy  rain,  rushing  brooks,  etc. :  Dan.  daske,  to 
slap:  Sw.  daska,  to  drub]:  to  strike  with  suddenness  or 
violence;  to  throw  water  suddenly;  to  mix  or  adulterate;  to 
blot  out;  to  scatter;  to  rush  or  strike  with  suddenness;  to 
break  or  rush  through  with  violence;  to  overv/helm;  to  de- 
stroy, as  hopes;  to  confound:  N.  a  striking  together  of  two 
bodies;  collision;  a  slight  addition;  a  rushing  or  onset;  a 
sudden  stroke,  flourish,  or  parade;  in  writing  or  printing, 
a  mark  thus  ( — );  in  music,  thus  ('),  over  a  note.  Dash  ing, 
imp.:  Adj.  bold;  showy;  spirited;  adorned  with  finery. 
Dashed,  pp.  dasM.  Dash-board,  a  board  on  the  forepart 
of  a  vehicle  to  prevent  water,  mud,  or  snow  being  thrown 
upon  the  persons  in  it  by  the  heels  of  the  horses;  a  splash- 
board.   To  CUT  A  DASH:  sec  Cut  2. 

DASHKOV,  ddsli'kof,  Princess  Ekaterina  Romanova: 
1744^1810;  daughter  of  Count  Yorontsov.  From  her  earli- 
est youth,  she  received  a  careful  training.    She  w^as  an  inti- 

545 


DASB^DASTARI). 

mate  friend  of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.,  and  one  of  the 
lieads  of  the  conspiracy  formed  against  Peter  III.,  the 
success  of  which  secured  the  throne  to  Catharine.  Soon 
afterward  quarrelling  with  Catharine,  she  obtained  permis- 
sion to  travel,  and  visited  Germany,  England,  France,  and 
Italy,  where  she  made  the  acquaintance  of  many  learned 
men  (among  others,  Garrick,  Dr.  Blair,  and  Dr.  Robertson). 
The  empress  and  she  were  reconciled  to  each  other,  and 
the  princess  was  appointed  director  of  the  Acad,  of  Arts 
and  sciences;  and  in  1783,  pres.  of  the  Russian  Acad.,  es- 
tablished at  her  own  suggestion  in  imitation  of  the  French 
Academie.  On  the  death  of  Catharine,  1796,  she  was  de- 
prived of  her  offices,  and  ordered  by  Paul  III.  to  retire  to 
her  estates  at  Novgorod.  She  died  at  Moscow.  Besides 
several  comedies  and  occasional  magazine-papers,  the  Prin- 
cess D.  was'mainly  instrumental  in  inducing  the  Russian 
Acad,  to  draw  up  a  dictionary  of  the  Russian  language, 
which  was  completed  in  12  years.  The  princess  herself 
assigned  the  various  letters  of  the  alpliabet  to  different 
scholars,  took  three  herself,  and  superintended  the  execu- 
tion of  the  whole.  Her  very  interesting  memoirs  were 
published  by  Mrs.  W.  Bradford  (two  vols.  Lond.  1840). 

DASS,  das,  Petter:  1646-1708;  b.  Isle  of  Nord  Hero, 
Norway:  poet.  He  studied  in  Bergen  Univ..  was  ordained 
a  Lutheran  priest  1672,  was  under-chaplain  at  Nesne  till 
1681,  and  resident  chaplain  till  1689,  and  was  then  given 
the  living  of  Alstahoug,  the  most  important  in  the  n.  of 
Norway.  In  1700  he  desired  to  resign  his  living  to  his  son 
Anders  D.,  but  was  not  permitted;  in  1704,  however,  the 
son  became  his  father's  chaplain,  and  Petter  found  more 
leisure  for  poetical  compositions.  His  writings  had  an  ex- 
tensive circulation  in  ms.  form,  and  few  of  them  were 
printed  in  his  life  time.  They  abounded  in  queer  turns  of 
thought,  and  fine  homely  fancies.  His  best  known  poem, 
a  description  of  the  Nordland  province,  its  attractions  and 
business  interests,  bears  the  title  of  llie  Trumpet  of  Nord- 
land, is  full  of  humor,  fancy,  and  erudition,  and  was  pub- 
lished 1739.  His  Nomcegian  Song  of  the  Valley  was  published 
1696,  and  Spiritual  Pastimes  1711.  He  is  remembered  as 
the  father  of  Norwegian  poetry. 

DASTARD,  n.  dds'terd  [Icel.  dust,  a  blow;  da^str,  ex- 
hausted, breathless:  ard,  is  the  Dut.  aerd,  inborn  or  native 
quality;  also  Ger.  art,  nature,  quality — and  dast,  the  radical 
part,  may  be  the  figurative  application  of  dash  or  daze,  to 
stun,  to  confound:  F.  ard;  Goth,  hardtis;  Ger.  hart,  hard: 
ard,  in  F.  denotes  intensity  as  a  postfix]:  one  who  meanly 
shrinks  from  danger;  a  coward;  a  poltroon:  Adj.  cowardly. 
Dastardly,  ad.  -li,  cowardly;  mean;  timorous.  Das- 
TAKDizE,  V.  -dlz,  to  make  cowardly.  Das'tardi'zing,  imp. 
Das'tardized,  pp.  -dlzd.  Das'tardllness,  n.  Das'tard- 
NESS,  n.  mean  fear;  cowardliness.  Das' tardy,  n.  -ter  di, 
base  timidity;  cowardliness. 

I4« 


DASYA— BASYURE. 

DASYA,  das'i-a:  genus  of  the  red  algoe  or  sea  weed,  be- 
longing to  the  Tliallogens  class  and  Bhodomelacece  order,  cel- 
lular in  structure,  and  esteemed  among  the  most  beautiful 
of  cryptogamous  plants.  The  spores  are  red  and  pear- 
shaped.  Kearly  a  dozen  species  of  D.  are  found  in  the 
waters  of  the  United  States,  and  seven  in  the  British 
Islands. 

DASYANTHOS,  n.  dds-i-dn  tlibs  [Gr.  dasus,  thick,  hairy; 
antJios,  a  flower]:  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order 
Ericacece;  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

DASYCLADEJE,  dds-i-kla  de-e  [Gr.  dasus,  shaggy;  Mo- 
dos,  a  young  shoot  or  branch  of  a  tree]:  tribe  of  algae  ar- 
ranged by  Kiitzing  under  his  sub- order  CctloUastece.  Dasy- 
cla'dus,  n.  -du8,  genus  of  algse,  typical  of  Ktitzing's  tribe 
Dasycladece. 

DASYGASTEE^,  dds-i-gds' tre-e  [Gr.  dasus,  shaggy; 
gaster,  gastros,  belly]:  little  group  of  bees  instituted  by 
Cuvier,  in  which  the  abdomen  of  the  female  is  generally 
furnished  with  a  silky  brush.  It  ranks  under  the  Apides,  is 
distinguished  from  the  Andrmmdes,  and  includes  the  genera 
Megachile,  Osmia,  etc. 

DASYMETER,  n.  dds-im'et-er  [Gr.  dasus,  thick,  dense; 
metron,  a  measure]:  instrument  for  weighing  gases. 

DASYORNIS,  n.  dds-i-or'nis  [Gr.  dasus,  thick;  amis,  a 
bird] :  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  MeruUdce,  or  thrush 
family.    They  are  natives  of  s.  Australia. 

DASYPELTID^,  n.  plu.  dds-l-pel' ti-de  [Gr.  dasus,  thick; 
pelte,  a  shield;  L.  suf.  -idee]:  family  of  serpents,  of  which 
dasypeltis  is  the  type.  Dasypel'tis,  -tis,  genus  of  serpents 
destitute  of  teeth. 

DASYPODA,  n,  dds-ip'od-a  [Gr.  dasus,  thick;  pous,  a 
foot] :  genus  of  bees,  family  AnthopMla. 

DASYPUS,  n.  dds'l-pus  [Gr.  dasus,  rough,  hairy;  pous^ 
a  foot] :  the  zoological  term  for  a  genus  or  armadillos,  in 
allusion  to  the  soles  of  their  feet  being  covered  with  strong 
hairs.  Dasypodid^,  dds-lp-bd-l' de ,  small  family  of  dentate 
animals,  including  the  armadillos:  see  Armadillo. 

DASYSTES,  n.  dds-ls'tez  [Gr.,  hairiness]:  in  entom., 
genus  of  coleoptera  belonging  to  the  family  Clerid/e;  in 
physioL,  hairiness;  an  unusual  or  extraordinary  growth  of 
hair  on  any  part  not  usually  covered  by  it. 

DASYURE,  n.  dds'i-ur  [Gr;  dasus,  hairy;  oura  a  tail], 
{Dasyu'rus):  a  genus  of  carnivorous  marsupial  quadrupeds, 
nearly  allied  to  the  opossums;  but  differing  from  them  in 
having  only  eight  incisors  in  the  upper,  and  six  in  the  lower 
jaw,  and  only  twelve  molars  in  each  jaw;  also  in  the  tail 
being  everywhere  covered  with  long  hairs,  and  not  pre- 
hensile; in  the  hinder  thumb  being  reduced  to  a  mere 
tubercle,  or  lacking;  and  in  the  important  anatomical  char- 
acter of  the  want  of  a  coecum.  All  the  species  are  Austra- 
lian. The  Ursine  D.,  or  ursine  opossum  {D.  ursinus),  was 
very  abundant  in  the  north  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  when 
first  colonized,  and  very  destructive  to  sheep  and  poultry. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  badger,  of  a  stout  form,  with  a  taij 


DATA. 

half  as  long  as  the  bod}- ;  the  body  and  tail  covered  with 
coarse  black  hair,  marked  with  white  bands.  It  burrows 
in  the  ground.  It  is  very  fierce  and  untamable,  and  is 
called  sometimes  the  native  Devil.  The  Spotted-tailed 
D.  {D.  macrourus)  is  about  as  large  as  a  cat,  has  a  tail 
fully  as  long  as  the  body,  is  of  a  rich  brown  color  with 
white  spots,  and  as  well  as  a  rather  smaller  species  {D, 


Ursine  Dasyure  (D.  ursinus). 


Maugii),  the  wild  cat'of  the  colonists,  is  very  destructive  to 
poultry  in  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

DASYURiNiE,  das4-ur-l'ne:  sub-family  of  marsupials,  of 
which  the  genus  Dasyurus  is  the  type. 

DATA,  n.  plu.  data  [mid.  L.  data,  a  date — from  L. 
data,  things  given — from  datum,  a  thing  given,  the  time 
and  place  of  writing]:  things  given,  admitted,  or  known, 
by  which  to  find  things  unknown;  known  or  admitted 
facts  or  truths.  Da  tum,  n.  -tarn,  something  given  as  a 
standard.  Datum- line,  the  base-line  from  which  surface 
levels  and  heights  are  reckoned  as  a  fixed  standard.  Da- 
TARiA,  n.  dd-td'ri-a,  the  papal  chancery  at  Rome  from 
which  all  bulls  are  dated  and  issued.  D  at  art,  u.  dd'ter-i, 
the  officer  of  this  chancery,  sometimes  called  a  chancellor: 
he  is  assisted  by  a  pro  and  svb  datary.  Date,  n.  ddt,  the 
day,  month,  and  year  in  which  anything  was  given  or  exe- 
cuted; the  time  of  any  event  or  transaction;  period;  age; 
era;  epoch:  Y.  to  write,  fix,  or  note  the  time  of  any  event, 
etc.;  to  reckon;  to  begin.  Dating,  imp.  Darted,  pp. 
Date'less,  a.  without  a  date. 

548 


BATE. 


DATE:  time,  period:  see  under  Data. 

DATE,  n.  dat  [F.  datte;  OF.  date,  the  date— from  L. 
dac'tyliis,  a  finger — from  the  form  of  the  fruit]:  the  fruit  of 
the  date-palm  tree:  see  Date  Palm. 

DATE:  the  precise  time  at  which  a  document  was  writ- 
ten, or  an  event  happened.  The  importance  of  accurately 
ascertaining  the  date  of  an  event  or  writing  is  very  obvious, 
but  the  dithculty  sometimes  involved  is  not  so  apparent.  It 
might  be  thought  that,  at  least  in  modern  times,  where  the 
da}^  of  the  month  and  year  are  authoritatively  set  down, 
there  can  be  no  room  for  any  further  question;  but  it  is 
not  so.  If,  for  instance,  we  refer  to  a  newspaper  of  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne,  we  shall  see  the  Amsterdam  Gazette 
of  Feb.  22  translated  in  the  London  Gazette  of  Feb.  13, 
and  abridged  in  the  Edinburgh  Courant  of  Feb.  19,  all  of 
the  same  year,  1705.  And  this  is  but  one  of  several  seem- 
ing inconsistencies  or  contradictions  of  the  same  sort. 

In  the  first  place,  the  difference  of  the  two  styles,  old 
and  new,  by  which  dates  are  reckoned  may  cause  a  dis- 
crepancy of  10,  11,  or  12  days,  according  to  the  century  to 
which  the  date  belongs.  Until  1582,  there  was  but  one 
style  or  calendar  throughout  Europe;  but  in  that  year, 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  introduced  the  '  new  style  '  or  '  Gre- 
gorian calendar,'  which  at  once  corrected  the  long  accum- 
ulated errors  of  the  old  method  of  computing  time,  by  de- 
claring 1582.  Oct.  5  to  be  Oct.  15,  or,  in  other  words,  by 
striking  10  days  out  of  the  almanac  of  that  year.  The  new 
style  was  adopted  generally  in  Rom.  Oath,  countries. 
Most  Protestant  countries,  on  the  other  hand,  continued 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  to  use  the  'old  style,' or 
*  Julian  calendar. '  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  dealing 
critically  with  dates  after  1582,  to  ascertain  what  'style' 
was  in  use  at  the  time  and  the  place  in  question.  This,  in 
not  a  few  cases,  may  call  for  some  inquiry;  but  generally, 
the  following  table  will  serve  to  show  when  the  chief 
states  of  Europe  adopted  the  new  style: 
Year.  Country. 

1582.    Great  part  of  Italy,  France,  Lorraine,  Portugal,  Spain,  Hol- 
land, and  the  greater  part  of  the  Netherlands. 
1584.   The  Roman  Catholic  parts  of  Germany  and  of  Switzerland. 

1586.  Poland. 

1587.  Hungary. 

1682.   The  city  of  Strasburg. 

1700.  The  Protestant  parts  of  Germany  and  of  Switzerland,  Guel- 
ders,  Zutphen,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen,  and  Overys- 
sel. 

1 "--f  Tuscany. 

1752.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland:  British  American  colonies,  soon 

thereafter. 

1753.  Sweden. 

In  Russia  and  Greece,  the  old  style  is  still  followed,  and  it 
obtains  generally  in  the  East.  Thus,  what  was  1879,  Jan. 
12,  at  Paris,  London,  and  New  York,  was  1878,  Dec.  31, 
at  Athens  and  St.  Petersburg. 

But  difference  of  old  and  new  style  is  not  the  only  cause 
of  perplexity  in  dates.  Countries  using  the  same  style, 
and  therefore  agreeing  as  to  the  day  of  the  month,  may 

549 


DATE. 

differ  as  to  the  year  to  which  they  refer  an  event.  Thus, 
the  beheading  of  King  Charles  I.  was  reckoned,  both  in 
England  and  in  Scotland,  to  have  taken  place  Jan.  30;  but 
while  England  held  the  year  to  be  1648,  Scotland  held  it 
to  be  1649.  The  cause  of  this  discrepancy  was  the  differ- 
ence which  obtained  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  year.  By 
the  English,  the  year  was  held  to  begin  Mar.  25;  by  the 
Scots,  Jan.  1.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  in  consid- 
ering dates,  to  keep  in  view  not  only  the  style  which  was 
used,  but  the  day  on  which  the  year  was  accounted  to 
commence.  There  was  much  variation  in  this  respect,  not 
ouly  between  one  country  and  another,  but  even  in  the 
same  country  between  one  time  aod  another,  as  well  as  be- 
tween its  different  provinces  at  the  same  time.  The  new 
years'  daj^s  most  commonly  used  were  the  Nativity  or 
Christmas  (Dec.  25),  the  Circumcision  (Jan.  1),  the  An- 
nunciation or  Lady  Day  (Mar.  25),  and  the  Resurrection  or 
Easter  (a  movable  date).  Jan.  1  was  adopted  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year  by  France  1563,  by  Scotland  1600, 
by  England  1752.  In  England,  the  inconvenience  of  dat- 
ing by  a  different  year  from  most  of  the  other  great  Eu- 
ropean states  had  been  so  generally  felt,  that  for  some 
time  before  the  new  mode  of  computation  was  sanctioned 
by  act  of  parliament,  dates  falling  between  Jan.  1  and 
Mar.  24  were  commonly  expressed  in  both  ways,  thus: 
170f ,  or  1706-7,  Feb.  2,  the  lower  or  last  figure  indicating 
the  year  according  to  the  present  reckoning. 

The  above  relates  to  dates  where  both  the  3^ear  and  the 
day  of  the  month  are  set  down  in  figures.  But  in  ancient 
writings,  even  where  the  year  is  expressed  in  figures,  noth- 
ing is  more  common  than  to  indicate  the  day  of  the  month 
only  by  reference  to  some  festival  or  other  peculiarity  in 
the  service  of  the  church.  Thus,  an  English  letter  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th  c.  is  dated  in  this  way:  '  Written  at 
Paston,  in  haste,  the  Wednesday  next  after  JDeus  qui  erran- 
tibus;'  that  is,  the  first  Wednesday  after  the  Sunday  third 
after  Easter,  on  which  day  that  portion  of  the  church  service 
which  is  called  the  introit  begins  with  the  words  Deus  qui 
erraniibm.  So,  again,  as  late  as  1610,  the  battle  of  Weis- 
senburg,  near  Prague,  is*  described  by  the  contemporary 
chroniclers  as  fought  'upon  the  Sunday  on  which  the 
church  sings  Reddite  quce  su7it  Gmaris  Gmari;\  that  is,  the 
Sunday  twenty-second  after  Pentecost,  which,  in  the  year 
referred  to,  fell  upon  Nov.  8.  A  still  more  common  way 
of  dating  was  by  reference  to  a  saint's  day.  Thus,  the 
English  parliament  which  met  at  Westminster,  1399,  Oct. 
6,  is  described  in  the  contemporary  record  as  meeting  *  on 
Monday,  the  Feast  of  St.  Faith  the  Virgin;'  and  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  which  met  at  Scone,  1318,  Dec.  3,  as  meet- 
ing *  on  the  Sunday  next  after  the  feast  of  St.  Andrew  the 
Apostle.'  In  order,  therefore,  to  interpret  all  this  class  of 
dates — and  it  is  a  very  large  one — recourse  must  be  had  to 
the  calendar  and  service  books  of  the  church,  or  to  the 
'  glossaries  of  dates  '  and  '  catalogues  of  saints'  days  ' 
which  antiquaries  have  compiled  from  them. 

For  centuries,  it  was  more  common  to  date  by  the  year 


DATE. 

of  the  king's  reign  than  by  the  year  of  our  Lord.  The 
risk  of  error  in  reducing  this  way  of  computation  to  that 
now  in  use  is  such,  that  in  Rymer's  Fcedera,  a  great  collec- 
tion of  English  state  papers,  printed  at  the  public  expense 
in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  many  documents  of  all  the 
reigns  from  Kichard  I.  to  Edward  lY.  are  misplaced  by  a 
whole  year.  These  mistakes  arose  chietly  from  insuffi- 
cient inquiry  as  to  the  day  from  which  the  king  dated  his 
reign.  This  was  assumed  to  be  from  the  day  of  his  prede- 
cessor's death,  but  in  point  of  fact  the  early  England  sov- 
ereigns dated  their  reign  only  from  the  day  of  their  corona- 
tion. Where  a  date,  therefore,  has  to  be  ascertained  by 
reference  to  a  regnal  year,  it  becomes  necessary  to  make 
sure  not  only  of  the  time  when  the  king  came  to  the 
throne,  but  of  the  very  day  from  which  he  reckoned  his 
reign.  In  the  case  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  this  inquiry  is 
at  once  more  than  usually  necessary,  and  more  than  usu- 
ally troublesome,  inasmuch  as,  until  comparatively  recent 
times,  scarcely  any  two  of  them  in  immediate  succession 
dated  or  computed  on  the  same  principle.  Not  a  few  of 
them,  indeed,  adopted  different  computations  at  different 
times  of  their  reign.  Thus,  Pius  II.,  during  his  pontificate 
of  six  years  (1458-64),  commenced  the  year  sometimes  Dec. 
25,  sometimes  Jan.  1,  sometimes  Mar.  25.  Some  popes, 
again,  dated  from  the  day  of  their  election;  others,  from 
the  day  of  their  consecration  or  coronation.  Nor  is  it  only 
in  interpreting  regnal  years  into  modern  chronology  that 
there  is  a  chance  of  error;  there  is  proof  that  occasionally 
the  regnal  years  were  wrongly  computed  at  the  time  by 
the  kings  themselves,  or  rather  by  the  officers  who  wrote 
their  charters.  Thus,  for  example,  it  has  been  discovered 
that  from  the  time  that  King  David  II.  of  Scotland  re- 
turned from  captivity  in  1 357,  the  year  given  as  that  of  his 
reign  is  one  year  short  of  the  truth.  In  dealing  with  reg- 
nal years,  there  is  yet  another  risk  of  mistake  to  be  guarded 
against.  Until  the  16th  c.  it  was  not  common  for  kings 
to  distinguish  themselves  by  numbers  from  their  predeces- 
sors of  the  same  name.  In  order,  therefore,  to  discrimi- 
nate one  from  another,  charters  or  other  deeds  of  the  Eng- 
lish Henries  and  Edwards,  or  "the  Scottish  Roberts  and 
Jameses,  recourse  must  be  had  to  such  tests  as  the  charac- 
ter of  the  writing,  its  seal,  its  style  and  language,  and 
above  all,  the  names  of  the  persons  enumerated  in  it. 

With  no  other  help  than  is  to  be  gained  from  such  tests, 
the  antiquary  is  often  called  on  to  fix  the  date  of  a  charter, 
containing  no  reference  to  the  year  of  our  Lord,  the  year 
of  the  king's  reign,  the  year  of  the  pope's  pontificate,  or 
any  other  measure  of  time.  If  the  persons  mentioned  in 
the  deed  be  men  of  note,  he  may  be  able  to  ascertain  its 
date  to  a  year,  a  month,  or  even  a  day;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  they  are  obscure,  he  may  be  unable  to  reduce  the  date 
within  a  narrower  range  than  50  or  even  100  years. 

The  skill  of  the  antiquary  is  not  unfrequently  put  to  the 
proof  in  another  way.  Dates  were  recorded  often  by  ref- 
erence only  to  an  event  of  the  time.  Thus,  one  leaf  of  the 
Scottish  statute-book  contains  two  acts  of  parliament,  with. 


DATE  OF  DEED— DATE  PALM. 

no  more  explicit  record  of  their  date  than  that  the  one  was 
passed  *  at  Aberdeen  in  Lent  next  after  the  coining  in  Scot- 
land of  Vivian  the  Legate  of  the  Apostolic  See;'  and  that 
the  other  was  passed  at  Stirling  '  on  the  Monday  next  be- 
fore the  feast  of  St.  Margaret  the  Maiden  next  after  the 
first  coronation  of  Philip  king  of  the  French an  examin- 
ation of  contemporary  chronicles  fixes  the  date  of  one  of 
these  statutes  to  1177;  of  the  other,  to  1180. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  discovery  and  rectification  of 
dates,  various  elaborate  works  have  been  published.  By 
far  the  most  important — UArt  de  Verifier  les  Dates  des  fails 
Historiques,  des  Chartes,  des  Chroniqites  et  autres Monuments — 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  labors  of  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur. 
The  best  edition  of  this  admirable  w^ork  is  that  of  Paris,  in 
eight  folios,  the  first  three  containing  the  period  from  the 
birth  of  Christ  till  1770,  published  1783-87;  the  fourth, 
containing  the  period  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  published 
1820;  and  the  last  four,  continuing  the  w^ork  from  1770, 
published  1821-38.  A.  reprint  of  This  edition,  in  42  octa- 
vos, appeared  at  Paris  1818-44  Of  the  other  French 
works,  it  will  be  enough  to  name  two — the  Nouveau  Traite 
de  Diplomatique,  also  by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  (Par. 
1750-65,  in  6  vols.  4to),  and  the  Elements  de  Paleographie, 
par  Nat.  de  WaiUy  (Par.  1838,  in  2  vols.  4to).  The  best 
English  w^ork  is  The  Chronology  of  History,  by  the  late  Sir 
Harris  Nicolas,  in'  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopadia,  1838. 
Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates  (Vincent's  edition  1876)  is  a 
standard  popular  work.  See  Calendar:  Chronology: 
Day. 

DATE  OF  DEED:  see  Deed. 

DATE  PALM  {Pha^nix):  genus  of  palms,  the  most 
important  species  of  which  is  the  common  Date  Palm,  the 
Palm  Tree  of  Scripture  ( Ph.  dactylifera ),  native  of  n. 
Africa,  s.  w.  Asia,  and  parts  of  India,  and  which  has  been 
brought  into  cultivation  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  might 
certainly  be  introduced  with  advantage  into  the  south  of  the 
United  States,  and  many  w^arm  parts  of  America  and 
Australia.  The  stem,  w^hich  is  straight  and  simple,  reaches 
a  height  of  30-60  ft.  and  bears  a  head  of  40-80  glaucous 
pinnated  leaves,  8-10  ft.  long,  with  lanceolate,  acuminated 
leaflets,  very  much  closed  up,  and  a  number  of  branching 
spadices,  each  of  which  on  the  female  tree  bears  in  general 
180-500  fruits  ( dates,  daciyli).  A  bunch  of  dates  weighs 
20  or  25  pounds  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
useful  of  all  the  palms,  and  is  indispensable  to  millions  of 
the  human  race,  for  the  food  which  it  supplies.  In  Egypt 
and  the  other  countries  on  the  n.  coast  of  Africa,  in  Persia, 
and  in  Arabia,  dates  form  the  principal  food,  and  date 
palms  the  principal  wealth,  of  the  people.  The  fleshy  part 
of  the  fruit  contains  58  per  cent,  of  sugar,  accompanied  by 
pectine,  gum,  etc.  The  main  ingredient,  therefore,  in  a 
dietetic  point  of  view,  is  the  sugar.  The  fruit  is  eaten 
either  fresh  or  dried,  and  in  the  latter  state  becomes  an 
article  of  commerce.  Cakes  of  dates  pounded  and  kneaded 
together,  and  so  solid  as  to  be  cut  with  a  hatchet,  are  the 

56-2 


DATE  PALM. 

store  of  food  provided  for  African  caravans  on  their  journey 
through  the  Sahara.  A  liquor  resembling  wine  is  made 
from  dates  by  fermentation,  and  also  a  kind  of  vinegar. 
In  Persia,  an  ardent  spirit  is  distilled  from  dates.  The  soft 
pith  at  the  summit  of  the  palm  stem,  along  vt^ith  the  young 
leaves  not  yet  unfolded,  are  eaten  under  the  name  of  palm 
cabbage,  and  the  undeveloped  panicles  of  flowers  also  form 
an  article  of  food  to  the  Persians  and  Arabs.  The  liquor 
called  palm  wine  is  prepared  b}^  fermentation  from  the  sap 
of  the  palm,  the  top  being  cut  off,  and  a  hollow  scooped 
out,  in  which  the  sap  collects.  Three  or  four  quarts  are 
obtained  daily  from  a  single  palm  for  ten  days  or  a  fort- 
night. The  quantity  afterward  diminishes,  till  the  tree 
becomes  quite  dried  up.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  n. 
Africa  use  the  roasted  date  stones  or  seeds  as  a  substitute 
for  coffee,  for  which  purpose  the  seeds  of  the  Phmix 
reclinata  also  are  employed  in  s.  Africa.  The  seeds  or 
stones  of  dates  are  in  many  places  ground  for  the  oil  after- 


Date  Palm. 


ward  obtained  from  them  by  expression,  and  the  remaining 
paste  or  cake  is  given  as  food  to  cattle.  From  leaf-stalks 
of  the  common  D.  P.,  all  kinds  of  basket  and  wicker  work 
are  made,  and  walking-sticks,  fans,  etc.  The  leaves  them- 
selves are  made  into  bags,  mats,  etc. ;  the  fibres  of  the  web- 
like integuments  at  the  base  of  their  stalks  into  cordage. 
The  wood  is  used  for  building,  fences,  etc. — The  Toddy 
Palm  of  n.  India,  or  wild  date  palm  {Ph.  sylvesiris),  so 
nearly  resembles  this  species,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is 
distinct.  In  some  places,  the  trees  present  a  curiously 
distorted  and  zigzag  appearance,  from  the  practice  of 
yearly  tapping  the  alternate  sides  for  the  sap  or  toddy.  The 


DATE  PLUM— DATIIOLITE. 

incision  is  just  below  the  crown,  and  slopes  upward  and 
inward ;  a  vessel  is  hung  below  the  wound,  and  the  juice 
conducted  into  it  by  a  little  piece  of  bamboo.  It  forms  a 
grateful  and  wholesome  beverage;  readily  also  fermenting 
into  palm  wine,  and  by  distillation  yielding  Arrack  (q.v.); 
while  if  boiled  down  without  being  allowed  to  ferment,  it 
yields  the  saccharine  sirup  called  ja^^67X  from  four  pounds 
of  which  one  pound  of  sugar  is  obtained,  a  single  tree 
producing  about  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  sugar  annually. 
The  operation  of  tapping  for  toddy  spoils  the  fruit  of  the 
tree,  which  is  small  and  much  inferior  to  the  African  date. 
It  is,  however,  eaten. — Another  species.  Ph.  paludosay 
most  gregarious  of  Indian  palms,  growing  only  six  or  eight 
ft.  high,  covers  the  whole  landscape  of  the  Sunderbunds 
with  the  liveliest  verdure.  Ph.  acaulis,  Ph.  farmifera,  and 
P.  spinosa,  are  three  closely  allied  dwarf  species;  the  first 
grows  in  tne  driest  soils  in  the  damp  valleys  of  the  Himalaya 
to  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 

DATE  PLUM  {Diospyros):  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat. 
ord  Ebenacece,  consisting  of  deciduous  trees,  whose  fruit  is 
a  globose  berry,  natives  of  warm  or  temperate  climates. 
The  black  heart-wood  of  some  species  is  Ebony  (q.v.), 
and  the  hard  timber  of  others  is  known  as  Ironwood. 
Some  are  valued  for  their  fruit.  The  Common  Date 
Plum,  or  Pishamin,  called  also  the  European  Lotus  and 
the  Date  of  Trebisond  (  D.  Lotus ),  is  a  tree  of  20-40  ft 
in  height,  with  oblong  shining  leaves  and  small  reddish 
white  flowers,  native  of  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
Mauritania,  etc.,  but  cultivated  and  naturalized  in  s. 
Europe.  Its  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  cherry,  and  in 
favorable  climates  larger,  yellow,  sweet,  and  astringent. 
It  is  eaten  when  overripe,  like  the  medlar,  or  is  used  for 
conserves.  The  tree  bears  fruit  abundantly  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  London,  but  is  somewhat  tender  in  the  climate 
of  Britian,  and  its  fruit  more  austere  than  in  southern 
regions.  This  fruit  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
Lotus  (q.v.)  of  the  Lotophagi.  The  Virginian  Date 
Plum,  or  Persimmon  (  D.  Virginiana ),  is  a  tree  of  30-60  ft. 
high,  with  ovate  oblong  leaves  and  pale-yellow  flowers, 
native  of  the  southern  United  States  of  where  one  tree  often 
yields  several  bushels  of  fruit.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  buUace,  reddish,  with  six  to  eight  oval  seeds.  It  is 
not  palatable  till  mellowd  by  frost,  and  is  sweet  and  astrin- 
gent. A  kind  of  beer  or  cider  and  an  ardent  spirit  are 
made  from  it. — 'TYiq  Mahola  {D .  Mahola)  is  cultivated  as  a 
fruit-tree  in  the  Isle  of  France.  Its  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  quince,  and  has  a  very  agreeable  flavor. — The  Kaki 
(B.  Kaki),  called  sometimes  the  Keg-fig,  is  a  Japanese 
tree,  kept  in  some  green-houses  in  France  and  England. 
The  sweetmeat  called  Figuescaques  is  made  from  this  fruit 
in  France.  The  fruit  resembles  a  plum.  It  is  occasionally 
brought  from  China  as  a  dried  sweetmeat. — The  fruit  of 
some  other  species  of  Diospyros  is  edible;  as  that  of  D. 
iecandra,  a  large  yellow  berry,  which,  notwithstanding  a 
disagreeable  smell,  is  sold  in  the  markets  of  Cochin-China, 

DATHOLITE,  n.  ddih'o-llt  [dathos  for  Gr.  t/idlOs,  turbid, 

564 


DATISCACEJS— DAUBENTOK. 

from  its  want  of  trausparency;  lithos,  a  stone  J,  or  DaTO- 
LiTE,  n.  dat  d-llt  [Gr.  dateomai,  I  divide — because  of  its 
division  into  granular  portions]:  mineral  of  a  grayish  or 
greenish  white  color,  sometimes  yellowish  white,  occur- 
ring both  massive  and  crystallized  in  rhombic  prisms,  the 
edges  and  angles  of  which  are  cut  off  by  planes.  It  is 
composed  of  boracic  acid,  silica,  and  lime,  with  a  little 
water.  It  has  been  found  both  in  gneiss  and  in  trap  rocks. 
The  Salisbury  Crags  and  Corstorphine  Hill,  near  Edin- 
burgh, are  localities  for  datholite. 

DATISCACE^,  dd-fis-kd' se-e:  small  nat.  ord.  of  plants, 
allied  to  Begoniacece,  and  consisting  of  herbs  and  trees,  na- 
tives chietiy  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  N.  Hemisphere. 
Datisca  caniiabina,  a  plant  much  resembling  hemp  in  its 
general  appearance,  a  native  of  Crete,  possesses  very 
marked  tonic  properties.  It  contains  also  an  amylaceous 
substance,  called  Datiscin,  resembling  inuline.  It  affords 
a  yellow  dye. 

DATIVE,  a.  dd'tiv  [L.  datlms,  that  is  given,  dative; 
datus,  given]:  the  case  of  nouns  that  usually  follows  verbs 
expressing  giving,  or  an  act  directed  to  an  object;  this  re- 
lation in  Eng.  is  expressed  by  to  or  for:  see  Declension. 

DATIVE,  a.  da'tiv:  see  Executor  Dative. 

DATNIA,  n.  dat'ni-a:  genus  of  fishes,  sub-family 
Helotinm,  family  Percidm,  or  Perches. 

DATURINE,  n.  dd-tu'rin  [from  Ar.  name  tdtdrali]:  a 
white,  crystalline,  poisonous  compound  or  alkaloid,  ob- 
tained from  all  the  species  of  thorn-apple— e.g.,  the  Datura 
strdmommn.    Datura:  see  Thorn-apple. 

DAUB,  n.  dawb  [from  dab,  an  imitation  of  the  sound 
made  by  throwing  down  a  lump  of  something  moist:  OF. 
dauber,  to  plaster — from  L.  dealbdre,  to  whitewash — from 
de,  down;  albus,  white:  Gael,  dob,  to  plaster]:  a  coarse 
painting:  V.  to  smear  or  cover  with  any  soft  matter;  to 
plaster;  to  paint  coarsely;  to  lay  or  put  on  without  taste. 
Daub  ing,  imp.  Daubed,  pp.  dawbd.  Daub  er,  n.  one 
who.    Daub  Y,  a.  4,  slimy;  adhesive. 

DAUBEISTTON,  do-bong -tong' ,  Louis  Jean  Marie:  1716' 
May  29— 1800,  Jan.  1;  b.  Montbar,  Burgundy:  French 
naturalist.  His  father  wished  him  to  be  an  ecclesiastic, 
and  sent  him  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  theology  at  the  Sor- 
bonne  in.  Paris,  but  D.  had  no  inclination  for  this  study, 
and  turned  to  medicine  and  anatomy.  In  1741,  after  he 
had  taken  his  degree  at  Rheims,  he  returned  to  Montbar  to 
practice  his  profession.  In  the  following  year  his  old 
school-fellow,  the  Comte  de  Buffon,  induced  him  to  come 
to  Paris,  and  assist  him  in  the  preparation  of  his  great  work 
on  natural  history.  For  this  office  D.  was  admirably 
qualified.  The  sobriety  of  his  understanding,  the  scrupu- 
lous care  with  which  he  pursued  the  smallest  investigations, 
his  perseverance  and  industry,  were  in  complete  contrast  to 
the  impatient  spirit  and  rapid  generalizing  of  his  brilliant 
coadjutor,  and  enabled  him  to  correct  and  moderate  some 
of  Buffon 's  hasty  theories,  as  well  as  to  substantially  enrich 
the  work  with  a  multitude  of  new  and  important  facts  re- 


DAUBENY-BAXJDET. 

lative  to  the  anatomy  of  animals.  Unfortunately,  Buffon, 
who  was  exceedingly  jealous,  allowed  himself  to  be  in- 
fluenced unfavorably  in  regard  to  D.,  on  account  of  the 
high  estimation  in  which  the  Parisian  savans  generally 
held  him.  The  result  was  an  estrangement  (ultimately  re- 
conciled), and  D.,  who  had  contributed  richly  to  the  first 
1 5  vols,  of  the  Histoire  Naturelle,  ceased  to  have  further 
connection  with  the  work,  and  the  labors  of  others  ill -sup- 
plied the  lack.  In  1778,  D.  was  made  prof,  of  natural 
history  in  the  College  of  Medicine.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  convention  appointed  him  prof,  of  mineralogy 
in  the  Museum  of  National  History. 

Besides  his  labors  in  connection  with  the  Histoire  Natu- 
relle, D.  contributed  largely  to  the  first  Encyclopedie.  In 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences,  and  in  those 
of  the  Societe  de  Medecine,  are  to  be  found  a  multitude  of 
his  most  interesting  and  valuable  papers.  Cuvier  com- 
posed a  notice  of  D.  's  life  and  works  for  the  Memoirs  of 
the  Institute. 

DAUBENY,  dob' 111  or  dawh'ni,  Charles  Giles  Brtdle, 
M.D.,  F.R.S.:  prof,  of  botany  and  chemistry  in  the  Univ. 
of  Oxford;  d.  1867,  Dec.  12.  His  field  was  the  elucidation 
of  natural  phenomena  by  chemical  science.  His  attention 
was  early  directed  to  the  chemistry  of  volcanic  action,  and 
one  of  his  first  productions  was  An  Essay  on  the  Geological 
and  Chemical  Phenomena  of  Volcanoes  (Oxford  1824):  fol- 
low^ed  by  his  great  work,  A  Description  of  Active  and  Extinct 
Volcanoes  (Lon^..  1826),  applying  the  principles  of  chemistry 
to  the  phenomena  produced  by  volcanic  changes.  In  1837, 
he  visited  America  for  scientific  purposes,  and  published 
the  results  of  his  observations  in  two  vols..  Notice  of  t/ie 
Tfiermal  SjTi'ings  of  N.  America  (1838)  and  Sketch  of  the  Geol- 
ogy of  N.  America.  His  Introduction  ix)  the  Atomic  TJieory 
(1831),  Lectures  on  Agricuitare  (1841)  and  Lectures  on  Gli- 
mate  (1862),  are  very  valuable. 

DAUBER,  daw'her:  wasp  of  the  Sphegidce  family,  order 
Pelopams;  found  in  various  parts  of  America,  and  named 
D.  and  mud-wasp  because  the  female  collects  lumps  of 
mud  in  her  mouth  and  builds  her  nest  with  them  in  a  series 
of  cells.  She  then  lays  one  egg  in  each  cell,  puts  in  it  a 
paralyzed  spider,  and  seals  the  opening.  When  the  egg 
hatches,  the  grub  finds  the  spider  to  be  food  suflacient  to 
last  till  it  is  strong  enough  to  burst  its  cell  and  enter  on  an 
independent  career. 

DAUBERY,  n.  daiD'her-l,  or  Daubry,  n.  dawh'ri  [Ger. 
zauberei,  magic,  witchcraft]:  in  OE.,  enchantment;  witch- 
craft; artful  magic  tricks. 

D'aubignI::  see  Merle  d'Atjbigne. 
DAU'CUS:  see  Carrot. 

DAUDET:  dd-dd\  Alphonse:  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lar of  living  French  novelists;  b.  Nimes,  in  Provence,  1840. 
Much  of  his  childhood  was  spent  at  Lyons,  amid  somewhat 
dismal  circumstances,  which  he  has  touchingly  described 
in  his  first  long  story,  Le  Petit  Chose.    After  a  short  bond- 

556 


DAUGHTER— DAUN. 

age  as  an  ill-paid  usher  in  a  small  provincial  college,  lie 
came  to  Paris  still  a  youth,  and  gradually  worked  his  way 
to  his  acknowledged  place  among  the  most  charming  story- 
tellers of  the  day.  His  earlier  works  were  Leitres  de  mon 
Moulin,  Contes  du  Lundi,  the  amusing  history  of  Tartarin 
de  Tarascon,  and  the  delightful  series  of  letters  entitled 
Robert  Helmont.  These  works  revealed  to  Frenchmen  a 
genius  of  rare  quality  and  interest,  full  of  brightness  and 
warmth,  with  all  the*  spontaneity  and  loquacity  of  the  Pro- 
vencal, and  a  wonderful  observer  of  all  external  things, 
lightened  up  by  the  ray  of  fancy  and  the  tremor  of  feeling. 
Some  of  his  later  works,  especially  Jack  and  Le  Nabob,  show 
distinct  traces  of  the  intiuence  of  Dickens  in  the  overdone 
pathos  and  intensification  of  some  of  the  situations.  His 
great  successes  in  his  longer  works  have  been  portraits  of 
known  individuals.  Fremont  jeune  et  Risler  aine,  Le  Nabab, 
Les  Rois  en  Exit,  and  Numa  Roumestan,  are  galleries  of  con- 
temporary Parisian  figures.  The  novelist's  dexterity  alone 
has  saved  him  from  the  peril  of  vulgarity  incident  to  such  a 
choice  of  subjects,  as  it  is  his  constant  sense  of  beauty  that 
has  lifted  him  out  of  the  contagious  influence  of  contem- 
porary realism.  An  interesting  sketch  of  his  early  life  has 
been  written  by  his  brother  Ernest,  himself  no  mean  novel- 
ist, under  the  title  Mon  Frere  et  Moi:  Souvenirs  d'Enfance  et 
de  Jeunesse  (Paris  1882).  See  also  an  article  by  Mr.  Henry 
James,  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  1882,  June. 

DAUGHTER,  n.  daic'ter  [Dut.  docJiter;  Ger.  tocJiter; 
Gr.  thug'ater,  a  daughter:  Skr.  duliitri,  a  daughter — from 
dull,  to  milk:  Lap.  dahtar;  AS.  doJiter,  a  daughter]:  a 
female  child;  female  offspring;  a  term  of  affection  for  a 
female.  Daughter-in  law,  n.  a  son's  wife.  Daugh'- 
TERLY,  a.  -li,  dutiful.    Daugh'terliness,  n. 

DAUK,  n. :  see  Dawk. 

DAUK,  n.  dawk:  a  provincial  term  for  a  stratum  of 
tough  sandy  clay. 

DAULATABAD':  see  Dowlatabad. 

DAUMIER,  do  me -a',  Henri:  French  caricaturist;  b. 
Marseille,  1810.  Fashion,  tittle-tattle,  scandal,  politics, 
blemishes  of  figure,  and  oddities  of  character  have  in  turn 
inspired  his  inexhaustible  genius  for  mockery.  Few  among 
his  illustrious  contemporaries  have  escaped  his  pencil,  and 
the  worst  of  it  is,  that  his  caricatures  have  always  some 
strikingly  truthful  feature  about  them.  D.  made  his  debut 
in  the  Charivari,  in  a  series  of  ^^QiohQ^irom Robert Macaire, 
after  which  followed  Les  Actualites,  Les  Divorceuses,  Les 
Femmes  Socialistes,  Les  Philan  thropes  du  Jom\  Les  Grecs,  Les 
Gens  de  Justice,  Les  Rons  Bourgeois,  Les  Pastorales,  and  Les 
Papas.  The  revolution  of  1848  suggested  two  of  his  most 
remarkable  series — Idylles  Farlementaires,  and  Les  rep^esen- 
tants  representes.  D.  is  one  of  the  contributors  to  the  Chari- 
mri.  He  has  been  called  by  Fi'ench  critics  the  Aristophanes 
and  the  Paul  Louis  Courier,  of  caricature. 

DAUN,  down,  Leopold  Josef  Maria,  Graf  von:  com- 
paander-in- chief  of  the  imperial  troops  during  the  Seven 

{.57 


DAUNG— DAUPHIN. 

Years' War:  1705,  Sep.  25-1766,  Feb.  5;  b.  Vienna;  son  of 
AVirich  Philipp  Lorenz  von  D.,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the 
Austrian  service.  Entering  his  father's  regiment,  he  acquired 
reputation  during  the  Turkish  campaigns,  1737-39.  The  Aus- 
trian wars  of  succession  gave  opportunity  for  enhancing 
his  fame  for  valor  and  prudence.  After  the  peace  with 
Prussia  1745,  D.  became  master-gen.  of  the  ordnance, 
fought  against  the  French  in  the  Netherlands  1746-48,  and 
in  1754  received  the  digrdty  of  tield-raarshaL  Before  this, 
he  had,  in  spite  of  many  obstacles,  introduced  into  the  im- 
perial army  a  new  military  system,  and  reorganized  the 
Military  Acad,  at  Vienna.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  he  commanded  the  army  of  Moravia  in 

1757,  and  neutralized  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  under 
General  Broune  near  Prague,  b}^  driving  Fiiedrich  XL,  who 
had  beleaguered  that  city,  as  far  as  Collin,  and  forcing  the 
king,  after  a  hard-fought  battle,  to  evacuate  Bohemia. 

1758,  Oct.  14,  he  gained  another  victory  over  Friedrich, 
at  Hochkirch,and  but  for  the  too  late  arrival  of  the  Prince 
of  Baden-Durlach  with  reinforcements,  would  probably 
have  annihilated  the  Prussian  army.  At  Maxen  1759,  Nov. 
25,  he  compelled  Fink,  the  Prussian  general,  with  11,000 
men,  to  surrender.  After  this  he  gained  no  important  suc- 
cesses, as  Friedrich  began  to  understand  his  tactics,  and  to 
conduct  his  campaigns  accordingly. 

DATING,  daicng:  tract  within  the  presidency  of  Bombay; 
950  sq.  m.  extending  in  n.  lat.  from  20"  22'  to  21°  5',  and  in 
e.  long,  from  73^  28'  to  73  52'.  It  is  subdivided  into  several 
petty  states,  the  whole  under  one  feudal  chief,  styled  the 
Kajah  of  Daung.  The  country  is  valuable  principally  on 
account  of  its  teak-forests,  which  are  rented  by  the  British 
government.    Pop.  70,300. 

DAUNT,  V.  ddnt  [F.  dompter,  to  tame— from  OF. 
danter  and  dontei\  to  tame:  Scot,  dant,  to  subdue:  L. 
domltdre,  to  tame — lit.  to  subdue  by  fear]:  to  dishearten; 
to  discourage;  to  check  by  fear;  to  dismay.  Daunt  ing, 
imp.  Daunted,  pp.  Daunt  less,  a.  bold;  fearless;  not 
timid.  Daunt'lessly,  ad.  -li.  Daunt'lessness,  n.  fear- 
lessness; intrepidity. 

Dx\UPHIN,  n.  daw'fin  [OF.  daulphin—h'om  L.  and  Gr. 
delpMn,  a  dolphin,  a  star] :  originally  the  name  or  title  of  the 
lord  of  BaupJiine— said  to  have  been  so  named  from  wearing 
a  dolphin  as  his  cognizance;  a  title  of  the  eldest  sou  of  the 
king  of  France  from  1349  to  the  revolution  in  1830,  assumed 
on  the  acquisition  of  Dauphine  by  France;  his  wife  was 
called  Dauph'iness. — The  last  sovereign  lord  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Dauphine,  Humbert  IT,  dying  childless  (1349),  be- 
queathed his  possessions  to  Charles  of  Valois,  grandson  of 
Philippe  VI.  of  France,  on  condition  that  the  heir-apparent 
to  the  throne  of  France  should  bear  the  title  of  D.  of  Vienne, 
and  govern  the  province.  Louis  IX.  conferred  on  the  D. 
almost  sovereign  rights;  but  after  his  time  these  were  grad- 
ually abridged,  until  Dauphine  was  placed  under  the  same 
laws  as  the  rest  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  title  became  merely 

558 


DAUPHINE— D'AYENANT. 

honorary.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  it  was  abolished 
altogether. 

DAUPHINE,  dd-fe-nd':  formerly  a  frontier  province  in 
the  south-west  of  France,  now  comprises  the  depts.  Drome, 
Isere,  and  Hautes  Alpes.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, D.  formed  the  southern-most  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Burgundy.  It  then  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Franks,  and  after  the  dismemberment  of  the  Carloviiigiau 
monarchy,  it  became  a  portion  of  the  new  Burgundian  king- 
dom of  Aries.  It  then  passed  by  legacy  into  the  possession 
of  the  German  emperor  1032,  and  remained  united  with 
Germany  till  the  middle  of  the  Mlh  c,  when  it  was  pre 
sented  to  France  by  the  last  of  the  lords  of  Daupbine:  see 
Dauphin.  The  old  rulers  of  the  land  bore  the  title  of 
Dauphin  (probably  from  having  the  figure  of  a  dolphin  for 
their  crest),  and  the  name  was  afterward  transferred  to  the 
district. 

DAUPHIN'S  CROWN:  circle  of  gold  set  round  with 
ei^\iifleurs  de  lis,  closed  at  the  top  with  four  dolphins,  their 
tails  conjoined  in  nfleur  de  lis. 

DAUW,  daiD  (Eqiius  Burchellii):  South  African  quadru- 
ped, regarded  as  intermediate  between  the  zebra  and  the 
quagga,  and  called  sometimes  Zebra  of  the  Plains,  and  by 
the  Cape  colonists  Bonte  Quagga,  or  Striped  Quagga.  In 
the  language  of  the  Bechuanas,  it  is  Peetsi.  It  is  found  in 
numerous  herds  in  the  wide  plains  north  of  the  Orange 
river,  is  rather  larger  than  the  zebra,  and  of  more  robust 
figure;  of  a  light  bay  color,  the  belly,  legs,  and  tail  white; 
the  face,  head,  and  body  striped  with  black;  the  tail  is  tufted 
to  near  the  root.  The  hoofs  are  much  less  concave  be- 
neath than  those  of  the  zebra,  and  are  thus  adapted  to  the 
plains,  as  those  of  the  zebra  are  to  the  rough  surface  of  the 
mountains.  The  D.  is  less  easily  domesticated  than  the 
quagga,  but  more  so  than  the  zebra. — This,  or  a  very  similar 
species,  is  found  as  far  n.  as  Congo  and  the  Galla  country. 

DAVALLIA,  n.  da-vcil  Ti-a  [named  after  Edmund  Bamll, 
a  Swiss  botanist] :  genus  of  Polypodiacece ,  the  typical  and 
only  one  of  the  sub-tribe  Dayallie^e,  -e'e,  tribe  Poly- 
podecB. 

D'AYENANT,  dav'en-ant,  Sir  William:  English  poet 
and  playright:  1605  (or  6) — 1668,  Apr.  7;  b.  Oxford,  where 
his  father  kept  the  Crown  Inn — a  house  at  which  Shakes- 
peare was  in  the  habit  of  staying  on  his  journeys  between 
London  and  Stratford.  D.,  while  still  a  child,  had  a  great 
admiration  for  Shakespeare,  and  when  only  10  years  of 
age,  on  the  occasion  of  Shakespeare's  death,  the  precocious 
boy  penned  an  ode  In  Rememhrance  of  Master  William 
Shalcespeare.  He  began  to  write  for  the  stage  1628,  and 
10  years  afterward,  on  the  death  of  Ben  Jonson,  he  was 
appointed  poet-laureate.  He  afterward  became  manager  of 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  but  entering  into  the  intrigues  of  the 
civil  war,  was  apprehended,  and  cast  into  the  Tower.  He 
escaped,  however,  to  France,  and  returning,  distinguished 
himself  so  much  in  the  cause  of  the  royalists,  that  he  was 
knighted  by  Charles  after  the  battle  of  Gloucester.    D,  a 

559 


DAVENPORT. 

second  time  fell  into  difficulties,  and  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  for  two  years,  when  he  was  released,  as  is  said,  on 
the  intercession  of  Milton.  Once  more  free,  he  set  about 
establishing  a  theatre,  and  succeeded.  After  the  Restoration, 
he  was  favored  by  royal  patronage,  and  continued  to  write 
and  superintend  the  performance  of  plays  until  his  death. 
D.'s  epic,  entitled  Gondibert,  a  poem  of  about  6,000  lines,  is 
now  almost  wholly  forgotten. 

Charles  D.,  1656-f?14,  son  of  Sir  William  D.,  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  writer  on  political  economy  and  finance. 
His  chief  works  are — An  Essay  upon  Ways  and  Means  of 
Supplying  the  War  (1695);  Discourses  on  the  Public  Revenues 
and  the  Trade  of  England  (1698);  A  Discourse  upon  Grants 
(1700),  etc. 

DAVENPORT,  n.  dad  en-port  [said  to  be  after  the 
Countess  of  Devonport]:  a  lady's  drawing-room  writing- 
table  with  drawers  underneath. 

DAVENPORT,  ddd  en-port:  city,  cap.  of  Scott  co.,  lo.; 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  opposite  Rock  Island,  111.,  the 
Chicago  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroad,  and  at  the  s. 
terminus  of  the  D.  and  St.  Paul  railroad;  70  m.  s.  of  Du- 
buque, 184  m.  w.  by  s.  of  Chicago,  330  m.  n.  by  w.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  was  founded  1835,  incorporated  1842,  and  char- 
tered 1851.  It  is  built  at  the  foot  of  the  upper  rapids  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  stretches  from  the  base  up  the  slope 
and  over  the  summit  of  a  bluff  that  extends  nearly  4  m. 
along  the  river.  The  city  is  connected  with  Rock  Island 
(and  with  the  city  of  Rock  Island),  a  famous  govt,  station 
and  site  of  the  central  U.  S.  armory  and  arsenal,  by  an  iron 
bridge  accommodating  railroad,  carriage,  and  foot  traffic, 
constructed  jointly  by  the  U.  S.  govt,  and  the  Chicago  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific  railroad  at  a  cost  of  over  $1,000,000. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  co.  court-house,  city-hall, 
imposing  opera-house,  and  the  D.  library;  the  educational 
buildings  are  a  high  school,  normal  school,  several  gram- 
mar and.  parochial  schools,  Griswold  College  (Prot.  Episc), 
St.  Catherine's  Hall,  Academy  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion (Rom.  Cath.).  Seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  (Rom. 
Cath.),  a  large  business  college,  and  an  acad.  of  natural 
sciences;  among  charitable  institutions  are  a  branch  of  the 
lo.  soldiers'  home,  and  a  Rom.  Cath.  hospital.  There  are 
30  churches:  Bapt.  3,  Rom.  Cath.  4,  Luth.  4,  Meth.  Episc. 
5,  Presb.  3,  Prot.  Episc.  5,  Congl.  2,  and  Christian,  He- 
brew, Unit.  Brethren,  and  Unit.  1  each.  The  city  is 
lighted  with  gas  and  electricity,  has  an  abundant  water 
supply  and  a  modern  fire  dept.,  is  the  see  of  the  Prot.  Episc. 
Church  in  lo.  and  of  the  D.  diocese  of  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church,  and  is  in  a  rich  farming  and  bituminous-coal 
region.  In  1880  it  had  188  manufacturing  establishments, 
using  a  capital  of  $2,806,222,  employing  1,705  hands,  pay- 
ing in  wages  $685,469,  and  yielding  products  valued  at 
$4,468,978.  It  has  extensive  manufactories  of  farming 
implements,  agricultural  machinery,  saddlery  and  harness, 
woolen  goods,  carriages,  furniture,  steam-engines,  cordage, 
clothing,  pottery,  and  cigars,  and  does  a  large  business  in 

560 


DAVENPORT— DAVID. 

lumber.  There  are  3  national  and  3  savings  banks  with  a 
capital  of  $890,000,  3  insurance  companies,  and  4  daily 
and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1870)20,038;  (1875)21,234; 
(1880)  21,831;  (1885)  23,830. 

DAVENPORT,  Edward  Loomis:  1814,  Nov.  15—1877, 
Sep.  1;  b.  Boston:  actor.  He  made  his  first  appearance  at 
the  Lion  Theatre,  Providence,  R.  I.,  when  22  years  old, 
playing  Parson  Will  to  Junius  Brutus  Booth's  Sir  Giles 
Overreach  in  A  New  Way  to  Fay  Old  Debts.  After  a  season 
at  the  Bowery  Theatre,  New  York,  he  appeared  at  the  Wal- 
nut Street  Theatre,  Philadelphia,  as  Count  Montalban  in 
The  Honeymoon,  1838,  and  then  confined  himself  to  Boston 
till  1847,  when  he  accompanied  Mrs.  Anna  Cora  Mowatt  to 
England  and  played  Claude  Melnotte  to  her  Pauline  in  the 
large  cities,  and  supported  Macready  two  seasons.  In  1854 
he  j-eturued  to  the  United  States;  1859  became  manager  of 
the  Howard  Athenaeum,  Boston,  and  1869  of  the  Chestnut 
Street  Theatre,  Philadelphia;  1873  was  at  Wood's  Museum, 
New  York,  and  1875-6  played  the  part  of  Brutus  in  the  long 
run  of  Julius  Ccesar  at  Booth's  Theatre.  He  married  Fanny 
E.  Vining,  daughter  of  the  manager  of  the  Haymarket 
Theatre  London,  by  whom  he  had  six  children,  all  of  whom 
went  on  the  stage.  Of  these,  Fanny  D.  is  the  best  known 
in  the  amusement  world. 

DAVENPORT,  John:  1597-1670,  Mar.  15;  b.  Coventry, 
England:  first  minister  of  New  Haven,  Conn.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford  Univ.,  entered  the  Anglican  priesthood, 
was  appointed  chaplain  in  Hilton  Castle,  and  minister  of  St. 
Stephen's  Church,  London;  became  a  non-conformist,  re- 
signed his  charge  and  removed  to  Holland  1633,  and  with- 
drew from  the  Established  Church  1635.  He  aided  in 
securing  the  patent  of  the  Mass.  colony,  and  immigrated 
to  Boston  1637;  was  received  with  much  consideration  and 
tendered  a  seat  in  the  synod;  but,  disapproving  the  religious 
controversies  then  pending,  went  to  Quinipiac  and  founded 
the  colony  of  New  Haven  1638.  He  preached  the  first 
sermon  on  the  Sunda}^  following  his  arrival,  became  one  of 
the  seven  pillars  of  the  colonial  govt.,  hid  the  regicides 
Goffe  and  Whalley  in  his  house,  preached  in  New  Haven 
30  years,  and  succeeded  John  Wilson  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Church,  Boston,  1668,  Dec.  9. 

DAVENTRY,  dmen-tri,  local  pron.  doji'tre:  ancient 
municipal  borough  in  the  west  of  Northamptonshire,  Eng- 
land, at  the  sources  of  the  Avon  and  Nene,  13  m.  w.  of 
Northampton,  and  near  the  Birmingham  Railway,  Grand 
Junction  Canal,  and  Watling  Street.  It  is  well  built  on  an 
eminence,  and  has  two  principal  streets.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  shoes  and  whips  for  export.  D.  was  occupied 
by  Charles  I.  1645,  before  the  battle  of  Naseby.  A  mile  to 
the  east  of  D.,  on  Dane's  or  Borough  Hill,  is  a  foot-shaped 
Roman  camp,  supposed  to  be  Ben-avenna,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom.  Near  it  is  another  of  an  acre  in  extent. 
Pop.  (1881)  3,859. 

DAVID,  dd-ved' :  town  of  recent  origin,  on  the  left  bank 
of  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  Panama,  one  of  the  federal 

561 


DAVID. 

provinces  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  (formerly  New 
Granada),  on  the  frontier  of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America; 
lat.  8^  23  n.,  and  long.  82^  27'  w.  It  is  separated  hy  a  com- 
paratively narrow  part  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  from  the 
lagoon  of  Chiriqui,  an  inlet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which, 
with  sutlicient  depth  for  large  ships,  penetrates  nearly  50  m. 
into  the  land  toward  the  Pacific  Ocean.  To  this  position 
the  place  appears  to  owe  its  prosperity.  It  exports  rice, 
coffee,  hides,  turtle,  shells,  and  gold-dust.  Its  climate  is 
understood  to  be  comparatively  salubrious.  Pop.  upward 
of  4,000. 

DAVID,  dd'vid  (Heb.  'Beloved'),  King  of  Israel:  b.c. 
1085-1015  (according  to  the  common  reckoning);  b.  Bethle- 
hem; eighth  and  youngest  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
He  was  probably  educated  in  one  of  the  schools  of  the 
prophets.  He  first  publicly  signalized  himself  by  slaying 
Goliath  of  Gath,  a  gigantic  Philistine,  who  had  'defied  the 
armies  of  Israel.'  Previously,  he  had  acquired  repute  as  a 
skilful  harper,  and  had  subdued  by  his  music  the  paroxysms 
of  insanity  which  afllicted  King  Saul  at  certain  seasons. 
The  prophet  Samuel,  by  divine  command,  anointed  D.  king 
during  the  lifetime  of  Saul,  who  soon  began  to  regard  him 
as  a  dangerous  enemy,  and  persecuted  him.  A  kind  of 
intermittent  war  between  the  two  was  the  consequence,  in 
which  D.  was  often  reduced  to  great  straits.  At  first,  he 
was  simply  in  the  position  of  a  guerilla  chief,  and  his  com- 
rades were  mainly  persons  in  desperate  circumstances—*  all 
who  were  in  distress,  in  debt,  or  discontented.'  Latterly,  he 
lived  among  the  Philistines  as  one  of  themselves,  and  from 
the  Philistine  prince  of  Gath  obtained  a  present  of  the  strong 
fortress  of  Ziklag,  after  which  he  was  joined  by  a  class  very 
different  from  his  original  outlaws — men  of  consideration, 
and  tried  warriors,  from  various  tribes.  The  contest  betw^een 
him  and  Saul  now  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  civil  war. 
It  ended  only  at  the  death  of  Saul,  whereupon  D.  ascended 
the  throne  of  Judah,  with  the  city  of  Hebron  as  his  capital. 
The  other  tribes  elected  Ishbosheth,  a  son  of  Saul,  to  be 
their  king,  after  whose  violent  death  D.  first  acquired  pos- 
session of  the  entire  kingdom,  b.c.  1055,  over  which  he  ruled 
until  his  death.  His  first  undertaking  in  his  new  office  w^as 
a  war  against  the  Jebusites.  He  took  their  chief  city,  Jeru- 
salem, and  made  it  his  residence,  as  also  the  centre  of  the 
religious  worship  of  the  Hebrews.  Subsequently,  he  sub- 
jugated the  Philistines,  Amalekites,  Edomites,  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and,  after  a  long  war,  the  Syrians.  His  king- 
dom now  stretched  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  from  Syria  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  contained  a  population 
of  5,000,000.  He  fostered  navigation  and  trade,  especially 
with  Tyre,  and  sought  to  instruct  the  Hebrews  in  the  arts. 
No  less  careful  was  he  of  the  religion  of  his  countrymen. 
He  divided  the  priests  and  Levites  into  classes,  and  ap- 
pointed sacred  singers  and  poets  for  the  musical  service  of 
God.  Law  and  justice  likewise  received  improvement  at 
his  hands,  through  the  institution  of  higher  and  lower  judi- 
ciary courts,  while  he  secured  the  stability  of  his  power  by 
the  formation  of  a  standing  army.    He  was  a  warrior  king 

562 


DAVID  I. 

of  far-famed  prowess.  Besides  this,  there  were  12  governors 
over  the  tribes  of  Israel.  D.  was  not,  however,  without  his 
trials.  Two  conspiracies  were  formed  against  him  in  his 
own  family,  and  though  both  failed,  they  greatly  imbittercd 
his  life.  His  sensual  excesses,  the  constant"  offense  of  ori 
ental  kings, — occasional  lapses  in  him— also  drove  him  into 
acts  of  criminality,  the  memory  of  which  haunted  him 
through  life.  '  My  sin  is  continually  before  me.'  Yet  wc 
cannot  help  recognizing  in  the  man,  in  spite  of  all  his  in- 
firmities and  sins,  a  sincerity  of  moral  feeling  rarely  equalled 
in  history.  His  passions  might  lead  him  astray,  but  they 
never  blinded  his  conscience.  From  his  evil  wanderings  he 
returned  with  utmost  humiliation,  deep  repentance,  and  new 
purpose  of  uprightness.  The  crime  once  committed,  D.  never 
tried  to  find  excuses  for  it,  and  so  blunt  the  edge  of  his  de- 
served misery.  The  psalms  which  he  has  left  reveal  to  us 
the  soul  of  the  royal  poet  wrestling  with  a  host  of  black 
troubles,  fears,  antl  doubts,  out  of  which,  however,  as  from 
the  seething  bosom  of  chaos,  there  emerges  at  last  a  '  full- 
orbed  faith,'  made  perfect  by  suffering  and  much  tribula- 
tion. There  has  never  been  trust  in  God  more  clear,  un- 
wavering, and  tender,  than  that  expressed  in  the .23d  Psalm. 
It  is  this  many-sided  experience  of  life  that  has  made  the 
*  Psalms  of  David '  (though  it  is  uncertain  who  made  the 
collection,  which  contains  many  not  written  by  David  him- 
self) the  most  precious  heritage  of  the  afflicted  and  tried  in 
all  ages  of  the  Christian  Church.  By  those  theologians  who 
look  upon  Jewish  history  as  having  a  typical  or  allegorical 
meaning  as  well  as  a  literal  one,  D.  is  regarded  as  a  type 
of  Christ. 

DAVID  I.  (often  called  Sr.  Dayid),  King  of  Scotland: 
abt.  1080-1153,  May  24;  youngest  of  the  six  sons  of  King 
Malcolm  Ceanmohr,  by  his  second  wife,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
princess,  St.  Margaret  (q.v.).  During  the  fierce  struggle 
for  the  Scottish  crown,  which  followed  the  death  of  his 
father  1093,  the  youthful  D.  seems  to  have  found  refuge  in 
England,  with  his  sister,  Eadgyth  or  Matilda,  who,  in  1100, 
married  Henry  I.,  King  of  England.  The  residence  of  D. 
at  the  court  of  this  accomplished  monarch  appears  to  have 
been  prolonged  for  several  years,  and  the  assertion  of  a  con- 
temporary English  annalist  may  be  credited,  that  *  it  freed 
him  from  the  rust  of  Scottish  barbarity.' 

In  1107,  his  elder  brother,  Alexander,  succeeded  to  the 
throne;  and  D.  became  prince  of  Cumbria,  a  territory  which 
comprised  what  are  now  the  shires  of  Cumberland,  Dum- 
fries, Roxburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Lanark,  Dumbarton, 
Renfrew,  and  Ayr,  and  was  held  of  the  English  king  by  the 
heir  of  the  king  of  the  Scots.  With  this  great  principality, 
he  seems  to  have  held  lands  in  Lothian;  and  by  his  mar- 
riage in  1110  with  Matilda,  widow  of  the  Earl  of  North- 
ampton, he  acquired  possession  of  that  earldom,  together 
with  a  claim  to  the  rest  of  the  vast  domains  of  her  father, 
Waltheof,  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  of  Northampton,  and  of 
Northumberland.  The  first  acts  of  D.,  as  prince  of  Cum- 
bria, were  to  restore  the  fallen  bishopric  of  Glasgow,  and 
to  bring  a  colony  of  Benedictine  monks  from  the  newly 

W6 


DAVID  I. 

fouDcled  monastery  of  Tiron,  in  France,  and  to  plant  tlieni 
beside  bis  forest  castle  of  Selkirk.  Tbis  was  in  1113;  and 
even  tbus  earl}^,  as  bis  cbarters  sbow,  be  bad  gatbered  round 
bim  tbe  Bruces,  tbe  Lindsays,  tbe  Moi  villes,  tbe  Umfray- 
villes,  tbe  Percies,  tbe  Riddels,  and  otber  Anglo  Korman 
knigbts,  tbrou^h  wbose  belp  be  was  to  elfect  sucb  a  momen- 
tous cbange  in  Scotland. 

In  1124,  be  succeeded  to  tbe  Scottisb  tbrone,  on  tbe  deatb 
of  bis  brotber.  King  Alexander  I.  Tbat  prince  bad  bad  to 
figbt  for  bis  crown  against  tbe  beirs  of  tbe  old  Celtic  dj^nas- 
ties,  supported  by  tbe  wild  tribes  of  tbe  nortb  and  tbe  west. 
Tbey  renewed  tbe  struggle  witb  bis  successor,  first  in  1130, 
wben  tbey  advanced  almost  to  tbe  gates  of  Brecbin;  and 
again  about  20  years  later,  wben  tbey  appear  to  bave  been 
encountered  on  tbe  plains  of  Murray.  On  botb  occasions, 
tbe  Anglo-Norman  cbivalry  witb  wbicb  D.  bad  garrisoned 
tbe  soutbern  provinces,  gave  bim  decisive,  but  far  from  easy 
victories.  He  was  less  fortunate  in  bis  wars  beyond  tbe 
Tweed.  In  1127,  be  bad  sworn,  witb  tbe  otber  great 
barons  of  England,  to  maintain  tbe  rigbt  of  bis  niece, 
Matilda,  as  beir  of  tbe  English  crown,  sbould  ber  fatber, 
Henry  I.,  die  witbout  male  issue  of  bis  own  body.  Tbe 
event  tbus  contemplated  came  to  pass  1135;  and  wben 
Stepben  mounted  tbe  Englisb  tbrone,  D.  took  arms  in 
bebalf  of  Matilda  and  subdued  almost  all  tbe  country  to 
tbe  soutb  of  Durbam.  Peace  was  restored  by  tbe  grant 
of  tbe  earldom  of  Huntingdon,  and  tbe  promise  of  tbe 
earldom  of  Nortbumberland,  to  D.'s  son  Henry,  tben  in 
bis  20tb  year.  But  tbe  war  was  soon  resmned;  and  in 
1138,  tbe  king  of  Scots,  deserted  by  Bruce  and  otbers 
of  bis  Anglo-Norman  vassals,  was  signally  defeated  in 
'tbe  Battle  of  tbe  Standard,'  near  Nortballerton.  Tbe 
next  year,  a  second  peace  was  concluded  between  tbe 
two  kings,  wben  tbe  promised  earldom  of  Nortbumberland 
was  bestowed  on  D.'s  son  Henry.  In  1141,  tbe  Scottisb 
king  marcbed  into  England  for  tbe  tbird  time  to  assert  tbe 
rigbts  of  Matilda.  He  was  a  tbird  time  defeated,  and  re- 
gained bis  owm  country  witb  difficulty. 

Tbe  rest  of  bis  reign  was  devoted  to  tbe  accomplisbment 
of  tbe  great  revolution  wbicb  bad  been  begun  by  bis  fatber, 
King  Malcolm,  and  bis  motber,  St.  Margaret,  and  continued 
by  bis  brotbers.  King  Edgar  and  King  Alexander— tbe  es- 
tablisbment  in  Scotland  of  tbe  civilization  wbicb  obtained 
in  England.  By  building  castles,  be  secured  tbe  peace  and 
safety  of  tbe  country;  by  erecting  burgbs,  be  promoted  its 
trade,  sbipping,  and  manufactures,  and  laid  tbe  founda- 
tions of  its  freedom;  by  endowing  bisboprics  and  monaster- 
ies, be  provided  bomes  for  tbe  only  men  of  learning  and 
enligbtenment  known  in  bis  time,  wben  tbey  were  tbe 
scboolmasters,  statesmen,  lawyers,  pbysicians,  bankers,  en- 
gineers, artists,  builders,  agriculturists,  of  tbe  age. 

King  D.  died  at  Carlisle.  His  son  Henry  bad  died  in  tbe 
previous  June,  and  be  was  succeeded  by  bis  grandson, 
Malcolm,  tben  in  bis  12tb  year.  Some  pleasing  traits  of 
King  D.'s  admirable  personal  cbaracter  are  preserved  in  tbe 
Eulogium  Davidis  Begis  Bcotorum,  by  bis  friend  St.  Ailred, 

564 


DAVID  II.— DAVID. 

abbot  of  Rievaux,  printed  in  Pinkcrton's  Vitm  Aniiqum  Sanc- 
torum Scotm  (Lond.  1789).  Other  instructive  materials  for 
the  king's  life  are  supplied  by  the  same  writer  in  his  tract 
Be  Bello  Standardi,  printed  (with  other  contemporary  ac- 
counts of  the  battle)  in  Twysden's  HistoricB  Anglicaim  Scrip- 
tores  Decern  (Lond.  1652);  and  by  Joceline  of  Furnes  in  his 
Vita  S.  Walthevi  (abbot  of  Melrose,  and  D.'s  stepson),  printed 
by  the  Bollandists  in  thaActa  Sanctorum,  and  in  a  less  per- 
fect state  in  Fordun's  Scotichronicon.  The  remains  of  D.'s 
legislation,  including  the  interesting  code  of  the  Leges  Bur- 
gorum,  have  been  carefully  collected  in  the  first  volume  of 
The  Acts  of  the  Parliaments  of  Scotland  (Edin.  1844). 

King  D.  is  often  called  St.  David.  He  was  never  form 
ally  canonized,  or  placed  in  the  roll  of  saints  of  the  Rom. 
Cath.  Church;  but  his  name  was  inserted  in  the  calendar 
prefixed  to  King  Charles's  Prayer-book  for  Scotland,  printed 
at  Edinburgh  1637. 

DAVID  II. :  see  Bruce. 

DAVID,  or  DEWI,  Saint:  patron  saint  of  Wales:  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  b.  abt.  the  end  of  the  5th  or  beginning  of 
the  6th  c. ;  d.  abt.  601;  son  of  the  Prince  of  Ceretica  (Cardi- 
ganshire). Having  resolved  on  a  religious  life,  he  spent  the 
customary  probationary  period  in  solitude,  after  which  he 
commenced  preaching.  He  built  a  chapel  at  Glastonbury, 
and  founded  twelve  monasteries,  the  chief  of  which  was  at 
Menevia,  in  the  vale  of  Ross.  At  the  synod  of  Brevy,  in 
Cardiganshire,  519,  St.  D.  showed  himself  a  strong  oppo- 
nent of  the  Pelagian  heresy.  Subsequently,  he  became  abp. 
of  Caerleon-upon-Usk,  but  transferred  his  see  to  Menevia, 
now  called  St.  Davids,  w^here  he  died.  St.  D.  was  celebrated 
for  eloquence  and  success  in  conversion.  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Ricemarch,  bp.' of  St.  Davids  (d.  abt.  1099).  The 
Historia  S.  Damdis,  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  written  about 
1175,  published  in  Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra,  is  little  more 
than  an  abridgment  of  Ricemarch 's  work. 

DAVID,  dd-v~ed',  Felicien:  1810,  Mar.  8—1876,  Aug.  29; 
b.  Cadenet,  dept.  of  Vaucluse:  French  musical  composer. 
He  was  at  first  a  chorister  in  the  cathedral  of  Aix,  and  at 
the  age  of  20  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire.  He  became 
an  ardent  disciple  of  St.  Simon,  afterward  of  Enfantin;  and 
finally,  on  the  break-up  of  the  brotherhood  attempted  at 
Meniimontant  1832,  he  betook  himself, with  11  of  his  fellow- 
dreamers,  to  the  East,  there  to  realize  his  theory  of  life  in  un- 
disturbed peace.  The  little  knot  of  enthusiasts  reached  Con- 
stantinople, whence  they  made  their  way  to  Smyrna  and  Cairo. 
As  they  had  no  means,  they  suffered  greatly  from  want,  sick- 
ness, and  ill-usage.  The  plague  forced  them  to  flee  from 
Egypt  to  the  coasts  of  Syria.  It  is  said  that  they  dragged  a 
piano  with  them  over  the  sands,  and  refreshed  themselves 
with  its  music,  when  they  rested  on  their  toil  some  march. 
Returning  to  France,  D.  remained  in  obscurity  till  1844, 
when  he  brought  out  at  the  Conservatoire  his  Desert,  a  grand 
Ode  symplwnie,  as  he  called  it,  the  words  of  which  were  fur- 
nished by  his  friend  and  fellow-wanderer,  Auguste  Colin. 
It  success  was  sudden  and  complete,    P.  was  declared  a 

£65 


DAVID. 

master  at  once,  and  his  Desert  was  performed  in  all  the 
theatres.  Subsequently,  he  travelled  through  Belgium  and 
Germany,  everywhere  greeted  with  applause.  Less  success- 
ful works  ^QTQ—Moise  sur  le  Sinai  (1846),  Christophe  Go- 
lambe,  and  Le  Paradis  (1847),  and  La  Perle  du  Bresil  (1851), 
Herculaneum  (1859),  and  Lalla  Rookh  (1862).  He  was  ap- 
pointed an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  1862 ;  and  librarian 
to  the  Paris  Conservatoire  de  Musique  1869. 

DAVID,  Jacques  Louis:  1748.  Aug.  30-1825,  Dec.  29; 
b.  Paris:  founder  of  the  modern  French  school  of  painting, 
and,  accordiugto  his  countrymen,  *  the  regenerator  of  Frcncn 
art.'  He  studied  under  Vien  both  at  Paris  and  Rome.  His 
first  efi'orts  by  no  means  indicated  the  latent  tendencies  of 
his  mind.  His  devotion  to  the  classic  style  of  art  was  first 
perceptible  to  any  extent  after  his  second  visit  to  Rome  1784, 
where  he  executed  his  Horatii.  It  excited  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  In  1787,  he  painted  The  Death  of  Socrates; 
in  L788,  The  Loves  of  Paris  and  ILelen;  and  in  1789,  Bru- 
tus Condemning  his  Son.  During  the  Revolution,  he  was 
artistic  superintendent  of  those  grand  national  fetes  and 
solemnities  that  recalled  (rather  theatrically)  the  customs  of 
ancient  Greece.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention,  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI  ;  he  was  a  hot  Jacolbin,  and  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  in  all  the  atroc- 
ities of  which  he  shared,  and,  in  consequence,  was  twice 
imprisoned  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  To  the  period  of 
the  Revolution  belong  his  Murder  of  Mar  at  y  Murder  of 
Pelletier,  and  his  Oath  taken  in  the  Tennis  Court.  His 
genius  culminated  in  the  Ra%>e  of  the  Sabines  (1799).  In 
1804,  Napoleon  appointed  him  his  first  painter,  and  gave  him 
a  number  of  commissions,  and  among  his  best  and  most 
celebrated  works  are  several  historic  portraits  of  the  em- 
peror, such  as  Napoleon  Crossing  the  Alps.  D.  was  warmly 
attached  to  Napoleon,  and  in  1814,  when  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington paid  a  visit  to  his  studio,  and  expressed  a  wish  that 
the  artist  would  paint  his  portrait,  he  coldly  replied:  *I 
never  paint  Englishmen.'  As  one  of  the  regicides  of  Louis 
XVI.,  he  was  banished  in  1816  from  France,  and  died  in  ex- 
ile at  Brussels.  D.'s  latter  style  is  more  free  and  natural 
than  his  earlier,  in  which  his  figures,  though  manifesting 
quite  an  ideal  beauty  of  form,  have  all  the  rigidity  of  sculpt- 
ure and  lack  vital  expression.  Among  his  paintings  during 
banishment  were — Love  and  Psyche,  The  Wrath  of  Achilles, 
and  Mars  Disarmed  by  Venus.  The  number  of  his  pupils 
who  acquired  distinction  was  very  great. 

DAVID, Pierre  Jean  (commonly  called  David  d' Angers): 
1789,  Mar.  12—1856,  Jan.  5;  b.  Angers:  French  sculptor. 
He  went  to  Paris  when  very  young,  and  studied  art  under 
his  namesake,  Jacques  Louis  D.  (q.v.).  In  1811,  his  Death 
of  Epaminondas  obtained  the  first  prize  for  sculpture  given 
by  the  Acad,  of  Arts.  In  1816,  he  returned  to  France.  A 
statue  of  the  Great  Conde,  which  he  executed  about  this  time, 
established  his  reputation.  In  1826,  he  was  named  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute,  and  appointed  a  prof,  in  the  School  of 
the  Fine  Arts.   Two  years  later,  he  went  to  Germany,  where 

566 


DAVIDISTS-DAVIDS. 

he  executerl  a  colossal  bust  of  Goethe  for  the  library  at  Wei- 
mar; and  in  a  second  tour  1834,  similar  busts  of  Dannecker, 
Schelling,  Tieck,  and  Ranch,  as  well  as  many  portrait  stat- 
ues of  life-size.  During  the  July  revolution,  D.  had  fought 
in  the  ranks  of  the  people,  and,  in  consequence,  he  was 
employed  by  the  new  government  to  execute  the  frontis- 
piece of  the  Pantheon  1835.  He  tinished  it  1837.  By  many 
it  is  considered  his  chef -d'mcDre.  In  1848,  the  well-known  re- 
publicanism of  the  artist  procured  him  a  seat  in  the  constit- 
uent assembly.  After  the  coup-d'etat  he  w^as  sent  into  ex- 
ile and  went  to  Greece,  but  soon  returned  to  France.  The 
principal  of  his  many  w^orks  are— ^  Young  Girl  at  the 
Tomb  of  Botzaris,  A  Monument  of  Bonchamp,  A  Virgin 
at  the  Foot  of  the  Gross,  a  Saint  John,  statues  of  General 
Foy,  Marshal  St.  Cyr,  Corneille,  Fenelon,  and  Racine,  and 
busts  of  La  Fayette,  Reran ger,  Rossini.  Chateaubriand,  Bal 
zac,  and  Casimir  Delavigne.  There  is  great  force  of  expres- 
sion in  many  of  D 's  works,  but  the  drawing  and  execution 
are  not  always  accurate. 

DAVIDISTS,  dd'md-ists:  sect,  followers  of  David  of 
Dinant.  Their  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  Synod  of 
Paris  1 209.  They  held  that  real  existence  pertained  to  the 
Deity  alone. 

DAVIDISTS,  or  David  Georgians:  sect,  followers  of 
David  George,  or  Joris:  see  Joris,  David. 

DAVIDS,  St:  ancient  and  decayed  episcopal  city,  in  the 
w.  of  Pembrokeshire,  the  westmost  town  in  Wales.  It  is 
on  the  streamlet  Allan,  a  mile  from  its  mouth,  near  St. 
David's  Head,  on  the  n.  side  of  St.  Bride's  Bay.  It  has 
been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  about  519,  w^hen  St.  David 
transferred  the  archbishop's  see  to  St.  D.  (before  called  My- 
nyw,  and  by  the  Romans  Menevia)  from  Caerleon.  It  w^as 
in  the  middle  ages  a  large  city — the  great  resort  of  pilgrims 
to  St.  David's  shrine;  it  is  now  a  small  village,  with  only  a 
few  good  houses,  besides  those  of  the  clergy.  It  has  a  fine 
cathedral,  and  splendid  remains  of  religious  houses,  episco- 
pal palace,  and  St.  Mary's  College  (founded  by  John  of 
Gaunt),  within  a  high  embattled  wall  nearly  a  mile  in  cir- 
cuit. These  w^ere  several  times  pillaged  and  burned  by  the 
Danes  and  others  during  the  9th  and  two  following  centu- 
ries. The  cathedral,  founded  1180,  on  the  site  of  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  David,  is  cruciform.  Its  dimensions  in  the  in- 
terior are:  length,  290  ft.;  breadth,  76;  nave,  124;  choir,  80; 
transept,  120;  central  tower,  127  ft.  high.  It  contains  a 
curious  movable  pulpit,  an  elaborately  worked  bishop's 
throne;  the  tomb  of  the  Earl  of  Richmond,  father  of  Henry 
VII.;  and  also  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  early  bishops 
of  the  see,  as  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  Anselm,  etc.  Among 
the  former  bishops  were  Laud,  Bull,  South,  and  Horsley; 
and  a  very  recent  occupant  of  the  see  was  Connon  Thirl- 
w all,  historian  of  Greece.  The  cathedral  establishment  in- 
cludes a  bishop,  a  dean,  4  canons,  5  vicars  choral,  and 
other  officers  residentiary,  with  4  archdeacons,  and  12 
prebendaries,  or  honorary  canons,  non-resident.  The  bish- 
op has  £^,500  a  year,  and  lives  at  Abergwili,  near  Caermar- 

567 


BAVIDSOK-BAVIES. 

the-n.  The  people  are  chiefly  agricultural  laborers.  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  made  an  ottering  as  a  pilgrim  at  St. 
David's  shrine.  Cairns,  tumuli,  holy  wells,  chapels,  crosses, 
etc.,  abound  around  St.  D.,  especially  at  St.  David's 
Head,  a  high  rugged  promontory  two  m.  n.w.  of  the  city, 
and  the  westmost  point  in  Wales,  in  lat.  51°  54'  n.,  and 
long.  5°  20'  w.    Pop.  of  city  (1871)  2,131. 

DAVIDSON,  david-son,  Lucretia  Maria:  1808,  Sep. 
27—1825,  Aug.  27;  b.  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.:  poet.  She  began 
composing  verses  in  secret  when  only  four  years  old  and 
before  she  could  write,  using  print  letters,  and  on  being 
discovered  burned  all  her  compositions.  She  learned  to 
write  when  seven  years  old,  composed  her  earliest  pre- 
served poem.  Epitaph  on  a  Robin,  when  nine,  and  at  twelve 
had  read  many  historical  and  dramatic  works,  including 
Shakespeare  and  Goldsmith.  She  was  sent  to  school  when 
sixteen,  but  soon  became  a  victim  to  consumption.  Her 
preserved  poems,  numbering  278,  were  published  under  the 
title  of  Amir  Khan  and  OtJier  Poems,  1829,  in  conjunction 
with  those  of  her  sister,  Margaret  Miller  D.,  1850,  and  with 
illustrations  1871. 

DAVIDSON,  Margaret  Miller:  1823,  Mar.  26—1838 
Nov.  15;  b.  Plattsburg:  sister  of  Lucretia  Maria  D. :  poet. 
She  was  also  precocious  as  a  writer  of  verse;  composed  sev- 
eral poems  when  only  six  years  old;  wrote  The  Tragedy  of 
Alethia,  a  drama,  and  privately  acted  in  it  when  ten;  and 
had  the  friendship  and  encouragement  of  Washington  Irv- 
ing, who  wrote  memoirs  and  supervised  the  publication  of 
the  poems  of  both  sisters,  1850. 

DAVIES,  davez,  Charles,  ll.d.:  1798,  Jan.  22—1876, 
Sep.  18;  b.  Washington,  Conn.:  mathematician.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  U.  S.  Milit.  Acad.  1815;  spent  a  year  on  garri- 
son duty  in  New  England;  resigned  and  was  appointed 
asst.  prof,  of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  the  Milit.  Acad. 
1816;  accepted  a  like  position  in  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
1837;  was  paymaster  U.  S.  army,  1841, Nov.  17— 1845,  Sep. 
30;  and  prof,  of  mathematics  and  philosophy  in  the  Univ.  of 
New  York,  1848-9,  and  of  higher  mathematics  in  Columbia 
College,  New  York,  1857-65.  He  prepared  and  published 
an  entire  series  of  standard  text-books  on  mathematics 
1837-67. 

DA'VIES,  Sir  John:  poet  and  statesman:  1570-1626 
Dec.  7;  son  of  a  legal  practitioner  in  Wiltshire,  England. 
At  the  age  of  15  he  was  sent  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
where,  five  years  later  he  took  his  degree  of  b.  a.,  having 
spent  two  of  these  years  in  the  Middle  Temple,  where  he 
studied  law.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  1595,  but  forfeited 
his  privileges,  and  eventually  was  expelled  from  the  Temple 
for  certain  indiscretions.  He  began  his  political  career 
1601.  In  1603,  he  was  sent  by  James  1.  as  solicitor-gen.  to 
Ireland,  and  almost  immediately  became  attorney-general. 
He  was  called  to  the  degree  of  sergeant-at-law  1606,  and  in 
the  spring  of  the  following  year  received  knighthood.  On 
the  assembling  of  the  Irish  parliament,  called  1613,  D.  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons.    In  1620,  he 

5t>8 


DAYIES— DAVILLA. 

took  his  seat  in  the  English  parliament  as  member  for  New- 
castle-under-Lyne.    He  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy. 

As  a  lawyer,  the  character  of  D.  is  that  of  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  talent.  His  Bejjorts  of  Cases  adjudged  in  the 
King's  Courts  in  Ireland  (IQlb),  were  the  lirst  reports  of  Irish 
cases  ever  published,  and  had  a  preface  from  the  pen  of  D., 
esteemed  by  an  old  critic  the  best  ever  prefixed  to  a  law-- 
book. But  it  is  as  a  poet  that  he  is  chiefly  notable.  His 
Orchestra,  or  a  Poem  on  Dancing  (1596),  was  followed  by 
his  great  work,  the  Nosce  Teipsurriy  a  Poem  on  the  Soul 
and  the  Immortality  thereof  (1599).  His  verse  is  elegant 
without  being  artiticial,  and  flowing  without  being  careless, 
while  its  compact  structure  is  remarkable  for  his  times. 
Among  bis  miscellaneous  works  were  Discovery  of  the  True 
Cause  why  Ireland  was  never  Subdued  entirely  until  the  Reign 
of  King  James  I  (Lond.  1612),  a  work  which  has  always 
been  considered  of  great  value  to  political  inquirers. 

DAVIES,  Samuel,  d.d.:  1724,  Nov.  3—1761,  Feb.  4;  b. 
Summit  Kidge,  Del.:  Presb.  minister.  He  received  a  clas- 
sical education,  was  licensed  to  preach  1746,  ordained  an 
evangelist  and  assigned  to  Hanover  co.,  Va.,  1747,  went  to 
England  and  collected  funds  for  the  college  of  N.  J.  1753, 
aided  in  establishing  the  first  presbytery  in  Ya.  1755,  and 
after  being  chosen  twice  accepted  the  presidency  of  the 
College  of  N.  J,,  succeeding  Jonathan  Edwards,  1759.  His 
sermons  were  published  in  5  vols.  (London  1767)  and  3  vols. 
(New  York  1851).    He  was  esteemed  a  great  pulpit  orator. 

DAYIESS,  dd'vh,  Joseph  Hamilton  (widely  known  as 
Jo  Daviess):  1774,  Mar.  4—1811,  Nov.  8;  b.  Bedford  co., 
Ya.:  lawyer.  He  was  educated  at  Harrodsburg  Acad., 
fought  against  the  Indians  1793,  studied  law  and  began  prac- 
tice at  Danville  1795,  and  attained  high  rank  in  his  profes- 
sion. He  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  western  lawyer 
who  ever  argued  a  case  in  the  U.  S.  supreme  court,  married 
a  sister  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  was  appointed  U.  S.  dist. 
atty.  for  Ky.,  and  instituted  proceedings  against  Aaron 
Burr  (1806)  for  levying  war  on  a  nation  with  which  this 
country  was  at  peace.  He  was  maj.  of  Ky.  vols,  under 
Gen.  Harrison  in  the  Indian  war,  and  at  Tippecanoe  re- 
ceived a  mortal  wound  while  leading  a  cav.  charge,  1811, 
Nov.  7,  and  died  the  next  day.  He  was  eccentric  in  manner 
and  dress,  and  author  of  A  View  of  the  President's  Conduct 
concerning  the  Conspiracy  of  1806  (1807). 

DAYILA,  dd've-ld,  Enrico  Catering:  1576,  Oct.  30 — 
1631;  b.  Pieve  di  Sacco,  in  the  vicinity  of  Padua.  D.,when 
seven  years  old,  was  taken  to  France  for  his  education.  At 
the  age  of  18,  he  entered  the  service  of  Henry  lY.,  which 
he  afterward  exchanged  for  the  military  service  of  Yenice. 
He  was  shot  on  his  way  to  Crema,  to  take  command  of  the 
garrison,  1631.  D.  is  famous  for  his  great  work,  Storia 
delle  Guerre  Civili  di  Francia  (Yenice  1630),  a  history  com- 
prising that  eventful  period  from  the  death  of  Henry  II., 
1559,  to  the  peace  of  Yervins,  1598. 

DAYILLA,  n.  da-ml'la  [named  after  Pedro  Franco 
Davila,  a  Spanish  naturalist]:  genus  of  plants,  ord.  DiL 

569 


DAVINA— DAVIS. 

leniacm.  D.  rugosa  is  astringent.  A  decoction  of  it  is  used 
in  Brazil  in  swellings  of  the  legs,  etc.  D.  elUptica,  also 
astringent,  furnishes  the  vulnerary  called  Sambaibinha. 

DAYINA,  n.  da-vln'a,  or  Davyne,  dd'mn  [named  after 
Sir  H.  Davy] :  variety  of  nephelite  from  Vesuvius,  having 
a  feeble  lustre,  and  12  to  14  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
lime. 

DA  VI^^CI,  Leonardo:  see  Leonardo  Da  Vinci. 

DAVIOUD,  dd-w',  Gabriel  Jean  Antoine:  1823,  Oct. 
30 — 18»1,  Apr.  6;  b.  Paris:  architect.  He  was  educated  at  the 
School  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  School  of  Design,  where  he  took 
all  the  prizes,  was  appointed  designer  to  the  prefecture  of  the 
Seine,  took  the  second  grand  prize  of  Rome  ]849,  and  exe- 
cuted his  tirst  work  of  importance,  the  Iheatre  d'Etampes, 
1850.  In  1855,  he  was  appointed  architectural  inspector 
of  streets  and  gardens.  He  planned  the  improvements  of 
the  Bois  de  Boulogne  and  Longchamps,  beautified  the  most 
noted  pnblic  squares,  constructed  the  fountain  of  St.  Mi- 
chel, built  two  theatres  on  the  Place  du  Chatelet,  restored 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  erected  the  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
on  Montmartre,  and  with  Jules  Bourdais  designed  the  ele- 
gant Trocadera  Palace  for  the  universal  exposition  1878.  He 
was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  1862,  and  promoted 
officer  at  the  opening  of  the  exposition. 

DAVIS,  da  ms,  Charles  Henry,  ll.d.:  1807,  Jan.  16 — 
1877,  Feb.  18;  b.  Boston:  naval  officer.  He  w^as  appointed 
midshipman  in  the  U.  S.  navy  1828,  promoted  past  mid- 
shipman 1829,  commissioned  iieut.  1834,  commander  1854, 
capt.  1861,  commodore  1862,  and  rear-admiral  1863.  While 
surveying  olf  Nantucket  1846-49,  he  discovered  the  new 
south  shoal  and  several  smaller  ones  in  the  track  of  steam- 
ships plying  between  New  York  and  Boston,  and  New 
York  and  European  ports.  He  was  supt.  of  the  American 
Nautical  Almanac  1849-56,  and  again  1859;  was  chief  of 
staff  and  tlag-officer  at  the  capture  of  Port  Royal  1861;  in 
command  of  the  western  tlotilla  olf  Fort  Pillow  1862,  May; 
defeated  a  squadron  of  8  Confederate  iron-clads  May  10; 
captured  all  the  Confederate  iron-clads  and  rams  but  one  off 
Memphis,  and  received  the  surrender  of  that  city,  June. 
After  the  war  he  received  the  thanks  of  congress,  was  supt. 
of  the  naval  observatory  1865-67,  commander  of  the  Bra- 
zilian squadron  1867-69,  commandant  of  navy  yard,  Nor- 
folk, 1870,  and  subsequently  again  siipt.  of  the  naval  ob- 
servatory. He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Acad,  of  Sci- 
ences and  of  numerous  scientific  societies,  and  author  of 
several  technical  works  of  high  merit. 

DAVIS,  David,  ll.d.:  1815,  Mar.  9—1886,  June  26;  b. 
Cecil  CO.,  Md.:  lawyer.  He  was  educated  atKenyon  Col- 
lege, Ohio,  studied  law  at  Lenox,  Mass.,  and  in  the  Yale 
Law  School,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  111.  1835,  and  began 
practicing  at  Bloomington.  In  1844, he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature,  1847,  of  the  constitutional  convention, 
and  1848,  55,  and  61,  judge  of  the  eighth  state  circuit.  While 
serving  his  last  term  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  U. 

570 


DAVIS. 

S.  supreme  court  by  his  intimate  friend  Pres.  Lincoln,  1862, 
Oct. ;  was  nominated  for  pres.  by  the  national  labor  reform 
party,  and  received  nearly  100  votes  on  the  first  ballot  for 
the  presidential  nomination  of  the  liberal  republican  party, 
1872;  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  to  succeed  Gen.  Logan  for 
the  term  1877-83;  was  pres.  pro  tem.  of  the  senate  1881, 
Oct.  13 — 1883,  Mar.  3;  and  resigned  just  before  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term.  He  received  his  degree  from  Williams 
College,  Beloit  College,  and  Wesleyan  Univ.  of  Blooming- 
ton. 

DAVIS,  Henry  Winter,  ll.d.:  1817,  Aug.  16—1865, 
Dec.  30;  b.  Annapolis:  lawyer.  He  graduated  at  Kenyon 
College,  Ohio,  1837,  studied  law  in  the  Univ.  of  Va.,  and 
began  practicing  in  Alexandria.  He  removed  to  Baltimore 
1850,  became  a  brilliant  whig  orator,  and  was  elected  a  rep- 
resentative in  congress  from  the  3d.  cong.  dist.  1854  and  56, 
and  served  on  the  committee  on  ways  and  means.  He  al- 
lied himself  with  the  national  party  from  the  dissolution  of 
the  whig  party  till  1860,  was  again  elected  to  congress  1858, 
and  defeated  as  an  unconditional  union  candidate  after  the 
Baltimore  riots  1861,  declined  the  olfer  of  the  republican 
nomination  for  vice-pres.  on  the  ticket  with  Abraham  Lin- 
coln 1860,  and  served  another  term  in  congress  and  held  the 
chairmanship  of  the  committee  on  foreign  affairs  1863-65. 
He  was  a  stanch  supporter  of  the  Union  cause,  and  favored 
the  enlistment  and  emancipation  of  the  negroes  and  the 
granting  of  suffrage  to  them. 

DAVIS,  Jefferson,  ll.d.:  b.  Christian  co.,  Ky.,  1808, 
June  3:  statesman.  He  studied  in  Transylvania  College, 
Ky.,  and  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Milit.  Acad.  1828;  was  2d 
lieut.  of  infantry  on  the  western  frontier,  and  took  part  in 
the  Black.  Hawk  war  1831-2;  promoted  1st  lieut.  of 
dragoons  1833;  served  against  the  Indians  1834,  and  re- 
signed 1835,  June  30.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Pres. 
Zachary  Taylor,  and  engaged  in  cotton-planting  in  Warren 
CO.,  Miss.,  till  1843,  and  then  entered  political  life.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  a  Polk  and  Dallas  pres.  elector,  and 
1845  was  elected  a  member  of  congress,  where  he  attracted 
attention  by  his  tluent  speech.  In  1846  he  resigned  his  seat 
to  enter  the  army,  went  to  Mexico  as  col.  of  the  1st  Miss, 
ritles,  led  a  charge  on  Fort  Lenaria  at  Monterey,  was  on  the 
commission  that  arranged  the  surrender  of  the  place, 
severely  wounded  while  successfully  resisting  a  charge  of 
lancers  at  Buena  Vista,  and  complimented  in  Gen.  Scott's 
dispatches  1847,  May  17.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed 
U.  S.  senator  to  fill  a  vacancy  1847,  Aug.,  and  was  elected 
for  a  full  term  1850,  and  appointed  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  military  affairs.  He  resigned  his  seat  1851  to 
enter  the  canvass  for  gov.  of  Miss,  as  the  candidate  of  the 
state-rights  party,  and,  though  he  largely  reduced  the  union 
majority,  was  defeated.  On  the  election  of  Franklin 
Pierce  as  pres.,  Mr.  D.  was  appointed  sec.  of  war,  and  held 
the  office  till  1857,  when  he  was  again  elected  U.  S.  senator 
and  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee  on  military  af- 
fairs. He  made  several  speeches  avowing  Union  sentiments, 

571 


DAVIS. 

though  clinging  to  his  state-rights  opinions;  served  on  the 
memorable  committee  of  18  to  report  on  the  condition  of 
the  country  1860,  and  openly  asserted  the  right  of  secession 
and  the  injustice  of  coercion  1861,  Jan.  10.  He  also  urged 
the  immediate  withdrawal  of  the  U.  S.  garrison  from  Yort 
Sumter.  Fourteen  days  later  he  received  official  notice  of 
the  secession  of  Miss.,  and  at  once  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
senate.  He  was  appointed  ma j. gen.  of  Miss,  state  troops 
1861,  Jan.,  and  elected  pres.  of  the  Confederate  States  by 
the  provisional  congress  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  Feb.  9.  He 
sent  his  first  message  to  the  Confederate  congress  1861, 
Apr.  29,  and  his  last,  in  which  he  claimed  that  the  Con- 
federacy had  ample  means  of  meeting  the  emergency  that 
was  apparently  impending,  1865,  Mar.  13.  On  Apr.  2  he 
joined  in  the  official  evacuation  of  Richmond  as  the  Con- 
federate capital,  in  consequence  of  Gen.  Lee's  telegram  an- 
nouncing his  withdrawal  from  Petersburg,  and  established 
his  head  quarters  first  at  Danville  and  then  at  Charlotte. 
While  temporarily  encamped  near  Irwinsville,  Ga.,  he  was 
captured  with  his  wife  and  escort  by  a  Union  cavalry  force 
under  Lieut. Col.  Pritchard,  May  10.  He  was  confined  as 
a  prisoner  of  war  in  Fortress  Monroe,  Va.,  two  years,  dur- 
ing which  period  he  was  indicted  for  treason  by  a  grand 
jury  in  the  U.  S.  dist.  court  of  Va.  at  Norfolk,  Judge  Un- 
derwood presiding,  1866,  May  8,  and  admitted  to  bail  in  the 
sum  of  1100,000,  Horace  Greeley's  name  heading  the  bail 
bond,  at  Richmond,  1867,  May  13.  In  1868,  Dec,  the  govt, 
entered  a  nolle  prosequi  in  his  case,  and  his  name  was  in- 
cluded among  those  to  whom  a  general  amnesty  was 
granted  by  Pres.  Johnson's  proclamation  the  same  month. 
On  his  release  he  made  his  home  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and 
became  pres.  of  a  life-insurance  company.  In  1879  he  in- 
herited an  ample  estate  at  Beauvoir,  Miss. ,  from  31rs  Dor- 
sey,  a  strong  admirer,  and  has  since  resided  there  in  semi- 
retirement,  making  occasional  addresses  at  dedications  of 
Confederate  monuments,  and  applying  himself  to  the  com- 
pilation of  a  history  designed  to  supplement  his  Rise  and 
Fall  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  in  2  vols.  (ISTew  York  1881). 

DAVIS,  Jefferson  C:  1828,  Mar.  2—1879,  Nov.  30;  b. 
Clark  CO.,  Ind.:  military  officer.  He  served  through  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  appointed  2dlieut.  IstU.  S.  artil.  for 
gallantry  at  Buena  Vista  1848,  June  17;  was  promoted  1st 
lieut.  1852;  placed  in  command  of  the  garrison  of  Fort 
Sumpter  1858;  and  was  with  Maj.  Anderson  during  the 
bombardment  1861,  Apr.  In  the  following  month  he  was 
promoted  capt.  and  given  leave  of  absence;  raised  the  22d 
Ind.  vols. ;  was  elected  col. ;  and  commanded  a  brigade 
under  Gens.  Fremont,  Hunter,  and  Pope  in  Mo. ;  promoted 
brig. gen.  of  vols,  for  capturing  a  large  Confederate  force 
and  valuable  military  stores  at  Milford,  Mo.,  1861,  Dec.  18; 
took  part  in  the  siege  of  Corinth;  led  the  20th  army  corps 
into  the  battle  of  Stone  River;  commanded  the  14th  corps 
in  the  Atlanta  campaign;  and  was  bre vetted  maj. gen.  of 
vols.  1865,  and  appointed  col.  23d  U.  S.  inf.  1866,  July  23. 
He  was  subsequently  in  command  of  troops  in  Alaska,  and 

572 


DAVIS— DAVOS. 

succeeded  the  murdered  Gen.  Canby  in  the  successful  cam- 
paign against  the  Modocs  1873. 

DA'VIS,  John:  eminent  navigator  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  16th  c:  b.  Sandridge,  near  Dartmouth,  England.  Be- 
tween 1585  and  '88,  he  undertook  three  voyages  to  the  north- 
ern seas  in  search  of  a  n.w.  passage.  In  the  first  voyage,  he 
sailed  as  far  north  as  the  73°  of  latitude,  and  discovered  the* 
strait  which  bears  his  name.  He  afterward  made  five 
voyages  to  the  E.  Indies,  but  was  killed  by  pirates  on  the 
coast  of  Malacca  1605.  His  work,  The  World's  Hydrograph- 
ical  Description,  appeared  1595;  The  Seaman's  Secrets,  1595. 
The  Voyages  and  Works  of  D.  (including  these)  were  issued 
by  the  Hakluyt  Soc.  1880,  edited  by  A.  H.  Markham. 

DA'VIS,  Sir  John  Francis,  Bart.-  b.  1795,  in  London: 
long  resident  in  China  as  chief  supt.  of  Canton,  afterward 
as  gov.  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  colony  of  Hong- 
kong. He  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  trustworthy  author- 
ities on  China  and  the  Chinese.  In  1845,  D.  was  created 
a  baronet,  and  received  the  order  of  knight  grand  cross 
of  the  Bath  1854.  His  works  are  numerous  and  valuable — 
Description  of  China,  China  during  the  War,  Chinese  Miscel- 
lanies, etc.  In  1876  he  founded  a  Chinese  scholarship  at 
Oxford,  and  was  made  d.c.l. 

DA'VIS'  STRAIT:  so  called  from  the  navigator  John 
Davis  who  discovered  it,  forms  the  s.  part  of  that  inlet  of 
the  Atlantic  which  washes  the  w.  coast  of  Greenland.  It 
thus  connects  Baffin's  Bay,  and  also,  in  some  sense,  Hud- 
son's Strait,  with  the  open  ocean.  At  its  narrowest  point, 
it  measures  160  m.  across.  It  is  largely  frequented  by 
whaling-ships.  A  constant  current,  bringing  much  ice, 
flows  down  D.  S.  from  the  circumpolar  waters.  Recently, 
however,  it  has  been  maintained,  on  apparently  good 
grounds,  that,  on  the  e.  side,  an  opposite  current,  similarly 
freighted,  sweeps  round  Cape  Farewell,  on  its  way  from 
Spitzbergen. 

DAVITE,  n.  dd'mt  [after  Sir  H.  Davy]-,  a  native  sul- 
phate of  alumina  of  a  yellow  or  greenish -yellow  color. 
DAVITS,  n.  plu.  ddv'Us  [Sp.  gamete,  davit  in  a  long- 
boat :  F.  gaviteau,  formerly  a  piece 
of  wood  attached  to  the  cable  of 
an  anchor  when  abandoned,  to 
act  as  a  float  to  indicate  its  posi- 
tion, a  buoy:  F.  darner,  forceps, 
a  davit]:  iron  beams,  or  spars, 
projecting,  or  which  can  be  made 
to  project  like  a  crane  over  the 
side  or  stern  of  a  vessel,  from 
which  a  boat  is  suspended  for 
immediate  use  in  case  of  need. 
They  are  in  pairs,  one  for  each  end  of  the  boat :  see  Boat- 
lowering  Apparatus.  Dav  it,  or  Fish-davit,  n.  a  spar 
projecting  from  a  ship's  bow,  used  as  a  crane  for  hoisting 
the  anchor  and  keeping  it  clear  of  the  ship. 
DxlVOS,  daJws  (Romansch  Tavau):  small  valley  high 

573 


Davits. 


DAVOUT— DAVY. 

among  the  Alps  of  the  Eastern  Grisons  s.e.  of  Coire.  The 
height  of  the  village  of  Davos-Platz  is  5, 105  ft.;  but  the 
valley,  inclosed  by  lofty  hills,  has  become  famous  as  a 
health-resort  in  winter,  especially  for  such  as  suffer  from 
chest  disease.  The  air  is  still  and  dry,  and  throughout  the 
winter  there  is  much  bright,  warm  sunshine.  Till  lately  a 
mere  hamlet;  the  village  has  now  eight  or  ten  hotels,  nu- 
merous villas  and  chalets,  several  doctors,  and  daily  mails. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  valley,  which  till  1848  was  one  of  the 
26  independent  republics  of  the  Grisons,  are  mostly  German 
Protestants.  See  Dmos-Platz,  a  new  Alpine  Resort  (Stan- 
ford 1878). 

DAVOUT,  dd  w'  (not  Davoust  as  commonly  written), 
Louis  Nicolas:  French  marshal:  1770,  May  10—1823, 
June  1;  b.  Annoux,  in  the  old  province  of  Burgundy.  He 
was  educated  with  Bonaparte  at  the  military  school  of 
Brienne;  and  in  1785,  became  sub  lieut.  in  a  cavalry  regi- 
ment. During  the  revolutionary  wars,  he  rose  to  the  rank 
of  general.  He  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  the  East,  where 
he  mainly  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Aboukir,  and  other- 
wise distinguished  himself  both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt. 
On  his  return  to  France  he  was  named  gen.  of  division 

1800,  commander-in-chief  of  the  consular  grenadier  guards 

1801,  and  marshal  of  the  empire  1804.  In  the  campaigns  of 
1805,  6,  7,  he  bore  a  brilliant  part  in  the  great  victories  at 
Ulm,  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Auerstadt,  Eylau,  and  Friedland. 
In  reward  of  his  bravery,  Bonaparte  created  him  Duke  of 
Auerstadt  (1808,  Jul.  2).  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with 
Austria  1809,  D.  was  created  Prince  of  Eckmiihl  for  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  Eckmiihl.  At  Wagram,  he  per- 
formed prodigies  of  valor.  Appointed  gov  of  Poland,  he 
ruled  that  country  in  a  spirit  of  the  harshest  despotism,  and 
provoked  the  reproaches  of  the  emperor,  but,  nevertheless, 
did  not  change  his  system.  In  the  Russian  campaign  of 
1812,  he  gathered  fresh  laurels  on  the  fields  of  Mohilow  and 
Borodino.  After  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  D.  became  gov. 
gen.  of  the  Hanse  towns,  and  established  himself  at  Ham- 
burg, where  he  gallantly  maintained  himself  till  the  first 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  On  the  return  of  Bonaparte 
from  Elba,  D.  was  appointed  war-minister,  and  in  this  office 
showed  a  remarkable  genius  for  rapid  organization  of  troops 
and  supplies.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he  received  the 
command  of  the  relics  of  the  French  army  under  the  walls 
of  Paris.  He  would  have  continued  the  contest,  had  he  not 
been  ordered  by  the  provisional  government  in  the  capital 
to  conclude  a  military  convention  with  the  allies.  In  1819, 
he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  Firmness  of  character  and 
dauntless  courage  were  D.'s  leading  characteristics;  but  his 
military  severities  were  often  even  cruel,  while  his  rapacity 
was  akin  to  barbarism. 

DAVY,  dd'tii,  Sir  Humphry:  one  of  the  greatest  of 
chemists:  1778,  Dec.  17— 1829,  May  29;  b.  Penzance,  in 
Cornwall.  England,  where  his  father  was  a  carver  in  wood. 
At  the  school  of  Truro,  where  he  was  educated  until  the  age 
of  15,  he  showed  little  relish  for  classical  learning,  but  was 

{74 


DAVY. 

distinguished  for  a  highly  retentive  memory  and  a  passion 
for  poetry,  which  never  forsook  him.  Another  prominent 
trait  of  his  character  was  equally  early  developed;  as  a  child, 
he  would  angle  even  in  the  gutters  of  the  streets;  and  only 
two  years  before  his  death,  after  his  health  had  given  way, 
he  published  his  mteiesting  volume,  Sabnonia,  or  Bays  of 
Fly-Fishing.  Soon  after  leaving  school,  he  became  appren- 
tice to  a  surgeon  and  apothecary  in  Penzance.  He  at  the 
same  time  entered  upon  a  course  of  study  almost  universal. 
'  Speculations  on  religion  and  politics,  on  metaphysics  and 
morals,  are  placed  in  his  note-books  in  juxtaposition  with 
stanzas  of  poetry  and  fragments  of  romance. '  A  system  of 
mathematical  study,  skeptical  philosophy,  Scotch  meta- 
physics and  German  transcendentalism,  successively  en- 
gaged his  attention.  The  study  of  natural  philosophy 
brought  him  nearer  to  that  department  which  was  to  be  his 
own;  but  it  was  not  till  he  had  reached  his  19th  year,  that  he 
entered  seriously  upon  the  study  of  chemistry.  He  now 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr.  Bed  does,  who  had  established 
a  Pneumatic  Institution  at  Clifton,  and  who  took  him  as  his 
assistant.  Here  D.  carried  on  a  course  of  experiments  on 
the  respiration  of  different  gases,  in  which  he  had  more 
than  once  nearly  sacrificed  his  life.  He  thus  discovered  the 
singular  exhilarating  effect  of  nitrous  oxide  when  breathed, 
and  the  account  which  he  published  established  his  rep- 
utation, and  led  to  his  appointment  at  the  age  of  22  as 
lecturer  to  the  Royal  Institution  of  London.  He  delivered 
his  first  lecture  1801;  and  his  eloquence,  and  the  novelty 
and  variety  of  his  experiments,  soon  attracted  crowded  and 
brilliant  audiences.  In  1803,  he  began  researches  connected 
with  agriculture,  on  which  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures. 
These  were  published  1813,  under  the  title  of  Elements  of 
Agricultural  Chemistry,  and  form  an  era  in  that  science. 
The  discoveries,  however,  on  which  chiefly  D.  's  fame  as  a 
chemist  rests,  took  their  origin  in  the  views  which  he  de- 
veloped 1806,  in  his  Bakerian  lecture.  On  some  Chemical 
Agencies  of  Electricity.  This  essay  was  universally  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  ever  made  to 
chemical  science,  and  obtained  the  prize  of  the  French  In- 
stitute. Following  out  his  principle,  he  was  led  to  the  grand 
discovery,  that  the  alkalies  and  earths  are  compound  sub- 
stances formed  by  oxygen  united  with  metallic  bases.  It 
was  potash  that  he  first  succeeded  in  decomposing,  1807, 
Oct.  8.  When  he  first  saw  the  globules  of  the  new  metal, 
potassium,  his  delight  is  said  to  have  been  so  ecstatic  that  it 
required  some  time  for  him  to  compose  himself  to  continue 
the  experiment.  He  next  decomposed  soda  and  the  alkaline 
earths,  baryta,  strontia,  lime,  and  magnesia;  and  discovered 
the  new  metals,  sodium,  barium,  strontium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium.  With  regard  to  the  earths  proper,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  proving  that  they  consist  of  bases  united  to  oxygen. 
It  was  reserved  for  Wohler  and  others  to  exhibit  the  bases 
by  themselves. 

In  1812,  D.  was  knighted,  married  a  lady  of  considerable 
wealth,  and  resigned  the  chemical  chair  of  the  Royal 
Institution.    That  he  might  investigate  his  new  theory  of 

675 


DAVY  JON^ES^S  LOCKER— DAW. 

volcanic  action,  lie  received  permission  from  the  French 
govt. — though  Britain  and  France  were  then  at  war — to  visit 
the  continent,  and  was  received  with  the  greatest  distinction 
by  the  scientific  men  of  France.  Returning  to  England 
1815,  he  entered  on  the  investigation  of  the  nature  of  fire- 
damp, the  cause  of  explosions  in  coal-mines.  This  resulted 
in  the  invention  of  the  safety-lamp  (q.v.) — one  of  the  most 
valuable  presents  of  science  to  humanity.  Though  the 
value  of  the  invention  was  everywhere  acknowledged,  the 
only  national  reward  was  a  baronetcy  after  a  lapse  of  three 
years.  This  has  been  contrasted  with  the  pension  of  £1,200 
a  year  bestow^ed  by  the  same  government  on  Sir  William 
Congreve  for  the  invention  of  his  rocket.  On  the  death  of 
Sir  Joseph  Banks,  1820,  Sir  Humphry  D.  was  elected  pres. 
of  the  Royal  Soc.  His  attention  was  shortly  afterward 
call  3d  to  the  jjreservation  of  the  copper  sheathing  of  vessels 
from  corrosion  by  the  action  of  sea- water.  This  he  effected 
by  altering  the  electric  condition  of  the  copper  by  means 
of  bands  of  zinc;  but  the  bottoms  of  the  vessels  became  so 
foul  from  the  adhesion  of  weeds,  shells,  etc.,  that  the  plan 
had  to  be  abandoned. 

Early  in  1825,  he  had  begun  to  complain  of  the  loss  of 
strength,  and,  in  1826,  a  paralytic  attack  affected  his  right 
side.  He  made  two  journeys  to  the  continent  for  the 
recovery  of  his  health,  but  died  at  Geneva,  at  the  early  age 
of  51.  The  Genevese  government  evinced  their  respect  by 
a  public  funeral.  So  widely  spread  was  the  reputation  of 
Sir  Humphry  D.,  that  he  was  a  member  of  almost  all  the 
scientific  institutions  in  the  world.  Cuvier,  in  his  Eloge, 
says:  *Mr.  Davy,  not  yet  52  years  of  age,  occupied,  in  the 
opinion  of  all  that  could  judge  of  such  labors,  the  first 
rank  among  the  chemists  of  this  or  of  any  other  age.' 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  and  a  great  number 
of  contributions  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  he 
published  Elements  of  Chemical  Philosophy  (Lond.  1812); 
and  Consolations  in  2 ravel,  or  the  Last  Days  of  a  Philosopher 
(3d  ed.  Lond.  1831),  appeared  after  his  death.  See  Memoirs 
of  the  Life  of  Sir  Humphry  L>.,  by  his  brother  (Lond.  1836, 
2  vols.);  Sind  The  L?fe  of  Sir  Humphry  D.,  by  Dr.  Paris 
(Lond.  1831). 

DAVY  JONES'S  LOCKER:  the  bottom  of  the  sea;  in 
the  language  of  seamen,  applied  to  the  abode  of  the  dead — 
a  supposed  corruption  of  Jonah,  who  was  thrown  into  the 
sea,  and  locker,  which  see. 

DAVY-LAMP,  n.  dd'm-ldmp:  a  form  of  lamp  whose 
light  is  surrounded  by  fine  wire  gauze,  by  which  explosive 
gases  are  excluded,  invented  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  used 
in  workings  subject  to  explosions  of  fire-damp;  called  also 
Davy's  Safety-lamp:  see  Safety-lamp. 

DAW,  V.  daw  [Swiss,  dahi;  O.H.G.  idha;  Bav.  dahel,  a 
daw]:  a  bird  of  the  crow  kind;  the  jackdaw.  Daw'ish,  a. 
like  a  daw.    See  Jack-daw. 

DAW,  V.  daiD  [see  Dawn]:  in  Scot,  and  OE,,  to  dawn, 
Daw'ing,  imp. :  X,  daybreak.    Dawed,  pp.  dawd. 

576 


DAWALLA— DAWLEY  MAGNA. 

DAWAL'LA  {Hypoplithalmus  dawalla):  fish  of  the  family 
Siluridce,  found  in  the  rivers  of  Guiana,  and  esteemed  for 
the  delicacy  of  its  flesh.  It  is  sometimes  two  ft.  and  a  half 
long,  and  has  a  snout  somewhat  like  that  of  a  pike,  but  the 
teeth  are  very  minute.  The  skin  is  destitute  of  scales,  and 
the  colors  have  that  brightness  so  often  seen  in  tropical  fishes, 
green,  brown,  and  carmine.  The  D.  has  become  shy  in 
the  waters  of  the  more  populous  and  long-settled  parts  of 
Guiana,  although  easily  captured  in  more  remote  regions. 

DAWDLE,  V.  daio'dl  [F.  dada,  a  hobby-horse:  Scot. 
daidle,  to  walk  unsteadily  like  a  child:  Gael,  dabhdail,  to 
saunter,  to  loiter] :  to  do  a  thing  in  a  purposeless  manner 
like  a  child,  and  slowly;  to  trifle  and  waste  time.  Daw'- 
DLiNG,  imp.  Dawdled,  pp.  -did.  Daw'dler,  n.  -dUr,  a 
trifler;  one  who  lingers. 

DAWISON,  dd'w-son,  Bogumil:  1818,  May  15—1872, 
Feb.  2;  b.  Warsaw,  Poland:  actor.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage  in  his  native  city  1837;  became  con- 
nected with  the  Thalia  Theatre  in  Hamburg  1847;  was  lead- 
ing actor  at  the  Royal  Theatre  in  Dresden  1852-66;  and 
made  a  professional  tour  of  the  United  States  1866-68.  His 
specialties  were  the  chief  characters  in  the  dramas  of 
Shakespeare,  Goethe,  and  Schiller.  He  became  insane  on 
his  return  to  Europe. 

DAWK,  n.  dawk  [Hind.  ddk^.  in  India,  a  method  of 
travelling;  a  letter  or  packet  post;  a  parcel  delivery. 
Tanga  dawk  [Hind,  tanga,  a  small  two- wheeled  car],  or 
Dawk  garee  [Skr.  ^<2n,  a  carriage  or  cart]:  a  mail-cart. 
— Travelling  by  dawk  (or  dak)  consists  in  posting  by 
palanquin  from  station  to  station,  or  for  any  distance. 
The  traveller  must  first  purchase  a  strong  palanquin,  which 
he  can  have  for  from  40  to  100  rupees  (|20  to  |50),  but 
which  he  can  always  dispose  of  when  his  journey  ends, 
and  generally  at  a  profit.  His  clothes,  with  whatever 
articles  he  may  not  immediately  need,  are  carried  in  tin- 
boxes  or  wicker-baskets  QaWQ^peitaralis,  by  separate  bearers, 
who  precede  or  accompany  the  palanquin;  whatever  he 
considers  necessary,  however,  he  keeps  beside  himself 
inside.  At  all  the  stages,  9  to  11  miles  apart,  there  are 
relays  of  bearers,  previously  provided  by  the  postmaster, 
the  usual  number  for  one  palanquin  being  11.  All  arrange- 
ments as  to  cost  are  made  with  the  postmaster  of  each 
presidency  before  starting,  but  the  traveller  is  also  expected 
to  give  some  small  sum  to  his  bearers  at  the  end  of  each 
stage:  eight  annas  (abt.  25  cents)  among  the  entire  set  of 
bearers  is  as  much  as  is  expected  in  the  way  of  gratuity. 
The  Horse-dawk,— a  kind  of  carriage  with  seats  for  four, 
and  capable  of  being  used  as  a  bed  in  which  two  can  sleep, 
the  baggage  being  conveyed  on  the  top, — set  on  wheels,  and 
drawn  by  horses,  is  in  use  on  the  great  trunk  road  from 
Calcutta  to  the  upper  provinces,  but  has  not  been  established 
throughout  the  country. 

DAW  LEY  MAG  NA:  town  in  Shropshire,  England.  It 
has  a  church  of  the  establishment,  and  seven  dissenting 
chapels.  The  people  are  employed  chiefly  in  blast  -rurnaces, 
m 


DAWLISH— DAY. 

collieries,  and  iron-mills.  Pop.  (1861)  6,365;  (1871) 
11.254. 

DAWLISH:  flourishing  and  picturesque  watering-place, 
on  the  s.  coast  of  Devonshire,  12  m.  s.  of  Exeter.  It  lies 
in  a  valley  lying  e.  and  w.  between  the  mouths  of  the  Ext 
and  Teign.  It  has  recently  built  public  baths.  Pop. 
(1881)  3,997. 

DAWN,  n.  dawn  [Icel.  dagan,  dawn;  dagur,  day:  AS. 
dagian,  to  become  day]:  the  break  of  day;  the  first  appear- 
ance of  light  in  the  morning;  first  opening  or  expansion; 
rise;  beginning;  first  appearance:  V.  to  begin  to  grow  light; 
to  begin  to  open  or  expand;  to  glimmer  obscurely.  Dawn  - 
ING,  imp.:  N.  first  appearance  of  anything,  as  the  day, 
reason,  intellectual  powers.  Dawned,  pp.  dawnd.  See 
Twilight. 

DAX,  daks:  town  of  France,  dept.  of  Landes,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour,  20  m.  n.e.  of 
Bayonne.  Among  its  principal  buildings  are  the  high 
church,  once  a  cathedral,  and  the  bishop's  palace.  It  is 
an  intermediate  depot  for  goods  forwarded  to  Spain,  and 
has  some  manufactures  of  earthen-ware,  wine,  and  brandy; 
but  is  notable  for  its  hot  saline  springs,  the  temperature  of 
which  at  the  source  is  158°  F.  The  water,  which  ie 
medicinal  and  nearly  tasteless,  was  used  for  bathing  pur- 
poses by  the  Romans,  who  conferred  upon  the  springs  the 
name  Aquae  Augustse  Tarbellicse.    Pop.  10,000. 

DAY,  n.  dd  [in  the  middle  ages  the  word  day  was  ap- 
plied to  the  day  appointed  for  hearing  a  cause,  or  for  the 
meeting  of  an  assembly:  Dut.  daghen,  to  appoint  a  day  for 
a  certain  purpose:  old  Sw.  dag,  the  time  appointed  for  a 
convention:  AS.  df(>g;  Ger.  tag;  Icel.  dagr,  a  day:  Skr. 
daha,  light  or  redness  in  the  sky] :  one  complete  revolution 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis;  the  time  from  midnight  to  midnight; 
a  period  of  twenty-four  hours;  in  common  language,  the 
time  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  as  opposed  to  the  darkness  or 
night;  publicity;  light;  any  specified  time;  age,  as  in  these 
days;  time.  Dai  ly,  a.  -U,  happening  or  issued  every  daj^ 
Ad.  every  day;  day  by  day:  N.  a  journal  or  newspaper 
published  every  day  except  Sunday.  Dailies,  n.  plu.  dd'- 
llz.  Daysman,  n.  ddz'mdn  [OE.  day,  time,  judgment]; 
the  judge  appointed  to  decide  between  parties  at  a  judicial 
hearing.  Day-blindness,  nyctalopia,  a  defect  of  sight, 
owing  to  which  objects  can  be  seen  distinctly  only  by  night, 
and  not  in  the  daytime.  D^y-book,  a  book  containing 
entries  of  transactions  just  as  they  occur  every  day.  Day- 
break, n.  dawn.  Day-dream,  a  reverie;  waking  visions. 
Day-labor,  labor  performed  or  hired  by  the  day.  Day- 
laborer,  one  who  works  by  the  day.  Daylight,  the 
light  of  the  sun  as  opposed  to  that  of  the  moon.  Day- 
sight,  hemeralopia,  a  defect  of  the  sight,  owing  to  which 
objects  can  be  seen  distinctly  only  in  the  daylight,  and  but 
dimly  or  confusedly  in  the  dusk.  Day-star,  morning  star; 
in  Scrip.,  the  divine  revelation;  the  light  of  the  Gospel. 
Day- WOMAN,  in  OE.,  a  dairy  woman;  a  dairymaid.  Day 
BY  DAY,  every  day.  Day  of  grace,  the  time  that  mercy 
«8 


DAY. 

is  offered.  Days  of  grace,  the  three  days  allowed  for  the 
payment  of  a  bill  of  exchange  after  its  date  has  expired. 
Dayspring,  n.  the  dawn  of  light;  sun-rising.  Day  ticket, 
in  a  railway  or  steamboat,  a  ticket  to  enable  a  passenger  to 
return  on  the  same  day.  Day's  journey,  in  the  East,  a 
mode  of  computing  the  distance  that  can  easily  be  travelled 
over  in  a  day.  Daytime,  the  time  during  which  the  sun 
gives  light  to  the  earth.  From  day  to  day,  without  cer- 
tainty or  continuance.  To-day,  on  this  day.  Astronomical 
DAY,  the  day  which  begins  at  noon  and  ends  at  noon. 
CiYiL  DAY,  the  mean  solar  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  being 
that  in  ordinary  use,  and  divided  into  two  series,  each  from 
one  to  twelve.  Jewish  day,  the  period  from  sunset  to 
sunset.  Sidereal  day,  the  day  measured  by  the  stars, 
being  the  interval  between  two  successive  transits  of  a  star, 
for  convenience  the  first  point  of  Aries,  over  the  same  me- 
ridian. Solar  day,  the  day  measured  by  the  sun,  being  the 
interval  between  two  successive  transits  of  the  sun's  centre 
over  the  same  meridian.  Mean  solar  day,  the  mean  or 
average  of  all  the  apparent  solar  days  in  the  year.  To 
the  day,  to  gain  the  victory;  to  be  successful.  JSfote. — Day 
may  have  been  nothing  more,  primarily,  than  the  name  of 
the  '  sun-god,'  naturally  extended  to  the  space  of  time  dur- 
ing which  he  exerted  his  power,  and  could  be  worshipped; 
hence  identical  with  the  name  for  a  god  common  in  the 
Aryan  languages:  we  have  Gr.  Theos,  L.  Beus,  Gael.  JDia, 
F.  Dieu,  It.  Deos,  Sp.  Dios,  God:  L.  dies,  day:  also  dixum, 
the  sky,  from  the  root  div,  to  shine.    See  Dr.  C.  Mackay. 

DAY:  originally  the  period  during  which  it  is  light,  in 
opposition  to  the  period  of  darkness  or  night;  time  from 
sunrise  to  sunset.  It  now  denotes  also  (and  usually)  a  com- 
plete alternation  of  light  and  darkness,  occupying  inmost 
parts  of  the  earth  24  hours.  It  is  the  earth's  rotation  that 
causes  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night.  The  earth  being 
a  globe,  only  one-half  of  it  can  be  in  the  sun's  light  at  once; 
to  that  half  it  is  day,  while  the  other  half  is  in  shadow,  or 
in  night.  But  by  the  earth's  rotation,  the  several  portions 
of  the  surface  have  each  their  turn, of  light  and  of  darkness. 
This  happens  because  the  position  of  the  earth  is  such 
that  the  equator  is  on  the  whole  presented  towards  the  sun; 
had  either  pole  been  toward  the  sun,  that  hemisphere 
would  have  revolved  in  continual  light,  the  other  in  con- 
tinual darkness. 

One  complete  rotation  of  the  earth  does  not  make  a  day, 
in  the  usual  sense.  If  the  time  is  noted  when  a  particular 
fixed  star  is  exactly  south  or  on  the  meridian,  when  the 
same  star  comes  again  to  the  meridian  the  next  day,  the 
earth  has  made  exactly  one  rotation,  and  the  time  that  has 
elapsed  is  called  a  siderea^l  day.  This  portion  of  time  is 
always  of  the  same  length;  for  the  motion  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis  is  strictly  uniform,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  only 
strictly  uniform  motion  that  nature  presents.  Side- 
real time,  or  star-time,  from  its  unvarying  uniformity, 
is  much  used  by  astronomers.  But  the  passage  of  a  star 
across  the  meridian  is  not  a  conspicuous  enough  event  for 

§79 


DAY. 

regulating  the  movements  of  men  in  general.  It  is  not  a 
complete  rotation  of  the  earth,  but  a  complete  alternation 
of  light  and  darkness,  that  constitutes  their  day.  This, 
which  is  called  the  cwil  or  the  solar  day,  is  measured  between 
two  meridian  passages  of  the  sun,  and  is  about  four  minutes 
longer  than  the  sidereal  day.  The  cause  of  the  greater 
length  is  this:  When  the  earth  has  made  one  complete 
turn,  so  as  to  bring  the  meridian  of  the  place  to  the  same 
position  among  the  fixed  stars  as  when  it  was  noon  the  day 
before,  the  sun  has  in  the  mean  time  (apparently)  moved 
eastward  nearly  one  degree  among  the  stars,  and  it  takes 
the  earth  about  four  minutes  more  to  move  round  so  as  to 
overtake  him.  If  this  eastward  motion  of  the  sun  were 
uniform,  the  length  of  the  solar  day  would  be  as  simple  and 
as  easily  determined  as  that  of  the  sidereal.  But  the  ecliptic 
or  sun's  path  crosses  the  earth's  equator,  and  is  therefore 
more  oblique  to  the  direction  of  the  earth's  rotation  at  one 
time  than  another;  and  besides,  as  the  earth  moves  in  her 
orbit  with  varying  speed,  the  rate  of  the  sun's  apparent 
motion  in  the  ecliptic,  which  is  caused  by  that  of  the  earth, 
must  also  vary.  'I'he  consequence  is,  that  the  length  of  the 
solar  day  is  cons' antly  fluctuating;  and  to  get  a  fixed  measure 
of  solar  time,  astionomers  have  to  imagine  a  sun  moving 
uniformly  in  the  celestial  equator,  and  completing  its 
circuit  in  the  same  time  as  the  real  sun.  The  time  marked 
by  this  imaginary  sun  is  called  mean  solar  time;  when  the 
.imaginary  sun  is  on  the  meridian,  it  is  mean  noon;  when  the 
real  sun  is  on  the  meridian,  it  is  apparent  noon.  It  is  obvious 
that  a  sun-dial  must  show^  apparent  time,  while  clocks  and 
watches  keep  mean  time.  Only  in  four  days  of  the  year  do 
these  two  kinds  of  time  coincide.  In  the  intervals,  the  sun 
is  always  either  too  fast  or  too  slow;  and  the  difference  is 
called  the  equation  of  time,  because,  when  added  to  or  sub- 
tracted from  apparent  time,  it  makes  it  equal  to  mean  time. 
The  mean  solar  day  is  divided  into  34  hours,  the  hours  into 
minutes  and  seconds.  A  sidereal  day,  we  have  seen,  is 
shorter;  its  exact  length  is  23  hours,  56  minutes,  4  seconds 
of  mean  solar  or  common  time.  Astronomers  divide  the 
sidereal  day  also  into  24  hours,  which  are  of  course  shorter 
than  common  hours.  In  the  course  of  a  civil  year  of  365 
days,  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  366  times,  or  there  are  366 
sidereal  days.  Astronomers  reckon  the  day  as  beginning  at 
noon,  and  count  the  hours  from  1  to  24.  The  civil  day 
begins  at  midnight,  and  the  hours  are  counted  in  two 
divisions  of  twelve  each.  The  ecclesiastical  day,  like  the 
Jewish  day,  was  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunset. 

A  day,  in  law,  includes  the  whole  24  hours,  without  any 
reference  to  the  season  of  the  year,  or  the  amount  of  light 
or  darkness.  Where  there  is  no  qualifying  stipulation, 
therefore,  the  obligation  to  pay  on  a  certain  day  is  dis 
charged  if  the  money  be  paid  before  12  o'clock  at  night, 
which  is  counted  as  the  commencement  of  the  following 
day.  On  the  same  principle,  if  anything  is  to  be  done 
within  a  certain  number  of  days  from  or  after  the  doing  of 
a  certain  other  thing,  the  day  on  which  the  first  act  or  oc- 
currence takes  place  is  excluded.  If  A  binds  himself  to 
m 


DAY. 

pay  money  10  days  after  B's  death,  and  B  dies  on  the  1st, 
the  money  will  not  be  due  till  the  night  of  the  11th  at  12 
o'clock.  Unless  the  contrary  be  absolutely  necessary,  for 
tlie  purposes  of  justice,  the  law  excludes  fractional  por- 
tions of  time;  thus,  half  a  year  consists  of  182  days,  and  a 
quarter  of  a  year  of  91. 

A  lawful  day  is  a  day  on  which  there  is  no  legal  impedi- 
ment to  the  execution  of  a  writ — i.e.,  all  days  except  Sun- 
days and  certain  holidays  appointed  by  government, 
Criminal  warrants  are  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  may 
be  both  granted  and  executed  on  Sundays  and  holidays. 
All  contracts  made  by  persons  in  their  ordinary  calling  on  a 
Sunday  are  void:  for  exceptions  to  this  rule,  see  Lord's  Day. 

Days  of  Grace. — The  time  at  which  a  bill  is  actually  due, 
or  at  maturity,  is  in  general  three  days  after  the  time  ex- 
pressed on  the  face  of  it.  The  three  additional  days  gen 
erally  allowed  by  the  custom  of  merchants,  and  which  the 
laws  recognize  and  protect,  are  called  days  of  grace.  If 
the  third  day  of  grace  fall  on  a  Sunday,  the  bill  is  payable 
the  day  before.  If  it  fall  on  any  of  the  bank  holidays,  the 
bill  is  payable  the  day  after:  see  Bill. 

DAY,  dd,  Horace  H.:  1818-1878,  Aug.  23:  manufact- 
urer. He  obtained  a  license  from  Charles  Goodyear  for 
manufacturing  shirred  rubber  goods,  and  was  subsequently 
sued  by  Mr.  Goodyear  for  infringing  on  his  patent  rights  in 
woven  goods.  A  cross-suit  was  instituted,  and  the  two 
manufacturers  were  involved  in  costly  litigation  many, 
years.  One  of  their  suits,  tried  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  is 
memorable  from  the  facts  that  Daniel  Webster  appeared  as 
counsel  for  Mr.  Goodyear  and  Rufus  Choate  for  Mr.  D.,that 
Mr.  Goodyear  won  the  case,and  that  Mr.  D.  surrendered  his 
license,  factory,  and  machinery,  and  retired  from  the  busi- 
ness on  the  receipt  of  $350  000  and  $21,000  paid  as  counsel 
fees.  In  1856  he  organized  a  company  to  utilize  the  water, 
power  of  Niagara  Falls  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and 
spent  over  $700,000  in  building  a  canal  and  providing  a  har- 
bor at  Grass  Island;  but  all  his  improvements  were  sold 
under  foreclosure  of  mortgages  1877.  He  subsequently 
established  a  large  rubber  factory  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
sold  his  interest  for  $40,000,  and  retired  to  Manchester, 
N.  H.,  where  he  died. 

DAY,  Jeremiah,  d.d.,  ll.d.:  1773,  Aug.  3—1867,  Aug. 
22;  b.  New  Preston,  Conn. :  educator.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  1795,  spent  two  years  as  tutor  at  Williams 
College,  studied  theology,  was  elected  prof,  of  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  at  Yale  1801,  and,  succeeding  Dr. 
Dwight,  was  pres.  1817-46.  His  mathematical  publications 
include  an  Algebra  (1814),  Mensuration  of  Superficies  and 
Solids  (1814),  Plane  Trigonometry  (1815),  and  Navigation  and 
Surveying  (1817):  other  publications  are  An  Examination  of 
President  Edwards's  Inquiry  as  to  the  Freedom  of  the  Will 
(1814),  and  An  Inquiry  on  the  Self -determining  Power  of  the 
Will,  or  Contingent  Volition  (1838,  49).  He  received  the 
degree  LL.D.  from  Middlebury  Univ.,  1817,  and  d.d.  from 
Union  College  1818  and  Harvard  Univ.,  1831. 

581 


DAY— DAYSMAN. 

DAY,  Thomas:  1748,  June  22—1789,  Sep.  28;  b.  Lon- 
don: political  writer  and  poet.  He  studied  at  Oxford. 
The  American  war  of  independence,  with  which  he 
strongly  sympathized,  seems  to  have  roused  his  poetical 
energies.  *^In  1773,  he  published  The  Dying  Negro;  in  1776, 
The  Devoted  Legions;  and  in  1777,  The  Desolation  of  Amer- 
ica. But  he  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  author  of  the 
famous  History  of  Sandford  and  Merton,  as  also  the  History 
of  Little  Jack. 

DAY'AKS:  see  Borneo:  Brooke,  Sir  James. 

DAY-FLY:  see  Ephemera. 

DAY-LILY  {HemerocalUs):  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat. 
ord.  Liliacecz,  having  a  perianth  with  bell-shaped  limb,  and 
sub-cylindrical  tube,  and  globose  seeds  with  soft  testa. 
Several  species  are  cultivated  in  flower-gardens,  especially 
the  fragrant  Yellow  Day-lily  {H.flavaJ),  native  of  Hungary, 


Day-lily. 


Siberia,  and  the  north  of  China.  It  has  also  been  recom- 
mended to  farmers  as  affording  a  supply  of  acceptable 
green-food  to  cattle.  But  //.  fulva,  native  of  the  Levant, 
produces  more  abundant  foliage,  and  cattle  are  equally 
fond  of  it.  Both  species  are  fibrous-rooted  perennials 
with  linear  leaves. 

DAYS'MAIM:  formerly  in  England,  and  still  in  some 
northern  counties:  arbitrator,  imipire,  or  elected  judge. 
It  has  its  origin  in  the  judicial  language  of  the  middle 
ages,  when  the  word  Day  was  specially  applied  to  the  day 
appointed  for  hearing  a  cause,  or  for  the  meeting  of  an 
assembly.  A  daysman  was  thus  a  judge  appointed  to  de- 
cide between  disagreeing  parties  at  a  judicial  hearing. 
The  word  occurs  in  Scripture  in  the  sense  of  umpire,  Job 

582 


DAYTON. 

ix.  33:  where  Job  sorrowfully  says,  in  reference  to  his  rela- 
tion to  God: 

'  There  is  no  daysman  between  us, 
That  might  lay  his  hand  upon  us  both.' 

DAYTON,  da' ton:  city,  cap.  of  Montgomery  co.,  O.;  on 
the  e.  bank  of  the  Great  Miami  river  at  the  mouth  of  Mad 
river,  and  the  Miami  canal;  60  m.  n.n.e.  of  Cincinnati,  67 
m.  w.  by  s.  of  Columbus;  lat.  39°  44'  n.,  long.  84°  11'  w. 
It  is  the  fifth  city  in  O.  in  population  and  wealth;  was 
settled  1796,  incorporated  1805,  and  chartered  1841;  is  laid 
out  in  streets  from  100  to  133  ft.  wide,  which  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles;  is  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity; 
and  has  36  macadamized  roads  with  a  total  length  of  over 
600  m.  radiating  from  it  to  the  suburbs.  D.  has  abun- 
dant water-power.  Eight  railroads  have  termini  here:  the 
Sandusky  D.  and  Cincinnati,  Atlantic  and  Great  Western, 
Cincinnati  and  D.,  D.  and  Western,  D.  and  Union,  D.  and 
Xenia,  D.  and  Michigan,  and  D.  and  Southwestern.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  co.  court  house  167  ft.  long  and 
62  ft,  wide,  built  of  marble,  in  the  style  of  the  Parthenon, 
at  a  cost  of  |170,000,  a  stone  jail  that  cost  $400,000,  a  pub- 
lic library  containing  over  5,000  vols.,  and  5  lar2:e  market- 
houses;  the  educational  buildings  include  15  public  schools, 
a  high  school,  Cooper  Seminary  (Presb.)  for  Young  Ladies, 
St.  Mary's  Institute  (Rom.  Cath.)  for  Boys,  and  Deavor's 
preparatory  school  for  boys;  the  charitable  institutions  are 
a  city  orphan  asylum,  co.  almshouse,  and  state  insane 
asylum.  The  most  noted  institution  of  D.  is  the  National 
Home  for  Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors, consisting  of  a  clus- 
ter of  40  buildings  on  an  elevated  tract  of  640  acres  4  m.  w. 
of  the  city.  The  home  is  provided  with  a  church  of  native 
white  limestone,  an  admirable  hospital  with  accommo- 
dations for  300  persons,  a  dining-hall  in  which  3,000  per- 
sons can  be  seated  at  one  time,  a  library  with  5,000  vols., 
music-hall,  and  billiard  and  bowling  rooms.  The  grounds 
are  beautifully  laid  out,  and  have  many  natural  and  arti- 
ficial attractions.  The  inmates  (1887)  numbered  5,000. 
There  are  53  churches  in  D.:  Bap.  10,  Meth.  Episc.  9, 
Unit.  Brethren,  Presb.,  Luth.,  6  each,  Rom.  Cath.  5,  Ref. 
3,  Disciples  2,  Brethren,  Christians,  Hebrew,  Evang. 
Assoc.,  Prot.  Episc,  Unit.,  Presb.,  1  each. 

D.  has  several  quarries  of  excellent  white  limestone  which 
have  furnished  material  for  the  annex  to  the  co.  court- 
house, the  First  and  Second  Presb.  and  Grace  Meth.  Episc. 
churches,  and  the  finest  buildings  in  that  and  neighboring 
cities.  The  chief  industries  are  manufactories  of  railroad 
cars,  paper,  stoves,  and  hollow  ware;  there  are  also  several 
cotton,  woolen,  oil,  and  flour  mills,  and  machine-shops. 
In  1880  the  capital  employed  in  manufactures  aggregated 
$6,063,334;  6,025  hands  were  engaged;  and  the  products 
were  valued  at  $11,985,483,  In  1888  the  capital  was 
$8,000,000;  number  of  hands,  10,000;  value  of  products, 
$15,000,000.  There  are  8  banks  7  national  and  1  savings, 
with  a  joint  capital  of  $2,930,000,  and  8  insurance  com- 
panies with  a  capital  of  $1,200,000.  The  assessed  valuation 
olproperty  was (1864)  f  10,315,310;  (1878)  $203000,000;  (1885} 


D'AZARA— DEACON. 

$28,000,000.  Pop.  (1830)  2,954;  (1840)  6,067;  (1850)  10,976; 
(1860)  20,081;  (1870)  30,473;  (1880)  38,678;  (1886)  45,000. 

D'AZARA,  dd-thd'rd,  Don  Felix:  naturalist:  b.  Bar- 
bunales,  Aragon,  1746,  May  18;  d.  after  1802.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Univ.  of  Huesca,  obtained  a  commission  in 
the  Spanish  army,  was  severely  wounded  in  the  attack 
upon  Algiers;  and  1781  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  fixing  the  boundaries  of  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese possessions  in  S.  Ameri'^a,  in  which  regions  he  spent 
nearly  20  years,  applying  himself  also  in  the  geography, 
ethnology,  and  natural  history  of  those  lands.  Returning 
to  Spain,  1801,  he  published  an  account  of  his  travels;  also 
an  important  work  on  quadrupeds  and  bipeds,  Notes  on  the 
Natural  History  of  Paraguay  and  La  Plata  (Madrid  1802, 
et  seq.). 

DAZE,  V.  ddz  [Dut.  daesen,  to  lose  one's  wits  in  fright: 
Icel.  das,  a  faint,  exhaustion:  Sw.  dasa,  to  lie  idle:  Bav. 
doseri,  to  keep  still  (see  Doze)]:  to  stun;  to  stupefy  with  a 
blow,  or  with  excess  of  light,  fear,  cold,  etc. :  N.  among 
miners,  a  glittering  stone.  Da' zing,  imp.  Dazed,  pp. 
ddzd.  Dazzle,  v.  ddz  I,  to  overpower  with  light;  to  strike 
or  surprise  with  brilliancy  or  splendor;  to  be  overpowered 
with  light.  Daz  zling,  imp.  Dazzled,  pp.  ddz  ld.  Daz'- 
ZLiNGLY,  ad.  -Ihigdi.  Dazzlement,  n.  ddz'l-ment,  the 
state  of  being  dazzled;  the  act  of. 

DE,  pref.  [L.]:  amoving  down  or  from;  separation  or 
taking  away.  De  often  expresses  a  negative,  and  some- 
times only  augments  the  sense.  De  has  the  force  of  Dis, 
asunder,  as  in  (f^range,  c?^part.  De  is  often  used  for  dis  in 
words  derived  from  the  French. 

DEACON,  n.  de'kn  [L.  diaconus;  Gr.  diakonos,  a  min- 
ister or  servant]:  one  of  the  lower  grade  of  ministers  or 
servants  in  the  church.  Deaconship,  n.  dekn-sMp,  or 
Dea'conry,  n.  -ri,  the  office  of  a  deacon.  Deacons  in  apos- 
tolic times,  properly  those  ofiicers  of  a  Christian  congrega- 
tion or  church  that  had  the  charge  of  collectiog  and  dis- 
tributing the  alms,  and  of  taking  care  of  the  poor  and  the 
sick.  The  office,  therefore,  was  not  of  the  kind  now  known 
as  clerical,  though  the  term  deacon  or  servant,  like  that  of 
minister,  which  lias  the  same  meaning,  might  be  at  times 
applied  to  teachers  or  preachers.  The  limitations  of  the 
office  of  deacon  to  the  functions  above  specified  continued 
to  be  recognized  as  late  as  the  council  of  Trullanam,  692. 
The  Church  of  Jerusalem  chose  at  first  seven  deacons,  in- 
dividuals of  whom,  no  doubt,  as  Philip,  also  taught  and 
baptiiyd,  but  only  because  they  were  evangelists  as  well  as 
deacons:  indeed  from  the  New  Testament  record  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  strict  limitation  of  teaching,  preach- 
ing, and  baptizing,  to  an  order  of  clerical  officials;  though 
doubtless  these  functions  were  exercised,  with  due  regard 
to  order,  only  under  the  charge  of  the  pastor  or  bishop  in 
each  local  church,  where  such  churches  existed.  The 
number  seven  continued  to  be  adhered  to  in  all  churches. 
During  the  2d  and  3d  c,  the  duties  falling  to  the  deacons, 
bad  considerably  increased,  and  since  as  confidential  at- 


DEACONESSES, 
tendants  and  helpers  of  the  bishops  (at  that  period  exercis- 
ing a  diocesan  authority  over  several  churches)  the  deacons 
had  risen  into  consequence,  it  became  necessary  to  divide 
the  various  functions  among  an  archdeacon,  deacons,  and 
subdeacons.  Deacons  might  now  dispense  the  bread  and 
wine  at  the  communion,  but  not  consecrate  them.  They 
had  to  receive  the  offerings  and  presents  for  the  bishop,  to 
keep  the  sacred  vessels,  to  chant  the  introductory  formulas 
of  public  worship,  and  to  take  the  oversight  of  the  morals 
of  the  congregation;  and  they  were  allowed,  in  many  cases, 
with  the  leave  of  the  bishop,  to  preach  and  baptize,  and 
receive  penitents  into  the  communion  of  the  church.  At 
an  early  period,  the  offices  of  archdeacon  and  deacon  were 
considered  to  belong  to  the  higher  orders  of  consecration 
(ordines  majores)\  this  was  not  the  case  with  that  of  sub- 
deacon  till  after  the  12th  c.  At  the  consecration  of  a 
deacon  as  one  of  the  lowest  order  of  clergy  in  the  Rom. 
Cath.  Church,  the  sacred  vessels  are  handed  to  him  as  sym- 
bols of  his  office.  His  peculiar  robes  are  the  dalmatica 
and  the  stole. 

In  Prot.  churches,  the  position  of  deacons  varies.  In  Congl. 
and  some  other  churches,  besides  serving  at  the  Lord's  Table, 
have  special  charge  of  the  poor  members  of  the  church. 
Among  Presbyterians,  their  place  is  usually  supplied  by 
the  elders;  but  in  some  Presbyterian  churches  (e.g.,  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland),  and  many  in  the  United  States, 
the  offices  of  elder  and  deacon  are  kept  distinct.  In  some 
denominations,  deacons  have  charge  of  the  secular  affairs 
of  the  church.  In  the  C^hurch  of  England,  and  the  Prot. 
Episc.  Church  in  the  United  States,  a  deacon  is  a  clergyman 
of  the  lowest  order,  receiving  a  special  form  of  ordination, 
but  differing  in  effect  from  a  priest  in  not  being  allowed 
to  consecrate  the  elements  at  the  communion,  or  pronounce 
the  absolution  or  benediction.  For  this,  as  well  as  for 
holding  in  England  any  benefice  or  church-perferment, 
priest's  orders  are  necessary.  The  office  is  thus  of  little  im- 
portance, except  as  affording  an  interval  of  probation  be- 
fore admission  to  priest's  orders.  As  in  the  Rom.  Cath. 
Church ,  its  original  function  of  caring  in  the  name  of  the 
whole  company  of  disciples  for  the  poor,  the  aged,  and  the 
sick,  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

DEACONESSES  iancUlm,  ministrce,  viducB,  mrgines,  epis- 
copcB,  pi^esbyterce):  female  ministers  or  servants  of  the  church 
or  Christian  society  in  the  time  of  the  apostles  (Rom.  xvi.  1). 
They  co-operated  with  the  deacons,  showed  the  women 
their  place  in  the  church-assemblies,  assisted  at  the  bap- 
tism of  persons  of  their  own  sex,  instructed  those  who  were 
about  to  be  baptized  as  to  the  answers  they  should  give  to 
the  baptismal  questions,  arranged  the  agapce  or  love-f castas, 
and  took  care  of  the  sick.  In  the  3d  c,  it  seems  to  have 
been  also  part  of  their  duty  to  visit  all  Christian  females 
who  were  suffering  imprisonment,  and  to  be  hospitable  to 
such  as  had  come  from  afar.  In  very  early  times,  they 
were  consecrated  to  their  office  by  ordination  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual  personages;  later, 
however,  they  were  inducted  into  their  office  by  prayer 

585 


DEACON  OF  A  TRADE— DEAD. 

without  the  imposition  of  hands.  Until  the  4th  c,  the 
deaconesses  had  to  be  either  maidens,  or  widows  who  had 
been  only  once  married,  and  60  years  of  age;  but  after  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  the  age  was  fixed  at  40.  Their  as- 
sistants were  called  sub-deaconesses.  After  the  6th  c,  in 
the  Latin  Church,  and  after  the  12th  c,  in  the  Greek 
Church,  the  ottice  of  deaconess  was  discontinued;  though 
the  former  has  retained  the  name.  In  monasteries,  for  ex- 
ample, the  nuns  who  have  the  care  of  the  altar  are  called 
deaconesses.  However,  the  duties  of  deaconesses  are  often 
performed  with  great  tenderness  and  assiduity  by  members 
of  various  Rom.  Oath,  sisterhoods.  In  the  RefoiTned 
Church  of  the  Netherlands,  also,  those  elderly  females  are 
called  D.  who  take  care  of  lying-in  women  and  of  the  poor. 
The  advantages  resulting  to  a  Christian  community  from 
such  an  order  are  too  obvious  to  require  exposition.  It  has 
been  a  serious  misfortune  to  the  church  at  large,  that  the 
ottice  has  been  allowed  to  fall  into  disuse;  and  the  wide- 
spread institution  at  the  present  day  in  the  Prot.  churches 
of  Great  Britain  and  America  of  Ladies'  District-visiting 
Societies,  Dorcas  Societies,  sisterhoods,  etc.,  is  an  attempt 
to  practically  supplying,  to  some  extent  at  least,  the  want 
of  this  primitive  ottice.  It  is  encouraging  that  there  is 
now  an  evident  movement  toward  the  introduction  of  the 
order  of  deaconesses  into  the  Church  of  England,  and  into 
the  Prot.  Episc.  Church  in  the  United  States.  A  few 
Congl.  churches  have  established  the  ottice,  though  they 
seem  not  yet  to  have  systematized  its  work. 

DEA'CON  OF  A  TRADE:  in  Scotland,  the  president,  for 
the  time  being,  of  an  incorporated  trade;  formerly  repre- 
senting his  trade  or  craft  in  the  town- council.  In  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  the  deacon- convener  of  the  trades  is 
still  a  member  of  the  town-council.  One  of  the  duties  of 
the  office  in  former  times  was  to  essay,  or  try,  the  work  of 
apprentices,  previous  to  their  admission  to  the  freedom  of 
the  trade.    See  Dean  of  Guild. 

DEAD,  a.  ded  [Goth,  dauths;  Icel.  daudr;  Sw.  dod; 
Ger.  todt,  dead]:  deprived  of  life;  deceased;  without  life; 
that  never  had  life;  senseless;  inactive;  perfectly  still; 
tasteless;  vapid;  perfector  complete,  as  a  dead  shot;  wholly 
under  the  power  of  sin:  Ad.  to  the  last  degree;  completely: 
N.  the  time  when  all  is  still  and  quiet  as  death,  as  winter 
and  night.  Deadly,  a.  ded'li,  that  may  occasion  death; 
fatal;  destructive:  Ad.  in  a  manner  resembling  death; 
mortally.  Dead'liness,  n.  the  quality  of  being  fatal  or 
deadly.  Dead'ness,  n.  state  of  being  destitute  of  life, 
vigor,  or  activity  The  dead,  n.  plu.  human  beings 
without  life;  the  departed.  Deads,  n.  plu.  deds,  in  mining, 
any  vein  stone  or  mine-stuff  that  does  not  contain  enough 
of  ore  to  make  it  worth  remo.ving  from  the  mine;  mine 
waste  or  rubbish.  Dead- angle,  in  mil.,  an  angle  in  a 
fortification  not  exposed  to  any  fire  at  all.  Dead-beat,  a. 
quite  exhausted;  unable  to  move:  N.  a  worthless  fellow 
who  sponges  on  others.  Dead-centre,  one  of  the  two 
points  in  the  orbit  of  a  crank,  in  which  it  is  in  line  with 


DEAB. 

the  connecting-rod;  it  is  also  called  dead-point  DeaB- 
COLOR,  in  painting,  a  color  that  has  no  gloss,  or  reflecting 
quality.  Dead- coloring,  the  first  layers  of  colors  in  a 
picture,  bringing  out  its  parts.  Dead-drunk,  rendered 
perfectly  helpless  through  strong  drink.  Dead-eyes,  on  a 
vessel,  circular  flattish  wooden  blocks,  part  of  a  tackle  for 
extending  the  standing  rigging,  and  for  other  purposes. 
Dead-flat,  in  a  mssel,  one  of  the  mid  ship  timbers.  Dead- 
freight,  compensation  paid  by  one  who  freights  a  whole 
ship  to  the  shipmaster  for  the  space  which  he  fails  to  occupy. 
Dead-head,  superfluous  length  given  to  gun  in  casting, 
afterward  sawed  off;  that  piece  on  a  casting  w^hich  fills  the 
ingate  at  which  the  metal  entered  the  mold;  a  feeding-head 
or  sullage-piece ;  one  who  habitually  obtains  admission  to* 
places  of  entertainment,  etc.,  without  payment;  one  on  the 
free-list;  a  sponger.  Dead-heat  [heat,  a  warm  race  with- 
out stopping — from  Ger.  lietzen,  fury,  ardor:  Icel.  Mta, 
boiling] :  a  race  to  be  run  over  again  by  two  horses,  equal 
in  a  previous  race,  as  if  dead,  or  as  if  it  never  had  taken 
place.  Dead  language,  one  no  longer  spoken.  Dead- 
latch,  n.  a  kind  of  latch  whose  bolt  may  be  so  locked  by  a 
detent  that  it  cannot  be  opened  from  the  inside  by  the 
handle  or  from  the  outside  by  the  latch-key.  The  detent 
is  usually  capable  of  locking  the  bolt  in  or  out,  so  that  the 
device  forms  a  latch,  a  dead-lock,  or  is  made  inoperative,  as 
desired.  Dead-letter,  at  a  post-oflace,  a  letter  whose 
owner  cannot  be  found.  Dead-level,  a  term  applied  to  a 
flat  country  which  offers  facilities  for  railway  or  road  mak- 
ing. Dead-lift,  or  Dead-weight,  the  weight  of  a  life- 
less or  inactive  body;  a  heavyweight  or  burden.  Dead- 
lift,  in  OE.,  a  last  extremity;  in  a  great  strait  or  difficulty. 
Dead-light,  strong  wooden  shutter  for  the  window  of  a 
ship's  cabin  for  protection  in  storms.  Dead-lock,  a  lock 
without  a  spring  or  latch;  counter  movements  and  plans 
producing  an  entire  stoppage.  Dead-march,  a  solemn 
piece  of  music  played  on  instruments  at  the  interment  of 
the  dead,  principally  of  military  men.  Dead-nettle,  a 
common  plant  like  the  nettle,  but  having  no  stinging  prop- 
erty; the  Ldnlum  album,  ord.  Ldhiatm.  Dead-point:  see 
Dead  centre,  above.  Dead-reckoning,  calculation  of  a 
ship's  place  at  sea,  independently  of  celestial  observations. 
The  chief  elements  from  which  the  reckoning  is  made  are: 
The  point  of  departure,  i.e.,  the  latitude  and  longitude 
sailed  from,  or  last  determined ;  the  course  or  direction  sailed 
in  (ascertained  by  the  compass);  the  rate  of  sailing — meas- 
ured from  time  to  time  by  the  Log  (q.v.);  and  the  time 
elapsed.  The  various  principles  or  methods  followed  in 
arriving  at  the  reckoning  from  these  data  are  known  as 
'plain-sailing,  middle-latitude  sailing,  etc.:  see  Sailings. 
But  the  data  themselves  are  liable  to  numerous  uncertainties 
and  errors,  owing  to  currents,  leeway  (q.v.),  fluctuations 
of  the  wind,  changes  in  the  declination  of  the  compass, 
etc.;  therefore  the  results  arrived  at  by  the  D.  have  to 
be  corrected  as  often  as  is  possible  by  observation  of  the 
heavenly  bodies:  see  Navigation:  Latitude:  Longi- 
tude,  Dead-rising,  that  part  of  a  ship's  bottom  where 


DEAD. 

the  floor-timbers  terminate,  an(^  the  lower  futtocks  oi 
foot-hooks  begin.  Dead  ropes,  such  ropes  as  do  not 
run  in  blocks.  Dead-set,  a  determined  resolution  to  bring 
matters  to  a  crisis — in  allusion  to  the  action  of  a  setter  dog. 
Dead-shot,  a  marksman  who  seldom  misses  his  aim. 
Dead-wall,  one  that  has  no  opening.  Dead-water,  the 
water  that  closes  in  after  a  ship's  stern  when  sailing.  Dead- 
top,  a  disease  of  young  trees.  Dead-wind,  wind  blowing 
directly  against  a  ship's  course.  Dead-wood,  blocks  of 
timber  laid  upon  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  especially  fore  and 
aft,  fastened  to  the  keel  with  iron  spikes,  to  give  solidity  to 
the  ends  of  the  ship.  Deadly  nightshade,  a  highly  poi- 
sonous plant,  possessing  narcotic  properties  in  all  its  parts; 
the  Atropd  Belladonna,  ord.  Solandcm:  see  Atropia: 
Belladonna. — Deaden,  v.  ded'n,  to  lessen  force,  vigor, 
or  sensation;  to  blunt;  to  retard;  to  render  spiritless;  to 
smother,  as  sound;  to  cloud  or  obscure.  Deadening, 
imp.  -nlng.  Deadened,  pp.  ded'nd.  Dead  as  a  door 
nail,  the  knob  of  a  door  on  which  the  knocker  strikes, 
which  could  not  but  be  dead.  Dead  of  night,  in  the 
perfect  stillness  of  night  far  advanced.  Dead  of  winter, 
the  very  dullest  and  stormiest  part  of  winter. — Syn.  of 
'dead,  a.':  lifeless;  inanimate;  extinct;  dull;  gloomy;  un- 
productive; unprofitable;  monotonous;  unvaried;  sure. 

DEAD,  Burning  of  the:  see  Burial:  Cremation. 

DEAD,  Judgment  of  the:  doctrine,  and  custom,  in 
anc.  Egypt.  The  papyrus  rolls  found  with  the  Egyptian 
mummies  contain  a  description  of  the  fate  of  the  departed 
subsequent  to  their  death.  Even  in  the  least  complete 
specimens,  the  most  important  scene  is  se  ldom  wanting — 
that,  namely,  in  w^hich  the  dead  is  led  by  the  hand  of  Ma, 
the  goddess  of  Truth  and  Justice,  into  the  judgment-hall 
of  the  nether  world,  before  Osiris,  the  judge  of  the  dead. 
The  god's  throne  faces  the  entrance.  In  the  middle  of  the 
hall  stands  a  huge  balance,  with  an  ostrich  feather,  the 
symbol  of  Truth,  in  one  scale,  and  a  vessel  in  the  form  of 
a  human  heart  in  the  other.  A  female  hippopotamus  ap- 
pears as  accuser.  Above  sit  forty-two  gods,  each  of  whom 
specially  presides  over  one  of  the  forty-two  sins  from  which 
the  deceased  has  to  clear  himself.  The  gods  Horus  and 
Anubis  attend  to  the  balance,  while  the  ibis-headed  Thoth- 
Hermes,  the  justifier,  writes  down  the  result,  which  is 
naturally  assumed  to  be  favorable.  Such  is  the  judgment 
of  the  dead  in  the  Egyptian  Hades.  But,  according  to 
Diodorus,  a  human  judgment  had  already  been  passed  upon 
the  departed  previous  to  burial.  Before  the  sarcophagus 
was  launched  upon  the  holy  lake  over  which  it  was  to  be 
ferried  by  Charon,  the  friends  and  relatives  of  the  dead, 
together  with  forty-two  judges,  assembled  on  the  shore. 
Each  was  permitted  to  bring  an  accusation  against  him, 
and  if  it  were  proved,  the  solemnities  of  burial  were  with- 
held. A  false  accuser,  however,  was  severely  punished. 
Even  unjust  and  unpopular  monarchs  were  deprived  of 
sepulture  by  this  process. 

DEAD,  Praying  for  the:  see  Prayer. 

5W  ■  ..1. 


DEADENIKG  OF  NOISE— DEAD-LETTER  OFFICE. 

DEADENING  OF  NOISE  in  Machinery:  effected  by 
use  of  rubber  cushions  under  legs  of  work-benches,  etc.; 
also,  by  resting  each  leg  or  support  on  a  block  in  the  middle 
of  a  small  keg— fine  sand  or  sawdust  being  filled  in  below, 
around,  and  above  the  block  and  leg.  The  noise  and  vibra- 
tion of  strokes  even  on  an  anvil  may  thus  be  greatly  reduced. 

DEAD-LETTER  OFFICE:  branch  of  the  U.  S.  post- 
otiice  dept.  at  Washington,  where  unclaimed,  misdirected, 
and  other  non-deliverable  mail  matter  is  collected  from  all 
post-olfices  in  the  country  for  disposition.  The  period  of 
80  days  during  which  such  letters  may  remain  in  any  post- 
office  is  established  by  law,  as  well  as  the  method  of  send- 
ing them  to  the  D.L.O.  A  list  of  letters  unclaimed  in  any 
oftice  within  a  given  number  of  days  is  exposed  where  all 
can  see  it,  and  in  many  cities,  published  in  the  newspapers. 
At  the  end  of  30  days  all  such  letters,  together  with  those 
addressed  to  a  known  fraudulent  institution  or  firm,  or  on 
which  the  address  cannot  be  readily  deciphered,  or  from 
which  the  name  of  the  out-of-town  office  of  delivery  has 
been  omitted,  are  sent  to  the  D.L.O.,  and  there  opened  and 
examined.  If  they  contain  valuable  inclosures  they  are 
registered;  if  the  name  and  address  of  the  party  for  whom 
they  are  intended  appears  within  they  are  forwarded  direct; 
if  only  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender  can  be  ascertained 
the  dept.  makes  the  return  to  him;  and  if  there  are  no  clews 
by  which  the  sender  or  intended  recipient  can  be  found, 
the  postmaster  gen.,  has  authority  to  dispose  of  the  matter  as 
he  may  deem  best.  Formerly  letters  on  which  postage  was 
insufficiently  prepaid  were  also  forwarded  to  the  D.L.O., 
and  the  persons  addressed  notified  that  the  letters  were  held 
for  insufficient  postage  and  would  be  forwarded  on  the 
receipt  of  the  shortage;  but  the  law  in  this  respect  has  been 
so  modified  that  an  insufficiently  prepaid  letter  will  be  for- 
warded to  its  destination  and  delivered  to  the  party  addressed 
on  the  payment  of  the  shortage.  The  postal  laws  are 
exceedingly  liberal  to  the  public.  Any  person  temporarily 
leaving  home  or  permanently  removing  to  another  one, 
whether  within  the  same  town  or  city,  the  same  state, 
another  state,  or  a  foreign  country,  may  have  his  letters 
forwarded  without  additional  charge  by  leaving  his  new 
address  with  the  postmaster  of  his  former  place  of  residence. 
As  a  rule  the  failure  of  a  letter  in  prompt  delivery  is  due 
either  to  the  carelessness  of  the  sender  in  addressing  it,  or 
to  the  neglect  of  the  party  addressed  in  not  notifying  his 
postmaster  of  a  change  of  residence.  Money  and  postage 
stamps  inclosed  in  a  non -deliverable  letter  are  credited  to 
the  post-office  dept. ;  bank  checks  and  money  orders  not 
negotiable  are  frequently  held  several  years  for  reclamation. 
Considering  the  vast  quantity  of  mail  matter  handled  daily 
in  the  United  States  and  the  carelessness  of  people,  it  is 
surprising  that  so  small  a  proportion  of  letters  goes  astray  and 
becomes  *  dead.'  During  the  fiscal  year  1885-6  the  D.L.O. 
found  and  delivered  to  the  proper  parties  letters  containing 
over  $20,000  in  money  and  over  |1, 100, 000  in  checks,  drafts, 
and  money  orders;  the  owners  of  186,000  were  ascertained  by 
the  experts  of  the  office  and  received  their  letters  unopened; 
pver  300,000  foreign  letters  were  returned  to  the  varioua 


DEAD  NETTLE— DEAD  SEA. 

offices  of  original  reception;  and  over  100,000  letters 
mailed  in  the  United  States  to  foreign  addresses  were 
returned  as  non-deliverable.  The  bulk  of  the  foreign 
matter  that  goes  astray  in  the  United  States  consists  of 
letters  addressed  to  newl^^-arrived  immigrants  ignorant  of 
the  rules  of  the  post-oliice  dept.,  many  of  whom  shift  from 
place  to  place  before  making  a  settlement  and  nowhere 
leave  a  clew  of  their  destination. 

DEAD  NETTLE  {Lamiwn):  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat. 
ord.  LaUatce,  having  a  5-toothed  calyx  anda  2-lipped  corol- 
la, the  upper  lip  arched,  the  lower  lip  tritid.  The  name  D. 
N. — popularly  in  parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  Dee  Nettle 
—is  also  often  extended  to  the  genera  Galeopsis  and  Galeob- 
dolon,  very  similar  to  Lamium,  the  first  of  which  is  some- 
times distinguished  by  botanists  as  Hemp-nettle,  the  second 
as  Weasel-snout.  Lamium  purpureumy  L.  incisurriy  L.  al- 
bum, and  Galeopsis  ietrahit,  are  common  weeds.  It  is  prob- 
ably to  G.  tetrahit,  or  G.  -yemc^p^^^r  (much  larger  plants,  and 
rough  with  strong  hairs),  rather  ihan  to  any  species  of  La- 
mium,  that  the  popular  belief  relates  of  a  dangerous  irritative 
power  in  the  hairs  of  the  D.  N.,  if  handled  when  dried  as 
in  haymaking.  They  do  not  seem  to  possess  any  poisonous 
property,  but  the  subject  may  be  deserving  of  attention. 

DEAD  SEA  (ancient  Lacits  Asphaltites),  called  by  the 
Arabs  Bahr  Loot,  or  Sea  of  Lot:  in  the  south-east  of  Pales- 
tine; lat.  31°  10  —31°  47'  n.,  central  between  long.  35°  and 
36°  e.  It  is  about  40  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
9  m.  The  depth  of  the  D.  S.  varies  considerably:  sound- 
ings in  the  north  have  given  about  220  fathoms;  this  depth, 
however,  gradually  lessens  toward  the  southern  extremity, 
where  the  water  is  shallow.  Its  surface,  lower  than  that  of 
any  water  known,  is  1,312  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  shape  is  that  of  an  elongated  oval,  inter- 
rupted by  a  promontory  which  projects  from  the  south-east. 
The  D.  S.  is  fed  by  the  Jordan  from  the  n.,  and  by  many 
other  streams,  but  has  no  apxjarent  outlet,  its  superfluous 
water  being  supposed  to  be  entirely  carried  off  by  evapora- 
tion. Along  the  e.  and  w.  borders  of  the  D.  S.,  there  are 
lines  of  bold,  and  in  some  cases  perpendicular,  cliffs,  rising 
in  general  more  than  1,000  ft.  on  the  w.,  and  2,000  ft.  on 
the  e.  These  cliffs  are  chiefly  limestone,  and  are  destitute 
of  vegetation  save  on  the  e.  side,  where  there  are  ravines, 
traversed  by  fresh-water  springs.  The  n.  shores  of  the  lake 
form  an  extensive  and  desolate  muddy  flat,  marked  by  the 
blackened  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  strewn  about,  and 
incrusted  with  salt,  as  everything  is  that  is  exposed  to  the 
spray  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  s.  shore  is  low,  level,  and 
marshy,  and  in  the  highest  degree  desolate  and  dreary;  the 
air  is  choking,  and  no  living  thing  to  be  seen.  On  this  shore 
is  the  remarkable  mass  of  rock  called  Usdum  (Sodom).  It 
is  a  narrow  rugged  ridge  of  hill,  extending  5  m.  n.w.,  and 
consisting  of  rock-salt.  Large  blocks  have  broken  off  from 
this  hill,  and  lie  strewn  in  all  directions  along  the  shore, 
aMingto  its  dreary  and  der.thlikc  aspect.  To  the  n.  of 
Usflum,  and  at  no  great  distance,  is  the  supposed  site  of  the 
ancient  Sodom.  Although  the  hills  surrounding  the  D.  S. 
m 


DEAD'S  PART— DEAF. 

are  principally  stratified  rock,  igneous  rocks  also  are  seen; 
there  are  also  quantities  of  post-tertiary  lava,  pumice-stone, 
warm  springs,  sulphur,  and  volcanic  slag,  clearly  proving 
the  presence  here  of  volcanic  agencies  at  "some  period.  The 
neighborhood  of  tbe  D.  S.  is  frequently  visited  by  earth- 
quakes, on  which  occasions  it  has  been  observed  tbat  this 
lake  casts  up  to  its  surface  large  masses  of  asphaltum,  of 
which  substance  chiefly  tbe  cups,  crosses,  and  other  orna- 
ments made  and  sold  to  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem  consist.  The 
long-entertained  belief,  that  the  exhalations  from  this  lake 
were  fatal,  is  not  founded  upon  fact;  birds  have  been  seen 
flying  over,  and  even  sitting  upon,  its  surface.  Within  the 
thickets  of  tamarisk  and  oleander,  which  here  and  there 
may  be  seen  upon  its  brink,  the  birds  sing  as  sweetly  as  in 
more  highly  favored  quarters.  A  curious  plant  grows  on 
the  borders  of  the  D.  S. ,  the  Asdepias  procera,  which  yields 
fruit  called  the  Apples  of  Sodom,  beautiful  on  the  outside, 
but  bitter  to  the  taste,  and  when  mature,  filled  with  fibre 
and  dust. 

The  icater  of  the  D.  S.  is  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  a  large  quantity  of  magnesian  and  soda  salts.  Its  specific 
gravity  ranges  from  1,172  to  1,227  (pure  water  being  1,000). 
The  proportion  of  saline  matter  is  so  great,  that  while  sea- 
water  contains  only  30  parts  of  salts  in  the  1,000  parts,  the 
water  of  the  D.  S.  contains  about  250,  or  eight  times  more 
than  that  of  the  ocean.  The  saltness  of  the  D.  S,  has  been 
explained  in  several  ways;  but  there  is  no  need  to  advert  to 
more  than  one.  It  is  a  feature  of  all  lakes  or  collections  of 
water  without  any  outflow,  that  the  water  acquires  an  infu- 
sion of  salt,  its  feeders  constantly  bringing  in  this  material, 
while  none  can  go  off  by  evaporation.  It  may,  moreover, 
be  remarked  that,  if  the  D.  S.  was  formerly  at  a  higher 
level,  and  brought  down  to  its  present  pitch  by  evaporation, 
a  deposit  of  salt,  such  as  we  see  on  its  banks,  would  be  the 
natural  consequence.  Considerable  deposits  of  common 
salt,  sulphate  of  lime,  and  carbonate  of  lime  have  been 
formed  along  the  bottom  of  the  lake;  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  deposits  of  rock-salt  which  occur  in 
Cheshire,  England,  in  Poland,  and  other  places,  have  been 
formed  at  remote  periods  by  depositions  in  lakes  similar  to 
those  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

DEAD'S  PART:  in  Scotland,  the  portion  of  the  mova- 
ble estate  of  the  deceased  which  k  mains  over,  after  satisfy- 
ing the  legal  claims  of  his  wife  and  children;  so  called, 
because  it  is  with  reference  to  this  portion  of  his  possessions 
alone  that  he  possessed  the  power  of  disposal  by  will  or 
testament.  See  Markiage  Contract:  Succession,  Per- 
sonal: Movable:  Kin,  Next  of. 

DEAF,  a.  def  or  def  [founded  on  the  notion  of  stopping 
an  orifice;  dead  and  deaf  have  the  same  primary  origin: 
Goth,  dauls;  Icel.  davfv,  deaf,  dull  of  hearing]:  without 
the  sense  of  hearing;  with  imperfect  hearing;  inattentive; 
unwilling  to  hear;  that  will  not  be  persuaded,  as  deaf  to 
entreaty  or  reason.  Deaf  ly,  ad.  -li.  Deaf  ness,  n.  lack 
of  the  sense  of  hearing;  unwillingness  to  hear.  Deafen, 
V.  def  'n,  to  make  deat^;  to  stun.  Deaf  ening,  imp.  -nlnq, 
Deafei^ed,  pp,  def  'nd. 


DEAF-MUTES. 

DEAF-MUTES,  or  Deaf  and  Dumb:  persons  suffering 
primarily  from  lack  of  hearing,  thence  with  inability  to 
speak.  Persons  who  are  born  deaf,  or  who  lose  their  hear- 
ing at  a  very  early  age,  are  dumb  also;  hence  the  compound 
term  deaf -c^ticZ- dumb.  But  the  primary  defect  is  deafness; 
dumbness  is  only  the  consequence.  Children  ordinarily 
hear  sounds,  and  then  learn  to  imitate  them;  that  is,  they 
learn  to  repeat  what  they  hear  other  persons  say.  It  is 
thus  that  every  one  of  us  has  learned  to  speak.  But  the 
deaf  child  hears  nothing;  cannot  therefore  imitate,  and  re- 
mains dumb. 

Persons  who  lose  their  hearing  later  in  life  are  not  to  be 
classed  among  deaf-mutes.  Having  learned  to  speak  be- 
fore their  hearing  was  lost,  they  can  readily  communicate 
with  others,  though  deaf  themselves;  and  if  they  are  edu- 
cated, there  are  still  open  to  them  all  the  stores  of  knowl- 
edge contained  in  books,  from  which  the  juvenile  deaf  and 
dumb,  ignorant  of  all  written  and  spoken  language,  are  ex- 
cluded. It  is  this  latter  class  alone  which  is  contemplated 
in  census  enumerations,  and  for  which  institutions  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  are  specially  designed. 

The  term  '  deaf  and  dumb '  is  unfortunate,  as  embody- 
ing the  error  that  the  primary  defect  is  twofold.  The  or- 
gan of  hearing  is  wanting,  but  the  organs  of  speech  are 
present;  they  merely  lack  the  means  of  exercise.  The  ear 
is  the  guide  of  the  tongue;  and  when  the  ear  is  doomed  to 
perpetual  silence,  the  tongue  is  included  in  the  ban; 
though,  if  we  could  by  any  means  give  to  the  ear  the  fac- 
ulty of  hearing,  the  tongue  would  soon  learn  for  itself  to 
fultil  its  proper  otfice.  To  correct  the  error  involved  in 
this  apparent  misnomer,  some  authorities  use  the  term 
deaf-dumb;  and  deaf-mute  is  now  the  customary  expression 
in  the  United  States,  as  in  France  it  is  sourds-muets.  In 
the  Scriptures,  the  same  original  word  is  translated  'deaf 
in  some  places  (as  Mark  vii.  32),  and  *  dumb '  or  '  speech- 
less' in  others  (see  Matt.  ix.  33:  Luke  i.  22). 

This  affliction  is  very  much  more  frequent  than  was  sup- 
posed till  recently.  Happily,  with  the  knowledge  of  its 
frequency  have  come  the  means  of  alleviating  it,  by  edu- 
cation. It  was  only  when  the  schools  now  in  existence  be- 
gan their  useful  work,  and  caused  inquiries  to  be  made, 
that  the  actual  numbers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  began  to 
appear.  In  every  place  where  it  was  proposed  to  establish 
a  school — in  Paris,  London,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  York- 
shire, Hartford,  New  York,  Philadelphia — the  objection 
was  immediately  started,  that  children  could  not  be  found 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  require  such  schools.  Their  pro- 
moters, however,  knew  better  than  this,  and  persisted  in 
their  design.  They  soon  saw  the  objectors  become  their 
warmest  supporters;  and  the  institutions  thus  established 
are  now  the  largest,  the  most  useful,  and  the  most  prosper- 
ous in  the  world. 

The  facts  thus  ascertained,  and  the  calculations  based 
upon  them,  continued  to  be  the  only  statistics  upon  the 
subject  of  deaf -muteness  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  until 
the  census  of  1851:  then,  for  the  first  time,  the  number 

5»2 


DEAF-MUTES. 

and  ages  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  formed  a  part  of  the  in- 
quiry. The  census  for  Irehmd  now  gives  very  full  and  in- 
teresting details  on  this  subject;  but  the  same  attention  is 
not  bestowed  upon  the  subject  in  the  other  censuses  of  the 
United  Kingdom. 

The  following  tables  give  the  number  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  enumerated  at  the  four  respective  decennial  censuses, 
with  the  proportion  to  the  whole  population  of  the  several 
countries. 

Table  A— for  1851. 

Number  of  Total 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  Population.  Proportion. 

England  and  Wales   10,314  17,927,609        1  in  1,738 

Scotland   2,155  2,888,742         1  "  1,340 

Ireland   4,747  6,552,385         1  1,380 

Islands  of  the  British  Seas   84  143,126        1  "  1,704 

Total   17,300  27,511,862        1  in  1,590 

Table  B— for  1861. 

Number  of  Total 

Deaf  and  Dumb.  Population.  Proportion, 

England  and  Wales                    12,236           20,066,224  1  in  1,640 

Scotland                                    2,335             3,062,294  1  "  1,311 

Ireland                                      4,930             5,798,967  1  "  1,176 

Islands  of  the  British  Seas              87              143,347  1  "  1,647 

Total   19,588  29,070,832        1  in  1,484 

Table  C— for  1871. 

Number  of  Total 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  Population.  Proportion. 

England  and  Wales   11,518  22,712,260        1  in  1,971 

Scotland   2,088  3,360,018         1  "  1,609 

Ireland   4,467  5,412,377         1  "  1,211 

Islands  of  the  British  Seas   77  144,638        1  "  1,878 

Total   18,150  31,629,293        1  in  1,742 


Table  D— for  1881. 

Number  of  Total 

Deaf  and  Dumb.  Population.  Proportion. 

England  and  Wales                  13.295  25,974,439  1  in  1,953 

Scotland                                    2,142  3,735,573  1  1,744 

Ireland                                      3,993  5,174,836  1  "  1,296 

Islands  of  the  British  Seas              88              138,791  1  "  1,577 


Total   19,518  35,023,639        1  in  1,794 


The  increase  of  population  in  1861  above  that  of  1851 
was  1|  millions,  and  the  number  of  deaf  and  dumb  had 
also  increased;  but  though  the  population  in  1871  had  in- 
creased by  2^  millions  above  that  of  1861,  the  returns  show 
a  large  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  deaf  and  dumb.  A 
further  increase  of  population  in  1881  of  3^  millions  still 
shows  a  diminution  in  the  proportion  of  deaf  and  dumb; 
there  was  only  a  total  increase  of  1,368  deaf  and  dumb. 
We  can  only  attribute  this  to  more  extended  and  improved 
sanitary  measures,  advanced  knowledge  in  medical  treat- 
ment, and  more  careful  nursing  of  children  when  suffering 
from  those  diseases  which  so  frequently  result  in  deaf- 
ness.   Of  the  total  number  of  2,142  deaf-mutes  in  Scotland, 

593 


DEAF-MUTES. 

1,078  were  born  deaf,  and  1,064  were  not  so  born.  There 
were  1,149  of  the  male  sex,  and  998  of  the  female  sex. 

Deaf -mutism  is  an  alfection  of  early  life  chiefly.  After 
20  years  of  age  the  tables  show  a  steady  decline  in  the  pro- 
portion to  w^hole  population.  It  is  much  more  common 
among  the  natives  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  England  and 
Wales  than  elsew^here  in  Britain.  About  37  per  cent,  of 
deaf-mutes  owe  their  condition,  not  to  congenital  deafness, 
but  to  such  diseases  as  scarlet  fever  and  the  like;  and  these 
diseases  are  more  prevalent,  as  a  rule,  in  the  crowded  in- 
dustrial centres  than  in  purely  agricultural  parts. 

But  while  social  science  is  prosecuting  this  important 
inquiry,  philanthropy  has  the  work  of  educating  these 
'children  of  silence,'  to  whom  the  ordinary  means  of  in- 
struction are  inapplicable,  and  for  whom,  until  a  century 
ago,  there  were  no  available  means  of  education.  Though 
the  affliction  was  mentioned  at  the  outset  of  man's  history, 
by  Moses;  spoken  of  frequently  in  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments; alluded  to  by  the  poets,  philosophers,  and  law- 
givers of  antiquity — there  is  no  account  of  any  attempt  at 
educating  the  deaf  until  the  15th  c;  no  school  existed  for 
them  until  the  middle  of  the  18th;  nor  could  it  be  said 
that  education  was  freely  offered,  and  readily  accessible, 
until  within  the  last  50  years. 

Some  isolated  attempts  with  various  success  had  been 
made  before  the  18th  c.  at  long  intervals,  to  give  instruction 
to  one  or  two  deaf  mutes.  These  several  cases  excited  some 
attention  for  novelty;  but  seem  to  have  been  soon  forgotten. 
Bede  speaks  of  a  dumb  youth  being  taught  by  one  of  the 
early  English  bishops,  known  in  history  as  St.  John  of 
Beverley,  to  repeat  after  him  letters  and  syllables,  and  then 
some  words  and  sentences.  The  fact  was  regarded  as  a 
miracle,  and  was  classed  wuth  others  alleged  to  have  been 
wrought  by  the  same  hand.  From  this  time,  eight  centuries 
elapsed  before  any  record  of  an  instructed  deaf-mute  occurs. 
Rodolphus  Agricola,  born  at  Groningen  1442,  mentions  as 
within  his  knowledge  that  a  deaf-mute  had  been  taught  to 
write,  and  to  note  down  his  thoughts.  Fifty  years  after- 
ward, this  statement  was  controverted,  and  the  alleged  fact 
pronounced  impossible,  on  the  ground  that  no  instruction 
could  be  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  any  one  who  could  not 
hear  words  addressed  to  the  ear.  But  the  discovery  which 
was  to  give  the  key  to  this  long-concealed  mystery  was  now 
at  hand.  In  1501,  was  born,  at  Pavia,  Jerome  Cardan  (q.v.), 
a  man  of  great  though  ill-regulated  talents,  who,  among  the 
numerous  speculations  to  which  his  restless  mind  prompted 
him,  certainly  discovered  the  theoretical  principle  on  which 
the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  founded.  He  says: 
*  Writing  is  associated  with  speech,  and  speech  with  thought; 
but  written  characters  and  ideas  may  be  connected  together 
without  the  intervention  of  sounds,'  and  he  argues  that,  on 
this  principle,  '  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  diffi- 
cult, but  it  is  possible.' 

All  this,  to  us  so  obvious  and  familiar,  w^as  a  novel  specu- 
lation in  the  16th  c.  With  us,  it  is  a  common  thing  for  a 
man  to  teach  himself  to  read  a  language  though  he  cannot 

594 


DEAF-MUTES. 

pronounce  it.  It  was  in  Spain  that  this  principle  was  first 
put  into  practice  by  Pedro  Ponce,  Benedictine  monk,  born 
at  Val  lad  olid  1520;  and  a  century  afterward  by  another 
monk  of  the  same  order,  Juan  Paulo  Bonet,  who  also  pub- 
lished a  work  upon  the  subject,  the  first  step  toward  making 
the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  permanent,  by  record- 
ing the  experience  of  one  teacher  for  the  instruction  of 
others.  This  book,  published  1620,  was  of  service  to  De 
I'Epee  150  years  later;  and  it  contains,  besides  much  valu- 
able information,  a  manual  alphabet  identical  in  the  main 
with  that  one-handed  alphabet  now  in  common  use  in  the 
schools  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  America.  When 
the  art  died  away  in  Spain,  it  was  taken  up  by  Englishmen, 
and  forthwith  assumed  an  entirely  new  aspect.  Dr.  John 
Bulwer  published,  1648,  his  Philocophus,  or  the  Deafe  and 
Duinhe  Man's  Friend;  Dr.  William  Holder  published  his 
Elements  of  Speech,  with  an  Appendix  concerning  Persons 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  in  1669;  and  Dr.  John  Wallis,  Savilian 
Prof,  of  Mathematics  in  the  Univ.  of  Oxford,  both  taught 
the  deaf  and  dumb  with  great  success,  and  wrote  copiously 
upon  the  subject.  In  1662,  one  of  the  most  proficient  of 
his  pupils  was  exhibited  before  the  Koyal  Soc,  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  king.  The  Philosophical  Transactions,  1670, 
contain  a  description  of  his  mode  of  instruction,  which  bore 
fruits  long  after  his  death. 

Before  the  close  of  the  17th  c,  many  works  of  consider- 
able merit  appeared,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Surdus 
Loquens  (the  Speaking  Deaf  Man)  of  John  Conrad  Amman, 
physician  of  Haarlem;  and  the  Didascalocophus,  or  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Man's  Tutor,  of  George  Dalgarno.  This  treatise, 
published  1680,  reprinted  some  years  ago  by  the  Maitland 
Club,  is  sound  and  practical.  He  is  the  first  English  writer 
who  gives  a  manual  alphabet.  The  one  described  by  him, 
and  of  which  he  was  the  inventor,  is,  probably,  the  one  from 
which  the  present  two  handed  alphabet  is  derived.  Until 
1760,  nothing  more  was  done  in  Britain,  though  the  subject 
was  beginning  to  excite  attention  in  Prance.  In  1760,  when 
the  Abbe  De  I'Epee  was  opening  his  little  school  in  Paris, 
the  first  school  in  the  British  dominions  also  was  established 
'in  Edinburgh,  by  Thomas  Braidwood,  who  began  with  one 
p  pupil.  This  school,  parent  and  model  of  the  earlier  British 
I  institutions,  was  visited  and  spoken  of  by  many  eminent  men 
of  that  day,  and  its  history  and  associations  are  imperishable. 
Its  local  name  of  Bumhiedykes  suggested  to  Sir  Walter  Scott 
a  designation  for  one  of  his  most  popular  characters  in  the 
Heart  of  Midlothian.  A  visit  to  it,  1773,  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
and  his  biographer  Boswell,  supplies  one  of  the  most  sug- 
gestive and  characteristic  passages  in  the  Journey  to  the 
Western  Islands.  In  1783,  Mr.  Braidwood  removed  to 
Hackney,  near  London ;  and  this  step  undoubtedly  led  to 
the  foundation  of  the  London  Asylum  1792.  Dr.  Watson, 
its  first  principal,  was  a  nephew,  and  had  been  an  assistant, 
of  Mr  Braidwood;  and  he  states  that,  10  or  15  years  previ- 
ously, the  necessity  for  a  public  institution  had  been  plainly 
seen,  and  a  few  but  insufficient  steps  taken  toward  it. 
From  its  foundation  in  1792  until  1829,  it  was  directed  with 


DEAF  MUTES. 

great  ability  by  Dr.  Joseph  WatsoD,  in  whose  work  on  the 
Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  this  statement  is  given. 
On  his  decease,  he  wns  succeeded  by  his  son,  Thomas  James 
Watson,  and  he  was  followed  1857  by  his  eldest  son,  the 
Rev.  James  H.  Watson. 

The  numbers  of  deaf-mute  children  at  school  in  the 
United  Kingdom  were  as  follow: 


1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

1881. 

England  and  Wales  . . 

816 

1,001 

1,200 

1,782 

250 

240 

301 

386 

234 

399 

478 

545 

Total  

.,,1,300 

1,640 

1,979 

2,713 

The  above  numbers  include  those  in  the  six  private  schools, 
and  250  children  in  eight  day  schools  under  the  School 
Board  of  London. 

In  England  and  Wales,  there  were  at  the  last  mentioned 
date  22  public  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  six 
private  ones.  The  oldest  is  that  of  Old  Kent  Road,  Lon- 
don, founded  in  1792;  the  next,  that  at  Edgbaston,  Bir- 
mingham, 1812.  Six  new  ones  were  founded  between  1871 
and  1881.  In  Scotland,  there  were  seven;  one  in  Edinburgh 
dating  from  1810.  In  Ireland,  there  were  four,  one  in 
Dublin  having  been  founded  in  1816.  Thus  there  were  40 
schools  and  2,713  pupils  in  1881.  In  the  United  States, 
there  were  at  the  same  period  55  schools,  with  5,393  pupils; 
in  Germany,  90  schools;  in  France,  60;  in  Italy,  55;  besides 
numbers  in  Austria,  Switzerland,  Russia,  and  Spain.  There 
are  now  in  Europe  and  America  more  than  300  schools  for 
deaf-mutes.  De  I'Epee,  when  he  opened  his  school  in  1760, 
had  no  foreknowledge  of  the  work  he  was  commencing.  As 
his  labors  increased,  he  invited  others  to  his  assistance,  and 
they  were  thus  enabled  to  carry  the  light  of  instruction  else- 
where, and  to  keep  it  alive  when  he  was  no  more.  His 
death  took  place  1789,  and  his  assistant,  Sicard,  succeeded 
him.  Four  years  afterward,  this  school  was  adopted  by  the 
French  govt.,  and  now  exists  as  the  Institution  Nationale  of 
Paris.  A  pupil  of  this  institution,  Mr.  Laurent  Clerc,  went 
in  1816  to  the  United  States  with  the  founder  and  first  prin- 
cipal of  the  American  asylum,  and  he  became,  like  De 
1  'Epee,  le  jpere  des  sourd  mutes  (the  father  of  the  deaf-mutes) 
in  the  new  world. 

There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  kind  of 
schools  as  a  means  of  education  for  deaf  and  dumb:  a  feel- 
ing having  lately  arisen  against  the  boarding-school  or  hos- 
pital system  in  favor  of  day  schools.  For  hearing  pupils, 
this  feeling  is  probably  just;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
arguments  in  favor  of  day  schools  for  hearing  children  will 
hold  also  for  deaf-mutes.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
children  in  entering  school  learn  the  manual  alphabets  and 
conventional  signs  (which,  with  natural  signs,  pictures,  and 
models,  constitute  the  means  of  education  on  the  French 
system),  not  in  classes  and  from  the  teachers,  but  by  associ- 
ating with  their  school-fellows  who  have  already  acquired 
their  use.  It  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
children  should  be  brought  up  together  for  some  time  at 

59« 


DEAF-MUTES, 
least;  as  a  thorough  and  intelligent  acquaintance  with  the 
signs  is  indispensable  to  intelligible  intercourse  with  their 
fellows,  or  to  the  acquirement  of  ordinary  written  or  printed 
letters  or  books.  (It  may  be  noted  that  for  communication 
between  any  one  who  hears  and  an  educated  deaf-mute,  the 
use  of  signs  is  needless;  ordinary  writing  materials  provide 
a  sufficient  channel.)  Deaf-mutes  require  different  treat- 
ment from  other  children  at  every  step  of  their  course.  To 
conclude  that  a  deaf  child  attending  a  day  school  about  20 
hours  a  week  requires  no  further  instruction  is  certainly  a 
mistake.  Much  more  continuous  supervision  by  persons 
thoroughly  conservant  with  their  idiosyncrasies  is  needful; 
and  the  parents  of  deaf  and  dumb  children  are  not  usually 
qualitied  instructors.  Probably  some  modified  system  might 
advantageously  be  adopted,  so  that  pupils,  after  acquiring 
proficency  in  the  special  language  signs,  might  be  boarded 
out. 

^  So  it  seems  to  most  qualified  people  in  Britain  that  a  com- 
bined method  of  teaching,  not  relying  wholly,  as  the  Ger- 
man system  does,  on  oral  teaching,  nor  yet  confined  merely 
to  the  manual  alphabet  and  signs  of  the  French  system,  has 
advantages  over  either,  taken  separately.  The  oralists  have 
heretofore  had  an  advantage  in  demanding  that  for  their 
system  the  children  should  be  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age, 
and  taught  by  trained  teachers  in  classes  of  from  four  to 
eight  pupils.  The  combined  system  has  not  had  the  chance 
of  producing  the  highest  results  of  which  it  is  capable. 
Children  enter  school  at  various  times  of  the  year  without 
any  previous  knowledge  of  the  language.  They  receive 
only  five  years'  instruction,  if  so  long;  and  that  in  many 
instances  from  inexperienced  teachers  in  too  large  classes. 
Yet  it  seems  certain  that  the  combined  and  French  systems 
are  well  adapted  to  meet  the  minds  of  all  deaf-mutes  not 
idiots.  But  in  every  school  there  are  many  children  who, 
by  reason  of  deficient  intellect  and  aptitude,  are  quite  un- 
able to  profit  by  pure  oral  teaching.  The  clever  children 
may  and  do;  while  the  semi-deaf  and  semi-mute  would  profit 
more  by  the  oral  system,  and  in  separate  schools. 

The  mental  condition  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  so  unlike 
that  of  any  other  branch  of  the  human  family,  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  obtain  an  accurate  conception  of  it. 
Sometimes  the  deaf  are  compared  with  the  blind,  though 
there  exists  no  proper  ground  of  comparison  between  them. 
Except  that  the  blind  are  more  dependent  than  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  the  relative  disadvantages  of  the  two  classes  do  not 
admit  of  a  moment's  comparison.  The  blind  man  can 
be  talked  with  and  read  to,  and  is  thus  placed  in  direct 
intercourse  with  the  world  around  him:  domestic  converse, 
literary  pleasures,  political  excitement,  intellectual  research, 
are  all  within  his  reach.  The  person  born  deaf  is  excluded 
from  every  one  of  them.  The  two  afflictions  are  so  essen- 
tially dissimilar,  that  they  can  be  considered  and  spoken  of 
together  only  by  way  of  contrast.  Each  of  them  atfects 
both  the  physical  and  the  mental  constitution;  but  blind- 
ness, which  is  a  grievous  bodil}''  affliction,  falls  but  lightly 
on  the  mind;  while  the  effect  of  deafness  is  the  extreme  re 

597 


DEAF-MUTES. 

verse  of  this — it  touches  ouly  one  bodily  organ,  and  that 
not  visibly,  but  the  calamity  which  befalls  the  mind  is  one  of 
the  most  desperate  in  '  the  catalogue  of  human  woes. '  The 
deaf  know  almost  nothing,  because  they  hear  nothing.  We, 
who  do  hear,  acquire  knowledge  through  the  medium  of 
language — through  the  sounds  that  we  hear,  and  the  words 
that  we  read— every  hour.  But  as  regards  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  their  original  condition  is  far  worse  than  that  of  per- 
sons who  *  can  neither  read  nor  write  '  (one  of  our  most  com- 
mon expressions  for  extreme  ignorance);  it  is  that  of  persons 
who  can  neither  read,  nor  write,  nor  hear,  nor  speak;  who 
cannot  ask  for  information  when  they  want  it,  and  could  not 
understand  it  if  given.  Your  difficulty  is  to  understand  their 
difficulty;  and  the  difficulty  which  first  meets  the  teacher  is 
how  to  simplify  and  dilute  his  instructions  down  to  their 
capacity  for  receiving  them. 

The  means  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  are — 1.  The  visible  language  of  pictures,  and  of  signs 
and  gestures;  2.  The  finger  alphabet  (or  Dactylology),  and 
writing,  which  make  them  acquainted  with  written  lan- 
guage; and,  in  some  cases,  3.  Articulation,  and  reading -on 
the  lips,  which  introduce  them  to  the  use  of  spoken  language. 
The  use  of  signs  will  give  deaf-mutes  a  knowledge  of 
things;  but  to  this  must  be  added  a  knowledge  of  words. 
They  are  therefore  taught,  from  the  first,  that  words  convey 
the  same  ideas  to  our  minds  which  pictures  and  signs  do  to 
theirs;  they  are  required  to  change  signs  for  words  until 
the  written  or  printed  character  is  as  readily  understood  as 
the  picture  or  the  sign.  This,  of  course,  is  a  long  process, 
as  it  has  to  be  repeated  with  every  word.  Names  of  visible 
objects  (nouns),  of  visible  qualities  (adjectives),  and  of  visible 
actions  (verbs),  are  gradually  taught  and  readily  acquired; 
but  the  syntax  of  lauguage,  abstract  and  metaphorical  terms, 
a  copious  diction,  idiomatic  phraseology,  the  nice  distinc- 
tions between  words  called  synonymous,  and  those 
identical  in  form  but  of  different  signification — these  are  far 
more  difficult  of  attainment;  they  require  great  persever- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  in  addition  to  the  utmost  in- 
genuity of  the  teacher.  The  wonder,  seeing  the  point  of 
starting,  is  that  this  degree  of  advancement  is  ever  reached 
at  all. 

Yet  it  has  been  set  forth  by  otherwise  respectable  author- 
ity that  the  deaf  and  dumb  are  a  '  gifted  race, '  remarkable 
for  '  their  promptitude  in  defining  abstract  terms;'  and  those 
who  ought  to  have  known  better  have  strengthened  this 
delusion,  by  putting  forth,  as  the  bond-fide  answers  of  deaf- 
mutes,  those  brilliant  aphorism  and  definitions  of  Massieu 
and  Clerc,  so  often  quoted  at  public  meetings,  by  eloquent 
speakers  who  know  nothing  of  the  subject.  It  is  very  well 
known  to  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  subject  that 
the  so-called  definitions  of  Hope,  Gratitude,  Time,  Eternity, 
etc.,  were  not  Massieu 's  at  all,  but  those  of  his  master,  the 
Abbe  Sicard.  The  influence  of  these  fallacies  has  been 
most  mischievous;  they  raise  expectation  to  an  unreason- 
able height,  for  it  is  thought  that  what  was  done  by  *  the 
celebrated  pupil  of  the  Abbe  Sicard'  may  be  done  every 

598 


DEAF-MUTES. 

day:  and  disappointment  is  the  inevitable  consequence. 
The  honest,  laborious  teacher  who  cannot  produce  these 
marvellous  results,  and  will  not  stoop  to  deception,  has 
often  to  labor  on  without  appreciation  and  encouragement; 
the  cause  of  deaf-mute  instruction  suffers,  and  a  young 
institution  is  sometimes  crippled  by  the  failure  of  support, 
which  was  lirst  given  from  one  impulse  and  is  now  with- 
drawn from  another — not  a  whit  more  unreasonable  than 
the  first,  but  very  unfortunate  in  its  consequences. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  much  the  same  in  all  the 
public  schools  of  Great  Britain,  but  a  vigorous  effort  is 


One-handed  Alphabet. 


now  being  made,  by  the  advocates  of  what  is  called  the 
'German  system,'  to  teach  by  oral  instruction  only.  If 
they  can  produce,  on  an  extensive  scale,  the  results  which 
have  been  obtained  in  some  special  and  exceptional  cases, 
they  will  assuredly  deserve  all  the  success  that  they  hope 
for,  and  merit  the  highest  commendation.  But  it  will  not 
be  sufficient  merely  to  show  that  their  system  is  superior 
to  the  one  in  present  use,  unless  they  can  also  show  that  it 
can  be  as  extensively  applied.    The  dispensers  of  the  funds 

^99 


DEAF-MUTES. 

of  our  institutions  are  bound  to  uphold  that  system  which 
will  confer  the  largest  practical  amount  of  benefit  upon  the 
largest  possible  number  of  persons.  To  make  a  few  brill- 
iant scholars,  and  to  produce  a  number  of  ready  and  in- 
telligible speakers,  will  certainly  be  a  very  creditable 
achievement;  but  that  will  not  justify  any  claim  to  super- 
sede the  humbler  but  more  useful  system  under  which  so 
many  thousands  of  our  deaf-mute  fellow-citizens  have 
been  rendered  competent  for  the  duties  of  life,  in  the 


Two-handed  Alphabet. 


workshop,  in  their  families,  and  in  society,  and  to  '  walk 
in  the  house  of  God  as  friends.' 

The  manual  alphabet  in  common  use  in  British  schools 
is  the  two-handed  one,  though  the  other  is  used  in  some  of 
the  Irish  institutions,  and  is  regarded  with  favor  by  a  few 
English  teachers.  The  arguments  in  its  favor,  like  those 
for  the  decimal  currency,  may  probably  be  admitted ;  it 
would  be  better  if  we  had  it.  The  adverse  argument  is 
that  the  rival  system  has  possession,  and  is  in  familiar  use. 
The  institutions  in  Great  Britain  are  supported  by  annual 
subscriptions,  donations,  and  legacies,  and  by  the  payments 

600 


DEAF-MUTES. 

of  pupils  for  their  board.  The  larger  benefactions  are  in- 
vested, where  the  annual  income  from  ordinary  sources 
will  admit  of  it.  Committees,  chosen  from  the  body  of 
subscribers,  direct  the  affairs  of  these  institutions,  the  ex- 
ecutive officers  being  the  head-master  and  the  secretary; 
but  in  some  cases  the  sole  charge  is  intrusted  to  the  princi^ 
pal.  The  gentlemen  who  hll  this  office  have  devoted  their 
whole  lives  to  the  work;  some  of  them  have  also  done  good 
service  by  their  writings  on  the  subject.  The  census  re- 
port, 1871,  specially  mentions  the  works  of  Messrs.  Baker 
of  Doncaster,  Scott  of  Exeter,  aiid  Buxton  of  Liverpool. 

In  London,  a  church  has  been  built  to  meet  the  same 
necessity,  and  religious  services  are  conducted  by  two 
chaplains  and  four  laymen,  in  various  parts  of  the  metrop- 
olis; Manchester  also  has  a  chaplain  and  lay  helpers  em- 
ployed in  the  same  work;  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and 
Dublin,  also  in  Birmingham,  and  the  large  manufacturing 
towns  of  Yorkshire,  special  funds  are  raised,  and  special 
agents  employed,  to  promote  in  like  manner  the  social  and 
religious  benefit  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  Liverpool  the 
same  results  are  aimed  at  by  voluntary  agency,  where,  be- 
side the  Sunday  services,  lectures  are  given  during  the 
week,  a  library  and  reading-room  are  open,  a  penny  bank 
has  been  brought  into  successful  operation,  and  a  benevo- 
lent society  visits  the  sick,  helps  the  needy,  and  buries  the 
dead. 

In  the  United  States  attempts  to  establish  schools  for  the 
instruction  of  D.-M.  were  made  in  K.  Y.  and  Ya.  as  early 
as  1811;  but  though  the  efforts  then  failed  the  publicity 
given  the  subject  soon  led  to  the  inauguration  of  the 
American  system.  Early  in  1815,  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallau- 
det,  D.D.,  became  interested  in  the  subject  through  acquaint- 
ance with  a  . little  deaf-and-dumb  daughter  of  Dr.  Cogswell, 
a  physician  of  Hartford,  and  at  the  invitation  of  several 
leading  educators  in  New  England  he  went  to  Europe  that 
year  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  systems  of  instruction 
in  operation  in  London,  Paris,  and  Edinburgh.  In  the 
following  year  he  returned,  bringing  with  him  Laurent 
Clerc,  a  deaf-mute,  and  pupil  of  the  Abbe  Sicard  who  had 
continued  and  greatly  improved  the  work  of  instruction 
begun  in  France  by  the  Abbe  del'  fipee,  1760.  With  Clerc 
he  then  began  delivering  public  lectures  and  illustrating 
the  results  of  the  new  instruction,  and  within  a  few  months 
collected  sufficient  money  to  enable  him  to  open  a  school 
with  seven  pupils  in  Hartford.  In  1817  the  legislature  of 
Conn,  incorporated  the  asylum,  and  gave  it  an  appropriation 
of  $5,000.  Within  a  year  the  pupils  numbered  33,  and  the 
popularity  of  the  institution  so  Id  creased  that  the  congress 
donated  a  whole  township  of  land,  the  proceeds  of  which 
in  time  formed  a  sustentation  fund  of  nearly  $400,000.  The 
name  of  the  institution  was  then  changed  to  the  American 
Asylum  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  it 
was  supposed  that  the  one  institution  would  be  sufficient 
for  the  instruction  of  all  the  D.-M.  in  the  country  for  some 
time  to  come.  But  the  popularity  of  the  scheme  rapidly 
spread  to  other  states,  and  through  private  philanthropy 

601 


DEAF-MUTES. 

and  state  and  municipal  appropriations  similar  institutions 
soon  sprang  up  in  various  sections.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Gallau- 
det  remained  in  charge  of  the  American  Asylum  as  pres. 
till  1830,  when  ill-health  forced  him  to  resign.  His  two 
sons,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  and  Edward  Miner  Gallaudet 
have  been  engaged  in  the  instruction  of  D.-M.  since  their 
college  days.  The  former  taught  in  the  New  York  institu- 
tion 1843-58,  and  after  being  ordained  priest  in  the  Prot. 
Episc.  Church,  founded  St.  Ann's  Church  for  D.-M.  in 
New  York  1852,  and  became  general  manager  of  the 
Church  Mission  to  D.-M.  1872.  Edward  Miner  Gallaudet 
taught  under  his  father  in  the  American  Asylum,  organized 
the  Columbian  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind 
in  Washington  1857,  established  the  National  D.-M.  Col- 
lege there  and  became  its  pres.  1865,  and  at  the  request  of 
the  British  govt,  went  to  England,  and  described  the 
American  system  before  the  royal  commission  on  the  deaf, 
dumb,  and  blind  1886. 

On  the  day  of  opening  of  the  Hartford  school,  the  legisla- 
ture of  N.  Y.  chartered  the  New  York  Institution  for  the 
Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  which  went  into 
operation  1818.  The  Watson  system  for  teaching  articula- 
tion was  employed  with  unsatisfactory  results  till  1830, 
when  the  management  was  reorganized  and  Leon  Vaisse 
of  Paris  and  Harvey  P.  Peetof  the  American  Asylum  were 
employed  to  introduce  the  French  system  as  modified  at 
Hartford.  M.  Yaisse  remained  there  four  years,  and  Mr. 
Peet  was  principal  1831-67  and  principal  emeritus  till  his 
death  1873,  Jan.  1.  His  son,  Isaac  Lewis  Peet,  studied  the 
European  methods  of  teaching  D.-M.  1851,  became  vice- 
principal  of  the  New  York  Institution  1852,  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  principal  1867.  A  second  son,  Edward, 
studied  law,  became  a  prof,  in  the  institution,  and  wrote 
a  number  of  text-books  for  D.-M.,  and  a  third  son,  Dudley, 
became  a  physician  and  instructor  in  the  institution. 

These  gentlemen  with  Horace  Mame,  Dr.  Samuel  G. 
Howe,  Dr.  F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  Lewis  Weld,  J.  A.  Jacobs, 
and  Abraham  B.  Walton  constitute  the  founders  and  early 
promotors  of  the  American  system.  An  improvement  has 
been  recently  effected  by  A.  Graham  Bell,  who  has  intro- 
duced into  the  American  Asylum  and  several  of  the  state 
institutions  the  system  of  teaching  articulation  by  a  scheme 
of  phonetic  writing  founded  on  the  action  of  the  vocal 
organs  in  producing  sounds,  which  was  invented  by  his 
father  A.  Melville  Bell. 

The  table  on  pp.  603  and  604  presents  the  most  important 
facts  concerning  the  institutions  for  the  instruction  of 
deaf-mutes  in  the  United  States,  1885-6. 

602 


-ipuadxa 


DEAF-MUTES. 


0  Tt<  O  O  I- 

lO  O  O  QO 

01  lO  «D  CO  CO 


'  O  O  O    •  05_0^0  '^^'^  00 


pre  QVBIS 


Sooo« 
o  o  o  o 


88S 

O  lO  CO 


<0  (Ti  O  <>i 


-i-hOOOO 
O  O  O  O  O 
i>  O  QO  O 


lOOO  -OiOiiCOOOO 
CO    •      T-i  «0  CO  i-"  O  O 


t-CO-^QOlOOCOrHTtOOSOt^  •t^OSOSOCJ'rt^i-iCC 


<^?Ot-COO(7?i-ilOr-iTf< 
CO  (^i  ^  1-1  ^ 


lOT^CO«Dt-05C0050i-i05(MGO 
Tl  iO  (M       0<  r-l 


OJiOt-OOWiCCO 
COCOiOOS-^OiWiO 
CO      T-i  0< 


C»05CftQO«Orr<?iOSOOt'0?05DOTtlOC<fi--iT}<QOCOi-iCOT}<00»n)T-l©?lf3 


O00Ort<t^0Sk0O»0(^f01'<#i00>C0«DWt>050Si>'rJHT»<C0C0-p-i'r-ii0Q0 
OOCDt^'— IDGOTM-^QOCO-rfJOCO^^t^t^^Dl-COeOiOt-tOlOiOGOOOt- 
OOQOGOQOQOOCOOOOCXJGOQOGOGOQOGCOOQCQOOOaOOOODQOOOQOQOOOQOQO 


— I     .  TO 


3 


S  fl  5  5  T 


fcH  O  o3 


^  o 


2  ^ 


O  03 


!  O  <D 


-go 

.  S  0)  c 

o3  p 


'^CO  o 
O 

a 

<      H  O 

)^  0;=; 


-1*^  Kl-H  ^^-^ 


>  03  c3  c 

>■  S  h-l  l-H  M 


o  o  ^£ 

00  c  <■ 
o  c^M-; 

o  o  c  - 
'  '2'2  ' 

C  C  H 

^  —  W 

fc-     ^  t- 

(1)  O 


wo. 


-  J  .2  B 

c^.2  g.S 


IS 

-  .11 

2'«.*eQ  03 

p  ^  i-H  :^  fcj 
c!  S:]^ 

l-l  CO  03"^  cS 

s  ^  S  5 
.22  o  o  ^  o 

.22 .2  •  o  * 


DEAF-MUTES. 


O  Ifl  CC  OS  «0  Tt<  o 
OOOOO'— '—050 

CO  «0  O  ri  TP  50  TP  00 


CC      t-l  CO 


C0OOOC\>OOOO 
SOOOOCDOOOO 

Tf      1—1  CO  TP  CO 


O  '-I  CO  (X) 
O  1-1  CO  GO 
00      TP  GO 


O  O  O  T-i 

  O  O  O 

«D  O  Tp     •  CO  O  CO  CO 


C<JCOCOOiOCOt-CO 


OCOC^G005TpiOOO«CtDOCOi003^00T-l«DO'-i£-COC^«DOO;DC^(?JG 


-I  CO  CO  iO  TP  CO  00  rl  tH 


jTPOTpOCOO'^OCir 


?QOCOCO^T-cOOCDi-i-: 


■^?'^^ooco:oos05'-'OOi:^ot'-■pHOOTP^o 


lr-.l-ir-lJ0C»O5'^TplOl-iOi(?< 


0005CDTtCOTPQOQOOlOC75t-OOC?OIQO'*C'jTpOQOTP03C001>OCOO 


05«0(NTHOOlOQO»OiOOO(MOO?05CiTHCOTPCOOOiO?i-OiOCOCOOii> 


-tC^Ci  i-irlrH 


1-1  l-H  l-H 


^TPC»OOTPJ>COlOlOi0050i-iiOCOCOI>05iOt^OSO^^C 

oioco-r-ioocct-i>Tpt^(??i>ojooooi>i^TpTpir5coi>'^'' 


QOQOQOOOQOQOOOQOOOQOOOaOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOQOQOODODOOOOQOOOQOOOOOQOOOOO 


c8^  d 
COW 


xi  a-^  •  <v  o  o  ^  (S>^^ 


o  .22  ^  o  o  o 


 »  g  -  - 


.^1 


is  §  ® 


oj  S  c/3  O 
^      ^      CO  j- 

F"^  o 


?  ^  Q -t^  " 


D  ;h  o 


^02 
O 


.^  E 


;  s 


IJoHlfSo- 

.^^'^  CD^  §  ^  O  g 

|.||'2||o|-| 


S3  Oj 

0^0 


0) 


<V  9)  ^  ^    .  6 


^5 


604 


'  r*"  h!?  t>  >  S  +^ 


O)  S 

O  c: 
^2 

B  c3 

d  0^2  <^  5?  =<3  5! 

tH  ^  -S  o  fc-  o 
Ig  G  flg  g.9 

„    t4    d  O 

03    .  o  «^  <X>  (D^r 


DEAF-MUTES— DEAFNESS. 

DEAF-MUTES,  in  Law:  anciently  in  the  same  position 
as  idiots  and  the  insane:  the  Roman  law  held  them  inca- 
pable of  consent,  consequently  unable  to  enter  into  a  legal 
obligation  or  contract.  Now,  in  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  the  amount  of  their  capacity  is  a  question  of  fact, 
which,  in  cases  of  doubt,  is  referred  to  a  jury.  In  the 
same  manner,  a  deaf-mute  will  be  examined  as  a  witness 
in  regard  to  a  fact  to  which  he  is  capable  of  bearing  testi- 
mony, and  the  examination  will  be  conducted  in  the  man- 
ner which  seems  most  likely  to  elicit  the  truth.  (Best, 
Law  of  Evidence,  p  201.)  The  same  principle  will  govern 
the  estimate  of  h's  responsibility  for  crime.  (Stephen's 
Com.  iv.  461.)  It  is  of  course  legally,  as  it  is  physically, 
impossible  that  a  mute  should  act  as  a  juror. 

DEAF  NESS:  lack  of  the  sense  of  hearing.  It  may  be 
complete  or  partial;  may  affect  both  ears  or  only  one;  may 
date  from  birth,  be  permanent  or  only  temporary;  and  is 
often  one  of  the  distressing  symptoms  of  advancing  age. 
The  causes  are  numerous.  The  hearing  apparatus  is  of 
extraordinary  intricacy  (see  Auditory  Nerve);  and  though 
contained  in  a  little  nut  of  densest  bone  (the  petrous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal),  still  it  is  exposed  to  many  deteriorat- 
ing influences;  and  very  slight  causes  may  disarrange  the 
exquisite  adjustment  of  its  parts.  1.  The  auditory  nerve 
may  itself  be  unsusceptible  to  the  stimulus  of  sound,  from 
some  diseased  condition  at  its  origin  in  the  brain,  or  at  its 
final  subdivision  in  the  labyrinth,  this  is  termed  nervous 
deafness.  2.  The  structures  which  conduct  the  vibrations 
of  sound  to  the  labyrinth  may  be  faulty,  from  accident  or 
disease.  3.  The  passage  leading  to  the  tympanum  or  drum 
may  be  blocked  up.  4.  The  cavity  of  the  drum  may  have 
ceased  to  be  resonant,  owing  to  deposits  from  inflamma- 
tory attacks,  or  to  loss  of  its  membrane,  or  to  exclusion  of 
air  by  obstructions  in  the  passage  between  it  and  the  gul- 
let (the  Eustachian  tube). 

Nervous  deafness  may  be  caused  by  a  sudden  concus- 
sion, as  from  a  '  box  on  the  ear,'  or  a  general  shock  to  the 
whole  body,  as  in  the  case  of  Dr.  Kitto,  who  lost  his 
hearing,  when  a  boy,  from  a  fall  from  the  top  of  a  house. 
The  concussion  from  loud  sounds  suddenly  taking  the,  ear 
unawares,  before  its  small  muscles  have  time  to  prepare 
themselves  for  the  shock,  causes  the  deafness  which  fol- 
lows the  firing  of  cannon.  Even  a  loud  yell  close  to  the 
ear  has  been  sufficient  to  destroy  the  hearing-power  on  that 
side.  As  such  an  accident  is  generally  accompanied  by  an 
increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  part  injured,  it  may  be  re- 
lieved by  the  application  of  leeches,  applied  behind  the  au- 
ricle, and  the  ear  should  for  some  time  be  protected  from 
loud  sounds  as  carefully  as  possible.  In  some  of  these 
cases  the  nerve  gradually  recovers  its  sensibility,  but  in 
many  the  deafness  continues,  and  is  accompanied  by  a 
distressing  singing  in  the  ears.  Exposure  to  cold  affects 
the  auditory  nerve;  and  gouty  persons,  or  those  who  are 
suffering  from  the  poisons  of  typhus  fever,  scarlatina, 
measles,  mumps,  etc.,  frequently  become  deaf.  Some 
medicines,  as  quinine,  produce  nervous  deafness;  so  do  de- 

605 


DEAFNESS. 

bility  and  mental  excitement;  but  all  these  causes  seem  to 
act  in  one  way — viz.,  to  increase  the  flow  of  blood  to  the 
ear — and  should  be  treated  accordingly. 

The  solid  conductors  of  sound  to  the  auditory  nerve  may 
be  injured  or  diseased,  so  that  the  vibrations  are  inter- 
rupted. One  curious  cause  of  deafness  was  some  years 
ago  shown  to  exist  by  Joseph  Toynbee  of  London — viz.,  an 
increasing  stillness  in  the  little  joint  b}^  w^hich  the  stirrup- 
bone  moves  in  the  oval  window  of  the  vestibule;  this  stiff- 
ness prevents  the  base  of  the  stirrup  pressing  inward  suf- 
ficiently to  affect  the  contents  of  the  labyrinth,  therefore 
it  ceases  to  keep  the  auditory  nerve  en  rapport  with  the 
membrane  of  the  drum.  This  condition  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  patient  losing  the  power  of  adapting  his  hear- 
ing to  varying  sounds.  Tw^o  persons  speaking  at  once 
prevents  his  hearing  the  voice  of  either;  but  there  is  a  con- 
stant buzzing  in  the  ear,  and  he  gets  deafer  and  deafer 
day  by  day.  This  curious  disease  is  frequently  associated 
with  gout  and  rheumatism,  and  in  its  earlier  stages  maybe 
influenced  by  the  same  remedies  as  these;  but  if  once  es- 
tablished, it  is  incurable. 

Sound  reaches  the  auditory  nerve  through  the  vibrations 
of  the  bones  of  the  head,  but  chiefly  through  the  external 
opening  in  the  auricle,  the  passage  leading  from  which  is 
shut  at  the  depth  of  an  inch  and  a  quarter  from  the  surface 
by  the  membrane  of  the  drum  stretching  across  it.  Should 
this  passage  be  blocked  up,  so  that  the  sounds  can  no  long- 
er pass  along  it  to  impinge  upon  the  membrane,  either 
total  or  partial  deafness  must  result. 

The  most  common  obstruction  is  an  accumulation  of  the 
wax  secreted  by  a  small  ring  of  glands  near  the  orifice. 
The  object  of  this  cerumen  or  wax  is  to  catch  the  particles 
of  dust  floating  in  the  atmosphere;  but  sometimes  it  is 
harder  than  usual,  and  is  no  longer  gradually  expelled  by 
the  movements  of  the  jaw  in  speaking  and  eating.  At 
last,  it  fills  the  passage  in  the  form  of  a  hard  plug,  and 
sounds  can  neither  pass  through  it  nor  by  its  side;  if  left, 
it  gradually  causes  serious  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  pas- 
sage, and  even  symptoms  resembling  diseases  of  the 
brain.  Sometimes  foreign  bodies  find  their  way  into  this 
passage,  or  tumors  grow  in  it,  and  no  unprofessional  at- 
tempts should  be  made  to  remove  them,  lest  the  mem- 
brane of  the  drum  be  injured.  It  is  but  seldom  that  any 
instruments  are  necessary  in  addition  to  a  stream  of  water 
thrown  briskly  in  by  means  of  a  syringe,  with  a  nozzle 
smaller  than  the  circumference  of  the  passage.  Should 
the  wax  be  very  firm  and  hard,  it  is  well  to  soften  it  by 
dropping  in  some  oil  or  an  alkaline  solution.  But  even  a 
stream  of  water,  unless  great  care  be  taken,  may  injure  or 
burst  the  delicate  membrana  tympani,  and  the  proceeding 
leave  the  patient  suffering  from  a  more  serious  condition 
than  before. 

A  membrane,  to  be  resonant,  must  have  air  on  both 
sides  of  it,  and  the  membrana  tympani  obtains  this  essen- 
tial by  means  of  the  Eustachian  tube,  the  lower  orifice  of 
which,  on  each  side  of  the  gullet,  opens  for  a  brief  period 

606 


DEAFNESS. 

at  each  act  of  swallowing,  and  admits  a  small  quantity  of 
air,  which  ascends  into  the  tympanic  cavity,  if  the  tube  is 
in  healthy  condition;  but  frequently  in  persons  suffering 
from  relaxed  mucous  membrane,  the  Eustachian  passage 
becomes  swollen  and  impassable,  or  blocked  up  by  some 
thickened  mucous  secretion.  During  a  common  cold,  per- 
sons often  suifer  from  this  cause  of  deafness.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  that  enlarged  tonsils  may  interfere  with 
the  pharyngeal  opening  of  the  tube,  and  with  that  view 
they  cut  portions  olT  them  occasionally  with  great  benefit 
to  the  condition  of  throat  in  which  these  glands  are  en- 
larged; but  the  latter  are  situated  below  and  in  front  of  the 
Eustachian  tubes,  and  cannot  be  the  immediate  causes  of 
the  obstruction. 

In  some  cases,  the  membrane  of  the  drum  may  be  per- 
forated; and  though  the  mere  perforation  is  not  sufficient 
to  cause  more  than  a  slight  degree  of  deafness,  if  the  mu- 
cous membrane  lining  the  tympanic  cavity  be  thickened 
at  the  same  time,  the  person  is  usually  able  to  hear  only 
the  loudest  sounds.  If  the  perforation  be  stopped  up, 
however,  the  air  confined  in  the  tympanic  cavity  vibrates 
sufficiently  to  stimulate  the  auditory  nerve,  through  the 
round  window  of  the  labyrinth,  and  a  useful  degree  of 
hearing  is  restored.  In  1848,  Mr.  Yearsley  of  London 
showed  that  a  small  pellet  of  cotton-wool  might  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  It  should  be  moistened  with  tine  oil,  and 
inserted  on  the  end  of  a  probe.  Patients  generally  learn 
how^  to  stick  it  neatly  into  the  aperture  themselves.  It 
should  be  removed  every  three  or  four  days,  or  oftener, 
should  cleanliness  require  it. 

Joseph  Toynbee  has  invented  an  artificial  membrana 
tympani  of  vulcanized  India-rubber,  attached  to  the  end  of 


Artificial  Membrana  Tympani. 


a  fine  silver  wire,  by  which  it  can  be  inserted  or  with- 
drawn. These  beautiful  little  instruments  may  now  be 
obtained  of  every  surgical  instrument-maker,  and  are  at 
least  worth  trying  in  cases  of  perforated  membrana  tym- 
pani, as  they  often  do  good,  can  do  no  harm,  and  are  very 
cheap.  The  India-rubber  having  been  pared  to  the  size 
likely  to  fit  the  individual's  ear,  it  is  moistened  with  warm 
water,  and  gently  passed  down  the  auditory  passage;  the 
sensations  of  the  patient  will  easily  decide  when  it  has 
gone  far  enough,  and  he  gladly  discovers,  by  the  sound  of 
his  own  voice  or  that  of  the  surgeon,  that  his  hearing  has 
been  suddenly  improved. 

The  deafness  of  aged  persons  has  been  shown,  by  Joseph 
Toynbee,  to  be  generally  caused  by  the  effects  of  previous 
eo7 


DEAK. 

inflammatory  attacks,  and  may  frequently  be  much  relieved 
by  counter  irritation  behind  the  ear,  alterative  medicines, 
and  washes  which  restore  %he  healthy  condition  of  the  throat 
and  the  externa!  auditory  passage. 

There  are  numerous  '  cures  for  deafness '  advertised  from 
time  to  time  ;  some  are  harmless  though  useless,  others  are 
useless  but  very  dangerous,  owing  to  the  readiness  with 
which  inflammation  may  be  set  up,  and  the  liability  of  the 
latter  to  extend  to  the  brain  or  its  membranes.  The  diseases 
which  affect  the  ear  are  the  same  as  affect  other  organs,  and 
require  to  be  treated  upon  the  same  principles.  It  is  ad- 
visable, as  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  of  approaching  deaf- 
ness are  felt,  to  apply  to  one  of  the  regularly  qualified  prac- 
titioners who  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  subject,  and 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  so-called  cures,  w^hich  benefit 
only  the  vendors. 

The  best  English  works  on  the  subject  are  Practical  Ob- 
servations on  Aural  Surgery,  by  William  R.  Wilde  of  Dub- 
lin, and  The  Diseases  of  the  Ear,  by  Joseph  Toynbee  of 
London. 

DEAK,  dCi'dk,  Franz  :  Hungarian  statesman  :  1803-76  ; 
b.  Kehlda,  county  of  Zala.  Having  studied  law  at  Raab, 
he  began  to  practice  as  advocate  in  his  native  county,  and 
soon  became  noted  for  eloquence  and  enlightened  patriotism. 
Elected  in  1832  to  the  national  diet,  he,  as  leader  of  the  lib- 
eral opposition,  opposed,  by  legal  and  constitutional  means, 
every  attempt  of  the  imperial  government  to  infringe  on  the 
constitutional  rights  of  his  country.  This  firm  and  moder 
ate.  policy  enabled  him  to  effect  more  than  one  reconciliation 
between  Hungary  and  the  Austrian  emperor  as  her  king — 
temporarily  in  1840,  and  in  1867  more  permanently.  While 
upholding  the  independence  of  his  country,  he  labored  for 
its  internal  improvement,  promoting  measures  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  peasantry,  and  advocating  the  abolition  of  the 
odious  exemption  of  the  nobility  from  taxes.  His  views  on 
this  last  point  displeased  the  party  of  the  nobles,  and  for 
some  years  after  1840  his  county  did  not  return  him  to  the 
diet.  He  continued  to  guide  the  councils  of  the  moderate 
liberal  party,  and  in  spite  of  his  aversion  to  extreme  meas- 
ures, he  promoted  the  association  for  national  defense,  in 
the  view  of  a  possible  struggle  with  Austria.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848,  March,  he  became  minister  of  justice  in 
the  cabinet  of  Count  Batthyanyi  (q.v.),  and  formed  the  pro- 
ject of  effecting  a  general  reform  in  the  administration  of 
justice  in  Hungary  which,  however,  the  war  rendered  im- 
possible. D.  used  every  effort  to  come  to  an  arrangement 
with  Austria  which  should  ward  off  the  war.  On  Kossuth's 
coming  into  power  (1848,  Sep.  17),  D.  resigned  his  portfo- 
lio, and  retcjned  only  his  place  in  the  diet.  In  the  last 
months  of  1849,  at  the  approach  of  Prince  Windischgratz, 
he  proposed  to  sue  for  peace,  and  w^as  one  of  the  deputies 
sent  for  this  purpose  to  the  Austrian  general.  That  step 
failed,  and  D.  was  even  for  some  time  a  prisoner  at  Pesth  ; 
he  then  withdrew  from  public  affairs,  and  retired  to  his  es- 
tate. When  the  Hungarian  revolution  was  suppressed,  he 
refused  the  invitation  sent  him  by  M.  de  Schmerling,  minis- 

608 


DEAL. 

ter  of  justice  at  Vienna,  to  take  part  in  the  legislative  con- 
ferences, as  he  disapproved  of  the  Austrian  policy  with  re- 
gard to  Hungary.  He  did  not  return  to  public  life  till  1860, 
when  a  constitution  was  granted  to  his  country. 

On  hearing  of  the  arrest  of  Count  Ladislas  Teleki,  D.  set 
out  for  Vienna  with  M.  Eotvos,  and  procured  the  release  of 
his  countryman,  as  well  as  the  promise  of  an  independent 
Hungarian  ministry.  Returned  by  the  city  of  Pesth  to  the 
diet  1861,  he  became  in  it  the  leader  of  the  moderate  party, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  extreme  party  collected  round 
Count  Teleki.  The  death  of  the  latter  (May  8)  destroyed 
the  only  influence  which  could  counterbalance  that  of  D.  ; 
and  the  diet  appointed  him  to  draw  up  the  address  to  the 
emperor.  D.  demanded,  in  that  paper,  the  constitu- 
tion of  1848,  a  Hungarian  ministry  resident  in  Pesth,  the 
return,  without  restriction,  of  the  exiles,  and  the  restitution 
of  their  property.  Rejected  at  first  by  the  emperor,  this  ad- 
dress was  again  drav^^n  up  with  seme  modifications  in  the 
details  ;  the  emperor  answered  it  by  a  rescript  which  with 
difficulty  dissimulated  his  repugnance  to  such  an  arrange- 
ment ;  and  in  his  turn,  D. ,  in  name  of  the  diet,  protested 
publicly  against  the  imperial  rescript.  On  May  23,  the  em- 
peror pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the  Hungarian  diet, 
which  protested  anew,  under  the  direction  of  D.,  against 
the  illegality  of  the  measure  which  dispersed  them. 
Among  the  events  consequent  on  the  war  between  Austria 
and  Prussia,  1866,  w^as  the  final  triumph  of  D.'s  policy  in 
the  establishment  of  a  constitutional  relation  between  Hun- 
gary and  Austria.  At  a  general  election,  1869,  the  results 
of  which  were  favorable  to  his  policy,  D.  was,  by  an  over- 
whelming majority,  returned  again  for  the  city  of  Pesth. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  73,  and  his  funeral  was  a  truly 
national  event.  A  memoir  was  published,  London 
1880. 

DEAL,  n.  del  [Goth  dails;  Ger.  tJieil;  Gael,  dala;  Skr. 
dala,  a  part,  a  lot,  a  portion:  comp.  Gael,  (^a^7,  trust,  credit]: 
his  portion  given  to  each;  an  indefinite  quantity;  a  portion; 
a  great  part:  V.  to  give  to  each  his  portion  or  lot;  to  dis- 
tribute, as  cards;  to  divide  into  portions;  to  give  gradually; 
to  transact  business;  to  traflac;  to  act;  to  behave  well  or  ill. 
Deal  ing,  imp.:  N.  conduct  in  relation  toothers;  behavior; 
intercourse  for  trade,  etc.;  trade;  business.  Dealt,  pt. 
and  pp.  delt,  distributed;  given  in  succession.  Deal  er.  n. 
one  who.  Tod  eal  in,  to  trade  in;  to  practice.  To  deal 
WITH,  to  trade  with;  to  be  a  customer  to.  To  deal  by,  to 
treat  well  or  ill.  To  deal  the  cards,  to  give  to  each 
player  the  proper  number  or  share.  A  great  deal,  very 
much  to  the  purpose. 

DEAL,  n.  del  [Sw.  tall;  Swiss,  (Z^/M^,  pine-tree,  a  fir. 
Icel.  tcilga,  to  hew  :  Ger.  diele,  a  board]:  a  board  or  plank  of 
wood,  generally  of  the  pine  or  fir.  Deals  is,  in  England, 
and  to  some  extent  in  America,  the  trade-name  for  fir-boards 
exceeding  6  ft.  in  length  and  7  inches  in  w^idth.  They  are 
also  occasionally  called  'planks,'  though  this  term  is  now 
somewhat  loosely  applied.  Pieces  oi  smaller  width  are  called 

6UJ 


DEAL— DEALFISH. 

'battens  ;'  of  less  length,  *deal  ends/  Deals  are  usually  8 
inches  thick,  and  when  sawed  into  thinner  pieces,  these  are 
called  *  boards.'  When  a  deal  is  sawed  into  twelve  or  more 
thin  planks,  they  are  called  '  leaves.'  There  is  considerable 
exportation  of  deals  from  N.  America  to  Britain.  Sweden 
and  Norway  are  extensive  sources  of  supply.  Drammen  is 
the  principal  iS^orwegian  timber  port,  though  the  general 
name  for  the  deals  from  Norway  is  '  Christiania  deals,' 
named  from  the  Norwegian  capital,  where  the  principal 
timber-merchants  reside,  and  through  which  the  business 
of  the  trade  is  chiefly  transacted.  For  the  various  qualities 
of  deals,  and  their  applications,  see  Timber. 

DEAL,  del :  municipal  borough,  maritime  town  and  sea- 
bathing place,  in  the  east  of  Kent,  on  a  bold  open  beach, 
near  the  s.  extremity  of  the  Downs,  between  N.  and  S. 
Foreland,  18  m.  e.s.e.  of  Canterbury,  8  m.  n.n.e.  of  Dover. 
It  has  three  streets  parallel  to  the  beach,  and  others  stretch- 
ing into  the  country.  A  line  anchorage  extends  7  or  8  m. 
between  D.  and  the  Goodwin  Sands.  D.  has  arisen  mainly  to 
supply  the  wants  of  vessels  which  are  often  detained,  400  or 
500  at  a  time,  by  the  winds  in  the  Downs.  The  chief 
branches  of  industry  are  connected  with  maritime  pursuits, 
boat-building,  sail-making,  piloting  or  hoveling,  victual- 
ling and  naval  stores.  D.,  for  parliamentery  purposes,  is 
united  with  Sandwich  (q.v.)  and  Walmer.  It  has  been 
one  of  the  Cinque  Ports  since  the  13th  c.  Of  the  three  cas- 
tles built  b}^  Henry  VIII.  1539,  Deal  Castle  is  now  a  private 
residence;  Sandown  Castle,  n.  of  I).,  was  pulled  down  in 
1864  on  account  of  the  inroads  of  the  sea  ;  and,  to  the  s., 
Walmer  Castle  is  now  the  official  residence  of  the  warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports.  At  Walmer  Castle,  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington died  1852.  Juliits  Coesar,  with  two  legions,  in  83 
ships,  landed  near  D.  B.C.  55.  Between  150  and  200  vessels 
annually  enter  the  port.    Pop.  (1881)  8,422. 

The  Deal  Boatmen,  an  enterprising  and  courageous 
body  of  men,  are,  like  some  of  the  other  boatmen  of 
that  coast,  locally  known  as  *  hovellers. '  They  have  become 
noted  for  giving  assistance  to  ships  in  distress,  and  for  sav- 
ing lives  of  crews  and  passengers.  Besides  performing 
these  services,  they  have  been  useful  in  carrying  off  provi- 
sions to  outward-bound  vessels,  and  in  bringing  ashore  mail- 
bags  requiring  to  be  forwarded  by  express.  Latterly,  in 
consequence  of  steam- tugs  being  much  employed  in  ex- 
pediting outward  and  inward  bound  vessels,  and  also  be- 
cause of  the  landing  of  mails  from  many  foreign  countries 
at  Falmouth  and  other  places,  to  be  forwarded  to  London 
by  railway,  the  occupation  of  the  Deal  boatmen  is  nearly 
gone,  and  the  community  has  sunk  into  poverty.  Benev- 
olent exertions  have  been  made  in  their  behalf.  The  com- 
munity may  be  expected  to  diminish  in  proportion  to  the 
actual  wants  of  navigation  on  the  coast. 

DEALFISH  {Trachypter  us)'.  genus  of  fishes  of  the  ribbon- 
fish  family,  having  the  body  much  compressed,  and  so 
named  D.  from  the  resemblance  of  the  form  to  a  piece  of 

610 


DEAL  ISLAND-DEAN, 
deal— a  resemblance  which  is  increased  by  the  dorsal  fin 
extending  along  the  whole  length  of  the  back.  The  tail-tin 
is  peculiar,  rising  almost  vertically  from  the  horizontal  line 
of  the  vertebral  column,  as  if  it  had  met  with  some  accident, 
and  assumed  a  new  position.  One  species  {T.  Bogmarus), 
the  Yaagmaer  of  the  Icelanders  and  Norwegians,  some- 
times occurs  on  the  most  northerly  British  coasts,  but  is 


Dealfish,  or  Vaagmaer. 


not  common  even  on  those  of  Iceland,  and  is  apparently  a 
deep-sea  lish.  It  is  large,  4  to  8  ft.  in  length,  of  silvery  col- 
or, with  minute  scales.  Other  species  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

DEAL  ISLAND:  in  Bass's  Strait,  between  Australia 
and  Tasmania:  it  has  a  light-house  880  ft.  above  the 
sea. 

DEAN,  n.  den  [OF.  deien;  F.  doyen;  Dut.  deken,  the 
head  of  a  collegiate  body— from  L.  decdnus,  the  chief  of  ten 
— ivom  decern,  ten]:  the  second  dignitary  of  a  diocese;  an 
officer  in  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  (one  of 
the  fellows)  appointed  to  see  to  the  discipline  of  the  college, 
especially  as  to  attendance  at  chapel  and  hall;  the  chief  or 
head  of  a  faculty.  At  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  which  is  a 
cathedral,  the  dean  is  master  of  tfie  college.  Dean'ery,  n. 
■erl,  the  office  or  revenue  of  a  dean;  the  residence  of  a  dean. 
Dean'ship,  n.  the  office.  Dean  and  chapter,  the  title 
of  the  governing  body  of  a  cathedral.  Rural  deans, 
clergy  appointed  by  the  bishop  to  inspect  a  certain  number 
of  parishes,  and  preside  at  the  ruridecanal  chapters.  Dean 
OF  GUILD,  in  Scotch  burghs,  pres.  of  the  mercantile  body 
called  the  Guild-brethren  or  Guildry;  formerly  a  judge  in 
mercantile  and  maritime  law,  within  the  burgh,  but  for  a 
long  time  now  rather  a  kind  of  Scotch  sedile  (q.v.),  having 
charge  of  erection,  demolishment,  or  repair  of  buildings, 
according  to  law.  Dean  of  faculty,  in  Scot. ,  pres.  of  the 
faculty  of  incorporated  advocates  or  barristers:  see  Advo- 
cates, Faculty  of.  Dean  of  Guild  Court,  in  Edin- 
burgh, council  or  court  with  authority  over  erecting,  de- 
molishing, or  materially  altering  any  building. 

DEAN,  in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs:  second  dignitary  of  a 
diocese.  The  institution  of  deaneries,  as  of  other  ecclesi 
astical  offices  of  dignity,  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  meth- 
ods of  ancient  civil  government.  Thus,  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  civil  order,  every  hundred  consisted  of  10  districts 
called  tithings,  and  in  every  tithing  w^as  a  constable  or 
civil  dean.    In  conformity  to  this,  the  spiritual  governors, 

611 


DEAN. 

the  bishops,  divided  each  diocese  into  deaneries  or  decen- 
naries [Dat.  decern,  ten],  corresponding  to  tithings,  each  of 
Avhich  was  the  district  of  10  parishes  or  churches,  over  every 
one  of  which  a  D.  was  appointed,  who  in  the  cities  or  large 
towns  was  called  the  D.  of  the  city  or  town,  and  in  the 
country  rural  dean.  It  has  been  supposed,  but  on  no  cer- 
tain authority,  that  the  D.  of  a  chapter  was  appointed  to 
superintend  10  canons;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
name  was  given  to  the  othce  from  its  analogy  to  those 
above  described.  In  the  English  Church,  the  following 
dignitaries  bear  this  title: 

1.  In  the  province  of  Canterbury,  it  is  part  of  the  dig- 
nity of  the  abp.  to  have  prelates  as  his  officers,  and  of  these 
the  bp  of  Loudon  is  his  provincial  D. ;  and  when  a  con- 
vocation is  assembled,  the  abp.  sends  to  him  his  mandate 
for  summoning  the  bps.  of  the  province.  This  is  the  sole 
example  of  the  kind. 

2.  Honorary  Deans,  as  the  D.  of  the  Chapel  Eoyal  of  St. 
James's. 

3.  Deans  of  Peculiars,  as  of  Battle  in  Sussex,  founded 
by  William  the  Conqueror  in  memory  of  his  conquest. 
There  are  also  the  Deans  of  the  Arches  in  London,  of  Book- 
ing in  Essex,  and  of  Croydon  in  Surrey,  who  have  jurisdic- 
tion, but  no  cure  of  souls. 

4.  Deans  of  Chapters,  as  at  Canterbury,  St.  Paul's  etc., 
governors  over  the  canons  in  cathedrals  and  collegiate 
churches.  Their  appointment  is  in  the  direct  patronage  of 
the  crown,  which  may  appoint  by  letters  patent;  and  the 
D.  so  appointed  is  entitled  to  be  installed.  The  D.  of  a 
chapter  must  reside  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  he  may 
hold  one  benefice  with  his  deanery.  The  income  of  the 
office  is,  in  the  case  of  Durham,  £3,000;  of  St.  Paul's,  West- 
minster, York,  and  Manchester,  £2,000;  of  other  cathedrals, 
£1,000,  except  St.  Davids  and  Llandaff,  which  have  £700: 
see  Cathedral. 

5.  Ru  ral  Deans.  These  are  very  ancient  officers  of  the 
church,  but  custom  gradually  transferred  their  duties  to  the 
archdeacon,  as  in  the  visitation  of  churches,  parsonage- 
houses,  etc.  They  may,  however,  act  as  deputies  to  the 
bishop  and  archdeacon;  and  of  late  the  office  has  been  re- 
vived with  great  advantage;  and  in  well  ordered  dioceses 
affords  a  useful  channel  of  commimication  between  the 
bishop  and  his  clergy,  and  a  means  of  joint  action  in  mat- 
ters affecting  the  church.  There  are  altogether  nearly  600 
rural  deaneries  in  England  and  Wales. 

DEAN  OF  THE  Chapel  Royal,  in  Scotland :  office  held 
by  six  (formerly  three)  clergymen  of  the  Established  (Presb.) 
Church,  to  which  they  are  appointed  by  the  crown.  The 
benefice  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  instituted  by  James  V.,  was 
richly  endowed,  but  it  has  been  disputed  whether  the  rev- 
enues now  enjoyed  by  the  deans  belonged  originally  to  the 
Chapel  Royal  of  Stirling  or  to  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Holy- 
rood.  The  Chapel  Roj^al  is  noticed  as  in  full  operation  in 
Stirling  in  1540.  During  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  the 
Chapel  Royal  seems  to  have  been  at  Holyrood.    In  1574, 


DEANE. 

after  the  Reformation,  the  name  of  Johne  Duncaneson  ap^ 
pears  as  minister  of  the  Chapell  Royall,  or  King's  House  at 
Stirling,  where  James  VI.,  then  very  young,  resided;  while 
at  Holyrood  the  minister  was  apparently  the  regular  parish 
minister  of  Canongate,  and  not  connected  with  the  Chapel 
Royal.  Afterward,  w^hen  the  royal  residence  became  fixed 
at  Holyrood,  the  Dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal  ofiiciated  in  the 
chapel.  The  chapel  at  Stirling  was  left  to  decay;  whereas 
during  the  reigns  of  James  VI.,  Chailes  I.,  Charles  II.,  and 
James  VII.,  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Holyrood  was  repaired 
anc  embellished.  The  last  of  the  Stuarts  laid  out  considera- 
ble sums  for  the  purpose  only  the  year  before  the  revolu- 
tion. The  revenues  of  the  benetice  fell  to  the  crown,  jure 
cor  once,  on  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy  1690,  and  have  since 
been  gifted  at  the  royal  pleasure:  see  Teinds.  In  1858,  the 
annual  rental  divided  among  the  three  deans  was  £2,018. 
The  duties  of  the  office  used  to  be  nearly  nominal;  but  on 
the  foundation  of  the  chair  of  Biblical  criticism  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  1846,  it  was  endowed  with  one -third 
of  the  revenues,  the  prof,  becoming  one  of  the  three  deans. 
The  Universities  Commission,  1858,  recommended  that  when 
the  requisite  vacancies  occurred,  the  revenues  should  be  di- 
vided into  six  parts,  attached  respectively  to  the  chairs  of 
divinity  and  Biblical  criticism  in  Edinburgh  Univ.  (the  lat- 
ter receiving  two-sixths  of  the  whole).  Biblical  criticism  in 
Aberdeen  Univ.,  Biblical  criticism  in  Glasgow  Univ.,  and 
church  history  in  St.  Andrews  Univ.  This  arrangement  is 
now  in  operation.  Besides  these  five  deans,  the  Dean  of  the 
Order  of  the  Thistle  bears  the  title  of  Dean  of  the  Chapel 
Royal, but  draws  none  of  the  revenues. 

DEANE,  dm,  James:  1748,  Aug.  20—1823,  Sep.  10;  b. 
Groton,  Conn.:  Indian  missionary.  He  accompanied 
Rev.  Mr.  Mosely  on  his  mission  to  the  six  nations  of  Indians 
in  N.  Y.  1760,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  1773,  served 
as  missionary  to  the  Canadian  Indians  1773r-4,  engaged  in 
pacifying  the  northern  Indians  by  order  of  congress,  was 
appointed  maj.  in  the  continental  army  and  stationed  at 
Fort  Stanw^ix  as  Indian  agent  and  interpreter  captured  by  a 
savage  band,  and  saved  from  death  by  the  intercession  of 
some  squaws  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  given  a  2-mile, 
tract  of  land  near  Rome,  N.  Y.,  by  the  Oneida  Indians. 
Subsequently  he  exchanged  this  land  for  some  in  West- 
moreland, Oneida  co.,  where  he  settled,  was  a  judge  many 
years,  and  held  other  public  offices.  The  village  of 
Deanesville  was  named  after  him. 

DEANE,  Silas:  1737,  Dec.  24—1789,  Aug.  23;  b.  Gro- 
ton, Conn.:  diplomatist.  He  graduated  at  Yale  CoUegt 
1758,  engaged  in  mercantile  business,  and  w^as  a  member 
of  the  continental  congress  1774-76.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  sent  to  France  on  a  secret  political  and  financial 
mission,  and  there  secured  the  services  of  Lafayette  and 
a  number  of  other  foreign  military  officers,  and  assisted  in 
negotiating  treaties  of  friendship  and  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  France.  In  1777  he  was  charged  with 
extravagance  in  the  management  of  his  business  in  FranCQ 

613 


DEAN  FOREST— DEARBORK 

and  recalled.  Soon  afterward  lie  returned  to  France  to 
procure  documents  to  prove  his  integrity  before  congress, 
but  found  the  govt,  hostile  to  him  on  account  of  the  reports 
from  home.  Discouraged  with  the  inability  to  vindicate 
his  official  conduct,  he  went  to  Holland  and  thence  to  Deal, 
England,  where  he  died  in  poverty  and  among  strangers. 
Fifty  three  years  after  his  death  congress  re-examined  his 
accounts,  found  that  the  govt,  was  in  his  debt  to  a  large 
sum,  and  appropriated  the  amount  to  his  heirs. 

DEAN  FOREST:  picturesque  hilly  tract,  22,000  acres, 
in  the  west  of  Gloucestershire,  between  the  Severn  and  the 
Wye.  It  is  mostly  crown-property,  and  about  half  is  in- 
closed for  the  growth  of  timber  for  the  navy.  It  contains 
oak,  beech,  etc.,  woods;  orchards,  yielding  the  famous 
Styre  apple-cider;  coal  and  iron  mines;  and  stone-quarries 
for  building,  grinding,  and  making  troughs  and  rollers.  It 
is  divided  into  six  walks.  The  population  is  chietly  miners, 
formerly  a  lawless  set.  The  former  inhabitants  had  many 
ancient  privileges— acquired  by  birth,  and  by  working  a 
year  and  a  day  in  the  Forest — viz. ,  exemption  from  rates 
and  taxes,  free  pasturage,  right  of  mining— a  sixth  of  the 
produce  being  due  to  the  sovereign- and  access  to  the  woods 
for  timber  for  their  works.  D.  F.  is  governed  by  a  lord- 
warden,  six  deputy-wardens,  and  other  officials. 

DEAR,  a.  d^r  [AS.  deor.  dear:  Gael,  daor,  bound,  pre- 
cious, dear  in  price:  Dut.  duur;  Sw.  dyv;  Icel.  ^?y;T,  dear, 
precious]:  high-priced;  more  costly  than  usual,  as  arising 
from  scarcity;  highly  esteemed;  beloved;  precious:  N.  a 
darling;  a  word  of  endearment  or  affection.  Dear  ly,  ad. 
-U.  Dear'ness,  n.  the  state  or  condition  of  being  dear  or 
high  priced.  Dear-bought,  purchased  at  too  high  a  price. 
Dear  y,  n.  -?,  a  familiar  term  for  a  dear.  Dearling,  n. 
der'ling,  in  OE.,  a  darling.  Oh,  dear  me  [said  to  be  a 
corruption  of  L  oh,  Beus  mi,  oh,  my  God]:  an  exclamation 
of  surprise  or  displeasure. 

•  DEAR,  a.  der  [Gael.  din%  hard,  unbending:  OE.  dere, 
dire,  sad:  Scot,  dour,  hard,  cruel:  F.  diir,  hard]:  in  OE., 
hard;  dire;  stern;  unyielding.  Dearest  foe,  most  hate- 
ful or  most  unyielding  foe.  Dearborn,  n.  der'hawrn 
[from  the  name  of  the  inventor]:  a  light  four-wheeled  fam- 
ily carriage  of  moderate  pretensions. 

DEARBORN,  der'born,  Henry:  1751,  Feb.  23—1829, 
June  6;  b.  North  Hampton,  N.  H.;  military  officer.  He 
studied  medicine  and  practiced  till  the  battle  of  Lexington, 
when  he  hurriedly  enlisted  a  company  of  minute  men  and 
marched  with  them  to  Cambridge.  Appointed  a  capt.  in 
Stark's  regt.  he  covered  the  retreat  of  the  Americans  at 
Bunker  Hill;  then  went  with  Gen.  Arnold  to  Canada, 
look  part  in  the  attack  on  Quebec  and  was  made  prisoner 
1775,  Dec.  31.;  paroled  1776,  May,  he  was  exchanged  1777, 
Mar.,  appointed  maj.  in  Scammell's  regt.,  and  took  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  battles  of  Saratoga  and  Monmouth, 
beside  minor  engagements.  In  1781  he  became  col.  and 
deputy  quartermaster  gen.  on  Washington's  staff,  served 
through  the  Yorktown  campaign,  and  at  the  close  of  the 

614 


DEARN -DEATH. 

war  settled  in  Monmouth,  Me.  He  was  commissioned  brig, 
gen.  of  militia  1787  and  maj.gen.  1795;  wasU.  S.  marshal 
for  Me.  1789;  member  of  congress  as  a  democrat  179^-97; 
sec.  of  war  1801-9;  collector  of  the  port  of  Boston  1809-- 
1812,  Jan.  27,  when  he  w^as  appointed  senior  maj.gen.. 
U.  S.  A.;  captured  Toronto  1813,  Apr.  27,  and  Fort  George 
May  27;  and  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Portugal  1822,  May 
7—1824,  June  30.  Fort  Dearborn,  the  first  building 
erected  on  the  site  of  Chicago  (1804),  w-as  named  in 
honor  of  Gen.  D.,  then  sec.  of  war. 

DEARN,  or  Dern,  a.  dtrn  [Gael,  deur,  a  tear;  deurach, 
tearful,  melancholy,  sad:  AS.  dyrnan,  to  hide,  to  secrete; 
dearn,  secret]:  in  OE.,  secret;  sad;  lonely;  melancholy. 
Dearn'ly,  ad.  -U,  secretly;  sadly:  see  Dern. 

DEARTH,  n.  dertli  [from  dear,  as  length  from  long]: 
scarcity;  want;  famine;  barrenness  or  want  of. 

DEATH,  n.  deth  [Goth.  doMthus;  Icel.  dautJii,  death: 
Low  Ger.  dode,  a  dead  body:  Icel.  deya,  to  die]:  a  total  and 
permanent  cessation  of  all  the  vital  functions;  cause  of 
death;  state  of  the  dead;  decease;  mortality;  alienation  or 
separation  of  the  soul  from  God;  state  of  being  under  the 
dominion  of  sin.  Death  less,  a.  immortal.  Death-like, 
resembling  death;  very  still.  Death-bed,  the  bed  on 
which  a  person  dies;  the  closing  hours  of  life  on  a  bed. 
Death-blow,  a  disappointment  or  misfortune  so  great  as 
to  prove  injurious,  and  even  fatal,  to  the  bodily  frame  and 
mind.  Death's  door,  a  near  approach  to  death.  Death- 
rattle,  a  rattle  in  the  throat  of  a  dying  person.  Deaths- 
man,  in  OE.,  the  hangman;  the  public  executioner. 
Death-stroke,  the  stroke  of  death.  Death-token,  that 
which  is  supposed  to  indicate  approaching  death.  Death- 
warrant,  an  order  signed  by  the  sovereign  for  the  execu- 
tion of  a  criminal.— Syn.  of 'death':  departure;  demise; 
extinction;  murder. 

DEATH:  decease;  dissolution  of  the  vital  bond.  It  is 
one  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  physiology  that  every 
part  of  the  organism  has  its  own  definite  term  of  vitality, 
and  that  there  is  a  continuous  succession  of  the  destruction 
of  old  cells  and  the  formation  of  new  ones  in  all  tissues,  and 
especially  in  those  in  which  the  most  active  vital  changes 
are  going  on,  as,  for  example,  in  the  nervous  and  muscular 
tissues.  Even  the  most  solid  portions  of  the  animal  frame, 
such  as  the  bones  and  (to  a  less  extent)  the  teeth,  are  under- 
going a  perpetual  although  slower  change  of  this  nature; 
and  throughout  the  body  there  is  a  continuous  removal  of 
effete  or  worn-out  tissues,  and  a  corresponding  deposition  of 
new  matter.  Every  blow  we  strike,  every  thought  we  think, 
is  accompanied  by  the  death  and  disintegration  of  a  certain 
amount  of  muscular  or  nervous  tissue  as  its  necessary  con- 
dition; and  thus  every  action  of  our  corporeal  life,  from  its 
beginning  to  its  close,  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  the 
vitality  of  a  certain  amount  of  organized  structure.  This  is 
termed  molecular  D.,  and,  within  its  proper  limits,  is  obvi- 
ously essential  to  the  life  and  well-being  of  the  organism. 

Th^  cessation  of  the  circulation  and  respiration  may  be 


DEATH. 

regarded  as  constituting  somatic  D.,  or  tlie  D.  of  the  entire 
organism,  which  must  obviously  be  shortly  followed  by  the 
molecular  D.  of  every  portion  of  the  body. 

We  shall  now  brie&y  notice  the  principal  modes  in  which 
D.  occurs.  D.  happens  either  from  the  natural  decay  of  the 
organism,  as  in  old  age,  or  (and  much  more  frequently) 
from  some  of  those  derangements  or  lesions  of  the  vital 
organs  which  occur  in  the  course  of  diseases  and  injuries. 
These  derangements  of  the  vital  organs  may  occasion  various 
modes  of  dying.  Dr.  Watson  remarks,  in  his  Lectures  on  the 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Physic,  that  life  rests  on  a  tripod, 
whose  three  vital  supports  are  the  heart,  the  brainy  and  the 
lungs.  Through  the  impaired  functions  of  one  or  more  of 
these  organs,  the  tendency  to  D.  is  expressed.  This  is  much 
the  same  as  Bichat's  statement  that '  the  mode  of  dying  may 
begin  at  the  head,  the  heart,  or  the  lungs.'  The  functions 
of  these  organs  are,  however,  so  mutually  dependent  upon 
each  other  that  impairment  in  the  functions  of  one  of  them 
may  lead  to  D.,  while  the  mode  of  dying  is  expressed  chiefly 
through  the  functions  of  another. 

When  a  pei*son  loses  blood  to  such  an  extent  that  he 
faints,  if  the  flow  of  blood  be  not  arrested  the  state  of  faint- 
ing or  syncope  continues,  and  the  heart's  action  ceases.  The 
cause  of  D.  here  is,  not  that  the  heart  is  unable  to  contract, 
but  because  its  natural  stimulus,  the  blood,  does  not  enter 
it  in  sufficient  quantity  to  excite  contraction.  This  is  termed 
D.  by  anceniia.  In  other  cases,  the  stimulus  from  blood 
may  be  sufficient,  but  the  heart  may  have  lost  its  contractile 
power.  Such  a  mode  of  death  is  said  to  be  by  asthenia  [Gr. 
want  of  power].  Many  poisons  and  diseases,  due  to  morbid 
materials  in  the  blood  (as,  for  example,  cholera),  prove  fatal 
in  this  way. 

D.  may  be  produced  likewise  by  suspension  of  the  func- 
tions of  respiration,  as  when  access  of  the  air  to  the  lungs  is 
impeded,  or  when  the  actions  of  the  muscles  of  respiration 
cease,  in  consequence  of  disease  or  injury  of  the  brain  or 
spinal  cord.  The  first  of  these  modes  is  known  as  suffo- 
cation or  apnma,  and  we  have  examples  of  it  in  drowning, 
smothering,  choking,  strangulation,  etc.  Forcible  pressure 
upon  the  chest,  such  as  sometimes  happens  in  great  crowds, 
or  as  occurs  to  workmen  partially  buried  by  the  fall  of  earth, 
etc.,  will  cause  D.  in  a  few  minutes,  if  movement  of  the 
lungs  is  prevented  by  the  pressure.  Tetanus  and  the  poison 
of  strychnine  prove  fatal  in  this  way. 

D.  by  coma,  or  beginning  at  the  brain,  is  caused  by  ob- 
struction to  the  circulation  through  that  organ  by  pressure 
(as,  for  example,  when  there  is  effused  blood  within  the 
cranium,  or  when  a  portion  of  bone  is  depressed  in  a  fract- 
ured skull);  by  clots  of  blood  within  the  vessels;  by  various 
narcotic  poisons,  such  as  opium,  alcohol  in  excessive  quan- 
tity, carbonic  acid,  etc. 

To  these  forms  of  dying  may  be  added  (according  to  Dr. 
C.  J.  B.  Williams)  necrmmia,  or  D,  beginning  in  the  blood, 
such  as  occurs  in  typhoid  fevers  and  in  other  diseases  malig- 
nant or  pestilential.  In  this  case,  there  is  complete  and 
general  prostration  of  all  the  living  powers.  The  blood,  the 

618 


DEATH. 

natural  source  of  life  to  the  whole  body,  is  itself  dead,  and 
spreads  death  instead  of  life.  Almost  simultaneously,  the 
heart  loses  its  power;  the  vessels,  and  especiall}^  the  capil- 
laries, lose  their  tone,  and  congestion  takes  place  in  various 
organs;  the  medulla  oblongata,  from  which  the  chief  respi- 
ratory nerves  arise,  is  torpid;  the  powers  of  respiration  fail; 
voluntary  motion  is  almost  suspended;  molecular  nutrition 
ceases,  and  is  very  rapidly  followed  by  general  molecular 
D. ;  that  is  to  say,  structures  and  even  organs  die,  and  begin 
to  undergo  decomposition  as  soon  as  the  pulse  and  breath 
have  ceased;  and  indeed,  a  partial  change  of  this  kind  may 
even  precede  somatic  D.,  as,  for  example,  when  parts  become 
gangrenous,  etc. 

As  to  the  signs  of  approaching  D.;  the  mind  may  be 
affected  in  various  ways;  there  may  be  dulness  of  the  senses, 
vacancy  of  the  intellect,  and  extinction  of  the  sentiments, 
as  in  natural  D.  from  old  age;  or  there  may  be  a  peculiar 
delirium,  closely  resembling  dreaming,  usually  pleasing 
and  cheerful: 

Saw  ye  not  even  now  a  blessed  troop 
Invite  me  to  a  banquet,  whose  bright  faces 
Cast  thousand  beams  upon  me  like  the  sun  ? 

King  Henry  VIIL,  Act  iv.  Scene  2. 

In  dreadful  contrast  with  such  visions  are  those  which 
haunt  the  dying  moments  of  other,  when  it  sometimes  al- 
most seems  that  retribution  of  evil  deeds  began  even  on  the 
bed  of  death. 

Dementia  or  imbecility  sometimes  comes  on  shortly  before 
D.,  and  manifests  itself  by  an  incapacity  of  concentrating 
the  ideas  upon  any  one  subject,  and  by  almost  total  failure 
of  memory.  The  mental  weakness  is  often  indicated  by 
the  pleasure  derived  from  puerile  amusements.  Shakespeare 
notices  '  playing  with  flowers  '  as  a  token  of  approaching 
dissolution.  In  the  form  of  delirium,  ocular  spectra  often 
seem  present,  the  patient  apparently  trying  to  catch  some 
imaginary  object. 

There  is  generally  well  marked  relaxation  and  incapacity 
of  the  muscular  system,  and  the  voice  is  usually  weak  and 
low  as  D.  approaches,  often  dwindling  to  a  mere  whisper. 
The  mode  in  which  the  action  of  the  heart  declines  is 
various;  in  most  diseases  of  long  standing,  the  cessation  of 
the  heart's  action  is  gradual,  the  rate  of  the  pulsations 
being  much  increased,  but  their  energy  much  impaired. 
In  some  acute  affections,  the  failure  is  shown  by  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  pulse,  while  the  force  is  little  altered.  In 
other  cases  (especially  in  cerebral  diseases),  the  heart, before 
finally  ceasing  to  beat,  contracts  violently,  and  suddenly 
stops. 

The  respiration  is  sometimes  hurried  and  panting  till  just 
before  D.,  while  in  other  cases  it  is  slow,  laborious,  and 
stertorous.  The  accumulation  of  mucus,  etc.,  in  the  air- 
passages  increases  the  difiiculty  of  breathing;  the  sound 
known  as  the  '  death-rattle  '  being  produced  by  the  passage 
of  the  air  from  the  lungs  through  the  fluid  collected  in  the 
trachea  and  upper  respiratory  passages. 

en 


DEATH. 

There  is  a  loss  of  animal  heat,  beginning  at  the  extremities. 
See,  further.  Death,  in  The  Gyclopcedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Phymlogy,  from  which  some  of  the  matter  preceding  is 
taken. 

The  signs  of  actual  D.  may  be  arranged  under  three 
heads:  1.  Signs  of  the  extinction  of  the  vital  functions  ;  2. 
Changes  in  the  tissues;  3.  Changes  in  the  external  appear- 
ance of  the  body. 

1.  The  arrest  of  the  circulation  and  respiration  would  at 
first  sight  appear  to  afford  decisive  evidence  of  D. ;  but 
these  functions,  as  in  the  case  of  hibernating  animals,  may 
be  reduced  to  so  low  a  condition  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  decide  whether  or  not  they  are  completely  annihilated. 
In  cases  of  apparent  drowning,  these  functions  are  fre- 
quently suspended  and  again  restored;  and  cases  like  that 
of  Col.  Towusend  (see  any  standard  work  on  medical  juris- 
prudence) occasionally  occur,  in  which  the  patient  has 
the  power  of  voluntarily  suspending  these  functions  for  a 
considerable  period. 

The  loss  of  irritability  in  the  muscular  fibres  (a  fact 
readily  ascertained  by  a  galvanic  current)  is  a  sign  of  far 
greater  importance  than  either  the  apparent  stoppage  of  the 
circulation  or  of  the  respiration,'  The  contractility  of  the 
skin  is  also  lost  after  death.  When  a  cut  is  made  through 
the  skin  of  a  dead  body,  the  edges  of  the  wound  collapse, 
while  a  similar  lesion  inllicted  during  life  presents  an  open 
or  gaping  appearance. 

2.  Among  the  changes  in  the  tissues,  the  rigor  mortis,  or 
rigidity  of  the  muscles,  which  ensues  at  a  varying  period 
after  D.,  is  the  most  important.  It  may  appear  within  half  an 
hour  after  D.,  or  may  be  delayed  20  or  30  hours,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  disease;  and  its  mean  duration  is  24  to  36 
hours.  It  commences  in  the  neck  and  trunk,  then  appears 
in  the  lower,  and  lastly  in  the  upper,  extremities,  and  disap- 
pears in  the  same  order. 

3.  Various  changes  in  the  external  appearance  of  the  body 
have  been  regarded  as  indicative  of  D.  by  different  writers; 
of  these,  the  most  important  unquestionably  is  the  altered 
color  of  the  surface.  Livid  spots  of  various  sizes  may  oc- 
cur from  local  congestions  during  life;  but  the  appearance 
of  a  green  tint  on  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  accompanied  by 
a  separation  of  the  epidermis,  is  a  certain  sign  that  life  is 
extinct. 

The  discrimination  of  true  from  apparent  D.  is  obviously 
not  a  matter  of  mere  physiological  interest.  The  case  of 
Vesalius,  the  eminent  anatomist,  who  opened  a  supposed 
and  apparently  dead  body  in  which  the  exposed  heart  was 
seen  still  beating,  is  well  known;  as  also  that  of  the  Abbe 
Prevost,  who,  having  been  struck  down  by  apoplexy,  was 
regarded  as  dead,  but  recovered  consciousness  under  the 
scalpel,  and  died  immediately  afterward;  and  a  French 
author  of  the  last  century,  Bruhier,  in  a  work  On  the  Danger 
of  Premature  Interment,  collected  54  cases  of  persons  buried 
alive,  4  of  persons  dissected  while  still  living,  53  of  persons 
who  recovered  without  assistance  after  they  were  laid  in 
their  coffins,  and  72  falsely  considered  dead. 

618 


DEATH— DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH. 

DEATH,  Punishment  of:  see  Capital  Punishment. 

DEATH-BED.  Law  of,  in  Scotland :  presumption,  for- 
merly maintained  in  law,  that  any  man  who,  while  suf- 
fering from  the  disease  of  which  he  ultimately  died;  bur- 
dened or  conveyed  away  his  heritable  estate,  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  lawful  heir,  must  have  so  acted  in  conse- 
quence of  his  inability  to  resist  importunity  in  the  state  of 
feebleness  to  which  he  was  reduced;  for  which  reason  his 
heir  was  entitled  to  reduce  the  deed.  This  rule  belonged 
to  the  most  ancient  consuetudinary  law  of  Scotland.  It  has 
been  abolished  by  laws  of  recent  date. 

DEATHS,  Registration  of:  see  Registration. 

DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH  (Acherontia  atropos):  species 
of  Hawk-moth  (q.v.),  or  lepidopterous  insect  of  the 
family  Sphingidw,  widely  distributed  over  the  world,  being 
found  in  Europe,  Africa,  the  Mauritius,  and  the  E.  Indies. 
It  measures  almost  live  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  extended 
wings ;  is  of  dark  color,  the  body  yellow  with  black 
markings,  the  thorax  with  pale  markings  which  have  some 
resemblance  to  a  skull,  and  from  which  it  derives  its  name; 
the  upper  wings  mottled  with  brown,  black,  and  yellow. 
The  caterpillar  is  greenish.yellow,  the  back  speckled  with 
black,  with  transverse  lines  partly  blue  and  partly  white; 


Death's  Head  Moth  and  Caterpillar. 


and  in  countries  where  the  potato  is  cultivated  is  often 
found  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  that  plant.  This  insect  is 
most  frequently  seen  flying  about  in  autumn,  and  only  in 
the  mornings  and  evenings.  It  is  remarkable  for  emitting 
a  plaintive  squeaking  soimd,  which,  with  its  dark  color, 
and  the  skull-like  mark  on  the  thorax,  has  led  to 
its  being  regarded  with  superstitious  dislike,  the 
sudden  appearance  of  large  numbers  being  popularly 
held  ominous  of  evil;  while,  in  the  Mauritius,  a  notion 
prevails  that  it  casts  a  dust  from  its  wings  which  produces 
bMndness  in  persons  on  whom  it  falls,  and  its  entering  an 

C19 


DEATH-WATCH— DEAYE. 

apartment  is  therefore  regarded  with  dread.  How  the  noise 
which  it  emits  is  produced  is  not  known.  If  the  insect  is 
taken  and  contined  in  the  hand,  this  sound  is  sent  forth 
sharply  and  strongly.  The  D.  H.  M.  is  interesting  on  still 
another  account,  as  one  of  those  insects  w^hich  enter  and 
plunder  bee-hives,  feeding  upon  the  honey;  and  though  ap- 
parently quite  defenseless,  it  ravages  with  perfect  impunity 
the  stores  of  creatures  so  well  provided  with  formidable  wea- 
pons, and  generally  so  ready  to  use  them  against  an  intruder. 
No  explanation  of  this  fact  is  known. 

DEATH' -WATCH:  ticking  sound  produced  by  certain 
insects,  inmates  of  human  dwellings;  also  the  insect  produc- 
ing it.  The  sound,  easily  heard  in  that  stillness  which  at- 
tends sickness  and  anxiety,  has  become  associated  with  su- 
perstitious notions,  being  regarded  as  indicative  of  an  ap- 
proaching death.  The  most  common  form  of  this  prevalent 
superstition  is  the  belief  that  when  the  D.  is  heard  some 
member  of  the  household  will  die  within  a  year.  The  tick- 
ings of  the  D.  were  formerly  attributed  to  species  of  wood- 
louse  and  of  spider,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  are  not  all 
produced  by  insects  of  the  same  kind;  but  the  most  com- 
mon D.  of  Britain  is  a  species  of  Borer  (q.v.)  {Anobium 
tesselatum).  It  is  of  dusky  or  grayish-brown  color,  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  generally  in  summer 
that  its  noise  is  heard,  the  number  of  raps  given  in  quick 
succession,  varying  from  several  to  more  than  a  hundred. 
These  are  repeated  at  uncertain  intervals.  The  noise  exact- 
ly resembles  that  made  by  beating  with  the  nail  upon  a 
table;  and  when  this  is  done,  the  insect  is  frequently  in- 


A  B  C 

Death-watch,  magnified; 
A,  Anobium  tesselatum;  B,  Anobium  pertinax;  C,  Anobium  stria- 
tum. 

duced  to  reply  to  it.  It  is  the  perfect  insect,  not  the  lar- 
va, which  produces  this  sound.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  be  a 
call  by  which  the  sexes  are  attracted  to  each  other,  and  is 
produced  by  the  insects  beating  upon  some  hard  substance 
with  its  head,  in  doing  which,  it  raises  itself  upon  its  hind- 
legs,  and  with  the  body  somewhat  inclined,  beats  its  head 
with  great  force  and  agility  against  the  substance  on  which 
it  stands.  One  of  them  was  seen  by  Mr.  Stackhouse  thus 
to  beat  upon  a  sedge-bottomed  chair  with  such  force  that 
its  strokes  made  little  indentations  in  the  outer  coat  of  the 
sedge. 

DEAVE,  V.  dev  [Scot. :  ISTorw.  dyvja,  to  buzz,  to  sound 
hollow  (see  Deaf)]:  to  stupefy  with  noise.  Deav'ing,  imp. 
Deaved,  pp.  deml, 

62Q 


DEBACLE— DEBATE. 


DEBACLE,  n.  de-bdk'l  [F.,  breaking  of  a  frozen  river] 
mgeol.,  any  sudden  flood  or  rush  of  water  which  breaks 
down  opposing  barriers,  and  hurls  forward  and  disperses 
blocks  of  stone  and  other  debris. 

DEBAR,  V.  de-Mr'  [de,  from,  and  bar]:  to  cut  off;  to 
exclude;  to  hinder  from  approach,  enjoyment,  etc.  De 
BAR  RING,  imp.  Debarred',  pp.  -bard' . — Syn.  of  *  de- 
bar': to  deprive;  hinder;  prohibit;  disqualify;  exclude; 
preclude;  forbid;  refuse. 

DEBAEK,  V.  de-bdrk'  [E.  debarqner,  to  land— from  des, 
from,  and  barque,  a  boat  or  vessel]:  to  disembark;  to  land 
from  a  ship  or  boat.  Debark  ing,  imp.  Debarked',  pp 
■bdrkt' .  Debarkation,  n.  debdr-kd'sMin,  the  act  of  land- 
ing  from  a  ship. 

DEBASE,  V.  de-bds'  [de,  down,  and  base,  low,  which 
see] :  to  reduce  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  state;  to  reduce  or 
lower  in  quality,  purity,  or  value;  to  adulterate;  to  degrade; 
Deba'sing,  imp.  Debased',  pp.  -bdsd'.  Deba'ser,  n.  -sery 
one  who.  Debase  ment,  n.  the  act  of  debasing;  the  state 
of  being  debased.  Deba'singly,  ad.  -/i— Syn.  of  *  de- 
base to  abase;  humble,  disgrace;  humiliate;  dishonor; 
lower. 

DEBATABLE  LAND:  tract  on  the  w.  border  of  Eng. 
land  and  Scotland,  chiefly  level  and  moory,  now  in  cour>  e 
of  improvement.  This  tract  of  country,  between  the  Esk 
and  Sark,  was  so  named  because  at  one  time  claimed  by 
both  kingdoms.  In  1542,  it  was  divided  by  royal  commis- 
sioners, appointed  by  the  two  crowns,  who  separated  it  by 
a  line  drawn  from  e.  to  w.  between  the  two  rivers.  The 
upper  half  was  adjudged  to  Scotland,  and  the  more  eastern 
part  to  England.  Yet  it  continued  long  afterward  the  resi- 
dence of  the  thieves  and  banditti  to  whom  its  dubious  state 
had  afforded  a  refuge.  The  Graemes,  a  troublesome  clan 
of  freebooters  who  inhabited  the  D.  L.,  w^ere  transported 
to  Ireland  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  and  prohibited 
from  returning  on  pain  of  death.    See  Border. 

DEBATE,  n.  de-bdt'  [F.  debat,  strife;  debattre,  to  con- 
tend, to  fight  a  thing  out — from  de,  battre,  to  beat]:  con- 
tention in  words;  discussion  between  two  or  more  persons 
avowedly  for  the  discovery  of  truth :  V.  to  contend  for  in 
words  or  arguments;  to  dispute;  to  deliberate.  Deba  ting, 
imp.  Deba  ted,  pp.  Deba'ter,  n.  one  who.  Deba  table, 
a.  -bd'td-bl,  subject  to  dispute;  that  can  be  controverted. 
Deba'tingly,  ad.  11.  Debating  society,  an  association, 
generally  of  young  men,  for  discussing  general  and  special 
subjects,  to  improve  themselves  in  extemporaneous  speak- 
ing. Debate'ment,  n.  in  OE.,  controversy;  formal  con- 
sideration.—Syn.  of  'debate,  V.':  to  argue;  dispute;  dis- 
cuss; contend;  contest;  struggle. 

DEBATE':  discussion,  or  contention  in  w^ords,  differing 
from  conversation  in  this,  that  the  speakers  succeed  one  an- 
other according  to  certain  regulations,  and  that  the  subject 
is  treated  formally,  and  in  general  with  a  view  to  coming 


The  term  has  a  genei-a] 


DEBAUCH— DEBENTURE. 

meaning,  but  is  specially  applied  to  the  discussions  of  polit- 
ical representative  bodies.  Parliamentary  and  congressional 
debates  are  sometimes  decried  as  useless,  and  even  mischiev- 
ous. How,  it  is  said,  can  a  couple  of  speeches,  pi^o  and  con, 
produce  a  rational  conviction  on  any  subject  ?  It  is  more  like 
ly  that  the  judgment  will  be  run  away  with  by  specious  ora- 
tory. But  this  proceeds  upon  a  false  conception  of  the  great 
object  of  public  D.,  which,  though  it  may  seldom  intiuence 
the  votes  on  the  actual  question,  serves  to  justify  the  pro- 
ceedings of  public  men  to  their  constituents,  and  by  its 
varied  presentation  of  a  case,  forms  one  of  the  chief  ali- 
ments of  public  opinion  and  of  the  political  life  of  a  com- 
munity. 

DEBAUCH,  n.  de-hawch'  [F.  debaucJie,  a  cessation  of 
work,  idleness,  debauch;  debauchev;  OF.  desbaucher,  to 
mar,  to  corrupt— from  des,  from;  bauche,  a  row  or  course 
of  bricks  in  a  building:  Icel.  balkr,  a  heap,  a  beam:  comp. 
Gael,  baois,  lewdness]:  excess  in  eating  or  drinking;  intem- 
perance; lewdness:  Y.  to  corrupt;  to  vitiate.  Debauch  - 
ing, imp.  Debauched',  pp.  -bawcht':  Adj.  dissipated 
and  sensual  in  appearance;  corrupted;  vitiated.  Debauch'- 
EDLY,  ad.  -li.  Debauch  EDNEss,  n.  Debauch  ek,  n.  -er, 
one  who  debauches  or  corrupts  others.  Debauch  ery,  n. 
-er-i,  gluttony;  excess;  sensuality.  Debauchee,  n.  deb'd- 
slie  y  a  man  given  to  intemperance  or  lewdness.  De- 
bauch'ment,  n.  the  act  of  debauching  or  corrupting;  the 
act  of  seducing. 

DE  BAY,  Michael:  see  Bajus. 

DEBEL,  V.  de-bel'  [OF.  debeller,  to  conquer— from  L. 
debelldre — from  de,  down;  belhim,  war]:  in  OE.,  to  con- 
quer; to  expel  by  war.  Debel'ling,  imp.  Debelled', 
pp.  -beld' . 

DE  BENE  ESSE,  de  be'ne  esse  [L.]:  at  or  for  its  pres- 
ent value;  for  what  it  is  worth. 

DEBENTURE,  n.  de-ben' tiir  [L  debentur,  there  are  ow- 
ing— from  debed,  1  owe  ;  OF.  debentur,  a  quittance  or  re- 
ceipt]: written  or  printed  acknowledgment  of  a  debt  or 
borrowed  money,  on  which  a  certain  amount  of  interest  is 
agreed  to  be  paid  yearly  or  half  yearly,  as  a  railwm  deben- 
ture: also  a  governmental  certilicate  of  drawback  on  goods 
exported,  given  according  to  law,  promising  to  repay  at  a 
time  specihed,  a  certain  sum  to  an  importer,  provided  the 
duties  chargeable  in  the  case  shall  have  been  discharged  be- 
fore he  time  specified.  Deben'tured,  a.  -tvrd,  pertaining  to 
goods  on  which  a  certificate  of  drawback  has  been  granted. 
— A  Railway  Debenture  is  a  deed  of  mortgage  given  by  a 
railway  company  for  borrowed  money:  see  Capital  Ac- 
count: Railways,  (Legislation  and  Management).  The 
deed  by  which  the  loan  is  effected  is  simple  in  appearance 
and  nature.  All  expenses  connected  with  it,  brokerage  in- 
cluded, are  borne  by  the  company.  It  mortgages,  in  con- 
sideration of  a  specified  sum  of  money  paid  to  the  company, 
the  company's  estate,  right,  title,  and  interest  to  the  lender, 
and  engages  to  pay  a  specified  interest  on  the  sum  till  the 

«2J 


DEBILE— DEBORAH. 

repayment  of  the  principal.  But  it  stipulates  that  by  mu- 
tual agreement,  at  that  specified  time,  the  loan  may  remain 
on  interest  at  such  rate  and  for  such  longer  time  as  may  be 
agreed  on.  It  is  signed  by  the  proper  otticials  of  the  com- 
pany, with  witnesses.  With  it  are  given  warrants  or  cou- 
pons for  the  payment  of  interest  at  the  periods  specified, 
which  are  paid  on  presentation. 

Brief,  simple,  and  eflective,  a  railway  D.,  with  its  ac- 
companying interest- warrants,  is  perhaps  the  most  conveni- 
ent deed  of  mortgage  ever  invented.  In  few  and  unequiv- 
ocal words,  it  pledges  the  whole  railway  for  the  loan,  and 
it  must  necessarily  be  redeemed  before  any  shareholder  can 
claim  a  dividend  from  the  undertaking — each  D.  being 
numbered  in  its  order,  and  ranking  according  to  its  number. 
Railway  debentures  are,  therefore,  reckoned  a  safe  form 
of  investment,  and  are  eagerly  taken  up  by  individuals  who 
have  sums  of  a  few  hundred,  or  thousand  dollars  to  lend  for 
several  years  at  a  stipulated  rate  of  interest.  These  deben- 
tures possess  the  further  advantage  of  being  saleable,  and 
through  the  agency  of  stockbrokers  they  pass  from  hand  to 
hand.  In  the  event  of  neither  interest  nor  principal  being 
paid,  the  holder  is  entitled  to  enforce  the  mortgage. 
Similar  debentures  are  issued  by  various  public  trusts  under 
statutory  authority,  and  by  joint-stock  companies,  in  virtue 
of  contracts  pledging  the  credit  of  the  undertaking:  see 
Bond  (of  Corporations). 

DEBILE,  a.  deo'U  [L.  dehilis,  weak]:  in  OE.,  weak; 
feeble. 

DEBILITATE,  v.  de-hU'Uat  [L.  debUUdtus,  lamed, 
weakened:  F.  debiliter,  to  enfeeble— from  L.  debllis.weaik]: 
to  enfeeble;  to  weaken;  to  impair  the  strength  of.  Debil'- 
iTATiNG,  imp.  Debilitated,  pp.:  Adj.  weakened. 
Debil  ita  tion,  n.  -td'shun  [F. — L.]:  a  weakening  relaxa- 
tion. Debility,  n.  -tl  [F.  debilite]:  weakness;  languor; 
feebleness. — Syn.  of  'debility':  faintness;  infirmity;  im- 
becility; enervation. 

DEBIT,  n.  deb'it  [F.  debit,  a  debt — from  L  debitum, 
that  which  is  owing,  a  debt — from  debed,  I  owe:  It.  debito]: 
an  entry  on  the  delDtor  (Dr.)  side  of  an  account:  V.  to 
charge  with  debt;  to  enter  on  the  debtor  (Dr.)  side  of  an 
account.    Deb  iting,  imp.    Deb  ited,  pp. 

DEBLAI,  n.  de-bld'  [F.,  act  of  taking  away  or  clearing]  ; 
in  fortification,  any  hollow  space  or  excavation  in  the 
ground  made  during  the  construction  of  fortifications  or 
siege-works.  The  cavity  itself  is  the  D.,  while  the  earth 
taken  from  it,  also  sometimes  called  the  D.,  is  properly 
termed  the  remblai. 

DEBONAIR,  a.  deb' 6  ndr'  [OF.  debonere  and  debonaire, 
affable:  It.  bonario,  upright,  honest:  F.  debonnaire,  courte- 
ous, affable — from  de  bon  air,  of  good  air  or  mien] :  good- 
humored;  gentle;  complaisant;  elegant;  well-bred.  Deb  - 
onatr'ness,  n.  good-humor;  gentleness.  Debonairly, 
ad.  -li,  elegantly. 

DEBORAH,  c?^^'(?-ra  [Heb.,  a  bee]  :  Hebrew  prophetess, 

b-23 


DEBOUCH— DEBRECZIN. 

wife  of  Lapidoth,  in  the  time  of  the  Judges.  She  dwelt  in 
Mount  Ephraim,  and  uttered  her  judicial  oracles  from  her 
tent  under  the  palm  tree  between  Bethel  and  Ramah.  To 
deliver  her  land  from  the  oppressive  yoke  of  the  Canaanites, 
under  w^hich  it  had  groaned  for  20  years,  D.  called  to  her 
aid  Barak,  son  of  Abiuoam,  probably  a  man  of  heroic 
temper.  An  army  was  raised  among  the  tribes  of  Naphtali 
and  Zebulon,  and  a  battle  took  place  in  the  plain  of 
Esdrat^lon,  where  the  Cauaanitish  host  was  completely 
routed,  and  Sisera  during  his  flight,  as  D.  had  predicted, 
was  murdered  by  a  woman.  This  victory  secured  to  the 
Israelites  a  peace  of  40  years.  The  '  Song  of  Deborah  '  (as 
it  is  generally  called,  though  its  composition  is  not  ascribed 
to  her  in  the  Book  of  Judges)  is  a  choice  fragment  of 
primitive  Hebrew  poetry. 

DEBOUCH,  V.  dd-hosh'  [F.  debouclier,  to  open,  to  escape 
— from  de  for  L.  dis,  out,  away,  and  houche,  mouth — from 
L.  bucca,  the  cheek]:  to  march  out  of  a  narrow  place,  a 
wood,  or  a  defile,  as  troops.  Debouch  ing,  imp.  De- 
bouched', pp.  hosM .  Debouchment,  n.  dd-hosh' ment,  the 
marching  out  of  troops  from  a  narrow  defile,  etc.  De- 
bouchure, n.  dd-bo-sMr' ,  the  opening  or  mouth  of  a  river 
or  strait. 

DE  BOW,  de  bo,  James  Dun  woody  Brownson:  1820, 
July  10—1867,  Feb.  27;  b.  Charleston:  statistician.  He 
graduated  at  Charleston  College  1843,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  and  became  editor  of  the  Southern  Quarterly  Review 
1844.  In  the  following  year  he  founded  D.  B.  's  Commercial 
Review  in  New  Orleans;  1848  was  appointed  prof,  of  polit- 
ical economy  and  commercial  statistics  in  the  Univ.  of  La. ; 
1850-53  had  charge  of  the  census  bureau  of  La. ;  1853-56  was 
supt.  of  the  U.  S.  census;  and  after  the  civil  war  conducted 
his  Review  first  in  New  York,  then  in  Nashville.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  La.  Hist.  Soc. ;  contributed  a 
number  of  articles  on  American  topics  to  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  (8th  ed.);  was  a  member  of  the  successive  southern 
commercial  conventions  from  1845,  and  pres.  of  that  at 
Knoxville  1857;  and  was  author  of  Encyclopaedia  of  tlie 
Trade  and  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  2  vols.  (1853),  The 
Industrial  Resources  and  Statistics  of  the  Southwest,  3  vols. 
(1853),  Statistical  View  of  the  United  States,  based  on  the 
census  of  1850  (1854),  and  The  Southern  States:  Their  Agri- 
culture, Commerce,  etc.  (1856).  He  was  also  a  popular  lec- 
turer on  social  and  economic  subjects. 

DEBRECZIN,  dd-bret'sln:  large  straggling  town  of  e. 
Hungary,  in  an  extensive  plain,  about  120  m.  e.  of  Pesth. 
Like  many  Hungarian  towns,  D.  is  a  mere  collection  of 
villages,  united  on  no  particular  plan.  The  houses  mostly 
are  mean  structures,  not  more  than  one  story  in  height,  and 
the  streets  unpaved,  and  exceedingly  dirty  ;  in  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  planks  are  laid  down  to  enable  passengers 
to  cross.  Notwithstanding  its  generally  squalid  character, 
however,  D.  has  som?  very  handsome  public  buildings,  in- 
ciuding  a  town-hall,  a  Protestant  college,  with  a  stafl:  of  24 
professors  and  2,000   students,  and    several  churches, 

624 


DEBRIS— DEBRY. 

monasteries,  and  charitable  institutions.  A  bronze  statue 
to  the  popular  poet,  Csokonaij,  was  erected  1871,  and  there 
is  also  a  monument,  consisting  of  a  dying  lion  on  a  pedestal 
of  rock,  to  the  Honveds,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  D.  1849. 
The  inhabitants,  who  are  very  industrious,  are  dependent 
chiefly  on  agriculture,  but  a  number  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  coarse  woolens,  sheep- skins,  leather, 
earthenware,  soap,  saltpetre,  and  tobacco-pipes,  which  are 
famous  throughout  Hungary.  The  cattle  and  swine  mar- 
kets of  D.  are"  among  the  most  extensive  in  Europe;  its  grain 
market  is  also  large.  D.  was  prominent  in  the  revolution  of 
1849,  and  was  for  some  months  in  that  year  the  seat  of  the 
national  diet,  after  it  had  been  forced  to  remove  from  Pesth. 
Its  inhabitants,  with  the  exception  of  2,000,  are  Protestants. 
They  have  suffered  much  on  account  of  their  faith, 
especially  in  1567  and  1686.    Pop.  (1880)  51,122. 

DEBRIS,  n.  dti-hre'  [F.  debris^  rubbish — from  de,  and 
bris,  wreck]:  rubbish;  ruins;  fragments  of  rock,  etc. 

DEBRUISED,  de-brozd':  term  peculiar 
to  English  heraldry,  used  to  indicate 
the  grievous  restraint  of  an  animal, 
and  its  being  debarred  of  its  natu- 
ral freedom  by  having  any  of  the 
ordinaries  laid  over  it  (Dictionary  of 
Display). 

DEBRY,  deJi-bre\  Jean  Antoine 
Joseph:  1760-1834;  b.  Yervins,  France; 
Debruised.  statesman.  He  was  educated  for  the  law, 
but  entered  public  life  as  a  moderate  republican  1790, 
and  was  sent  to  the  assembly  the  following  year.  In  1793 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  comraittee  of  public 
safety,  and  1796  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred;  1798  was 
sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Rastadt;  and  1799  nar- 
rowly escaped  assassination  by  Austrian  troops  on  returning 
from  his  mission.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Doubs  1801 
and  held  the  othce  till  1814.  In  the  leisure  of  his  public  du- 
ties he  practiced  his  profession  with  signal  ability. 

625 


END  OF  VOLUME  X. 


t 


